**1. Introduction**

The origins of STEM Education in the United States can be traced back to the launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957. There was concern in the Western World that national security required investing in science and mathematics education to maintain safety and remain competitive economically. Over time, concerns about STEM competitiveness have increasingly focused more heavily on economic competitiveness and technological innovation in a global economy. This trend can be seen in reports such as *A Nation at Risk* [1], which served as a reaction to the U.S. perception that it was losing its competitive edge as new economic powers were rising in Asia and Europe. Additionally, the release of the results of the *Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study* (TIMMS) beginning in 1995 showed that U.S. students were not achieving at high levels when compared to students in other developed nations. These same achievement trends had also been presented in the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) results since 1997, inspiring the 2007 National Academy of Sciences report *Rising above the gathering storm: Energizing and* 

*employing America for a brighter economic future* (RAGS), and its sequel, *Rising Above the Gathering Storm Revisited: Approaching Category 5* (RAGSR), in 2010 which once again sounded the alarm concerning U.S. student achievement in relation to other countries internationally [2, 3]. However, compared to earlier alarmist reports, the RAGS report provided suggestions for educational interventions that were practical at scale. These recommendations, referred to as *actions,* included the following:
