**5. Conclusion**

According to Nobel Laureate Physicist Leon Lederman, "STEM literacy" in a knowledge-based economy is defined as the ability to adapt to and accept changes driven by new technology and work with others, often across borders, to anticipate the multilevel impacts of their actions, communicate complex ideas to a variety of audiences, and perhaps most importantly, find "measured yet creative solutions to problems which are today unimaginable" ([29], p. 3).

Integrating STEM in preK-12 classrooms naturally promotes 21CS development, especially when implemented through different variations of project-based learning (PBL, PrBL, and PhBL) that are aligned with the 5E Model. Implementing STEM curricula requires careful planning, interdisciplinary collaborations, and a commitment to engage students in active learning. French [30] emphasized that desirable learning experiences often occur when students are engaged in something hands-on and of interest. Personalized inquiry-based experiences promote student agency shaped around student choice, kinesthetic experiences, and discussions that lead to activism, and support a lifelong learning agenda aligned with the needs of the twenty first century and beyond [31]. PBL, PrBL, and PhBL are engaging instructional approaches. Students who participate in projects tend to retain information and skills longer because they have a deeper understanding of the content through active exploration and application, and practice presenting their research. This outcome is particularly beneficial for STEM schools as it facilitates retention of students' interest in STEM subjects and encourages them to pursue STEM-related careers. STEM education raises awareness of critical issues and challenges, serving as the driver for sustainable development.

STEM disciplines are closely tied to every UN Sustainable Development Goal (the SDGs) as they equip individuals with the knowledge and skills required to address a wide range of global challenges, from education and gender equality to clean energy, innovation, and environmental sustainability. STEM education is a critical component of achieving the SDGs and creating a more sustainable and equitable world. SDG integration naturally addresses complex global challenges in a collaborative manner, leading to solutions that better address the root causes of an issue. Achievement of the SDGs is dependent upon global implementation of STEM education and the development of the essential skills needed for success in the twenty first century workplace and beyond (problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, improved communication skills, collaboration, perseverance, information and digital literacy, and entrepreneurial skills).
