**5. Conclusion**

This chapter has reviewed how the Japanese government and the private sector have been involved in industrial human resource development in developing countries through JICA's technical cooperation projects and AOTS's training programs. The comparison of JICA and AOTS demonstrates their similarities. They both mainly target Asia, provide more support to the manufacturing sector, and have gradually shifted from training engineers to training managers and trainers. However, there are significant differences in the background and factors influencing them. While JICA has been engaged in human resource development from the perspective of international cooperation, AOTS has implemented its programs through public-private partnerships from the perspective of supporting private businesses.

AOTS's assistance tends to overlap with the needs of private businesses and their overseas investments because AOTS aims to develop human resources who can contribute to the export of Japanese products and the overseas expansion of Japanese businesses. JICA's technical cooperation for industrial human resource development up until the 1960s was also designed to contribute to Japan's national interests. But the purpose and meaning of these projects gradually changed in the 1970s due to pressure from the international community and influenced by Japanese ODA policies and international aid trends. Looking at industry trends, both JICA and AOTS assist predominantly in the manufacturing sector. But while JICA conducts projects that raise the overall standard of local industrial human resources in various technical fields, AOTS has been transferring practical technologies directly related to specialized products of Japanese companies that have expanded overseas.

However, neither JICA's nor AOTS's projects can be explained solely by the factors mentioned above; their approaches have evolved through a complex intertwining of factors. JICA's projects are heavily influenced by the economic situation in Japan, the development policies and needs of the recipient countries, the relationship with the recipient countries, and the ideas and beliefs of the various actors involved. AOTS also has developed its programs not just to benefit Japanese businesses. For example, in response to the Asian economic crisis that began in 1997, AOTS launched the Special Training Activities to Assist Asian Countries in 1998 and the Asian Local Training Activities in 1999 to accept trainees. These programs were implemented to benefit Japanese businesses and local employees when Japanese factories stagnated due to the Asian crises. Instead of firing their employees, companies could send them for training in Japan to improve their skills. AOTS also supports international cooperation activities by AOTS Alumni Societies in various countries. In other words, AOTS is not only serving the short-term business interests of Japanese firms but also contributing to international cooperation.

Both JICA and AOTS have supported industrial human resource development in developing countries from different vantage points but continuously since the 1950s. Regardless of changing trends, the two organizations have complemented each other. In recent years, there has been a significant decline in both the amount of JICA project budgets and the number of AOTS trainees compared to their peaks. This decline can be attributed to the completion of JICA's large-scale projects, such as the construction of TVET schools, as well as the reduction of AOTS's inbound training programs. As a result, some may perceive that Japan is no longer actively involved in assisting the development of industrial human resources in developing countries as before. However, it is important to note that both of them are still making valuable

contributions through different means, such as capacity building other than support to educational institutions and networking of alumni. Looking ahead, Japan's support for industrial human resources development must be responsive to various needs, including the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, changes in the business environment in emerging countries, and the transformation of industries due to the integration of digital and AI technologies. Consequently, it is crucial for the government and the private sector to continue collaborating for accurately identifying the needs and effectively supporting recipient countries.
