**2. Definition of terms and relevant literature**

#### **2.1 Definition of terms**

*Reciprocal learning* is learning that occurs between two parties who learn from one another. In this process, each party is able and encouraged to learn from the other by adopting new ideas that may improve or strengthen their current methods while also sharing core aspects of their practices that may be adopted by the other party to improve their programs.

*Cross-Cultural Experiences of Canadian Science Educators Visiting the Sister Schools… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112769*

*Canadian teachers* are defined as those trained in Canada and predominantly have experience in the Canadian school system. Canadian classrooms are classrooms in Canada governed by the educational laws and mandates of Canada's provincial and federal governments. Similarly, *Chinese teachers* have been trained in China and mainly have experience in Chinese schools and classrooms. Chinese classrooms are those found in China and are governed by the Chinese government's laws and mandates.

*Inquiry-based teac*hing involves teaching lessons that allow students to explore multiple scenarios and make predictions and connections based on their previous learning. Teachers can provide inquiry-based lessons to guide and scaffold student learning, rather than directly telling students the information. While inquiry-based lessons can be carried out across various subject matters, the teachers in this study focused explicitly on its uses and applications in science classrooms.

#### **2.2 Literature review**

Canadian and Chinese schools have different teaching models, but something can be learned from each of these models. Cross-cultural learning allows one to put the practice of education into perspective by comparison. As Aldridge and Fraser [1] reported, "when researchers from two countries collaborate on research involving teaching and learning in two countries, such research not only provides a researcher with an understanding of science education in another country but also sharpens insights into science education in his or her own country (p. 102)." This literature review will explore several differences and preferences, including teaching styles, the dynamics of Chinese and Canadian classrooms, and the use of inquiry-based teaching practices in science classrooms.

#### *2.2.1 Science education in Canada and China*

Science education in Canada places a large emphasis on problem-solving skills and using technology effectively to understand and decode problems [4, 5]. Specifically, the Ontario curriculum recognizes that while not all students will become scientists, the principles of scientific literacy and understanding media are core skills that are transferrable to numerous professions [4, 5]. In recent years, Canadian science education has also made attempts to decolonialize its science curriculum, by including opportunities to learn and acknowledge the teachings and knowings of Indigenous Peoples in ways that become meaningful to a greater population of students [6].

Science education in China aims to develop competent citizens that have a high level of scientific literacy [7]. As of 2011, the Ministry of Education in Ontario [7] outlined four key methods that would be employed to reach these goals:


There are some key similarities in the underlying values and goals for science education in both Canada and China. The remainder of this literature review will seek to

explore the nuances, similarities, and differences in the approaches and methodologies employed to reach these educational goals.

### *2.2.2 Teaching styles and classroom design*

Research found that many Chinese science educators view exam performance as one of the most important factors in determining good teaching [8]. In addition, they tend to equate good classroom teaching with fostering good conduct and learning attitudes, compared to Western teachers who aim to promote an interest in learning.

It was reported by Chen [9] that science education in China tends to be teachercentred, focused on theory and exams, and supplemented by homework problems. This information closely aligns with many of the teacher participants' interview responses and contrasts with many of Canada's current educational views. Many Canadian classroom teachers are moving toward teaching models that are more learner-centred and focus on learning more holistically, offering several options for learning and understanding topics. Inquiry-based teaching is one such method of curriculum delivery. Chen [9] also reports on the importance Chinese educators place on developing engaged students who become lifelong learners. The research also notes a shift in some Chinese middle school teaching practices to student-centred classes and lessons that align with values present in Canadian classrooms.

#### *2.2.3 Inquiry-based teaching*

Inquiry-based teaching is a practice that has become more common in classrooms over the past 20 years [10]. However, Orpwood and Souque [11], on behalf of the Science Council of Canada, were producing work involving deliberate inquiry wherein deliberations of policymakers and inquiry of researchers were being consulted to create a science curriculum that reflected the learning needs of the students, as early as 1985. In the inquiry-based teaching model, the teacher is no longer the source of the knowledge but rather a facilitator and guide of the student learner's discovery [10], which aligns with constructive learning theory that encourages students to think critically and creatively.

As of 2011, the Ministry of Education in Ontario identified four key teaching elements using an inquiry-based approach:


#### *2.2.4 Professional development and collaboration in teaching*

Professional development is a vital tool in the growth and learning journey of teachers and their teaching practices. As teachers become more experienced, they tend to participate in more professional development seminars but place a lowerlevel value on collaboration [13], despite the known benefits of collaboration among *Cross-Cultural Experiences of Canadian Science Educators Visiting the Sister Schools… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112769*

educators. Collaboration is more highly regarded by teachers and educational staff members who voluntarily choose to do so, as their belief systems value working together and sharing viewpoints [14]. Rigler [15] states there are many benefits to international professional development and collaboration. In being awarded opportunities to become fully immersed in Chinese classrooms, there were chances for meaningful collaboration, further understanding of the teaching practices in other countries, discussions, lesson development, and creating global learning opportunities for students. Additional research also finds collaboration, specifically in a Reciprocal Learning Program, leads to positive effects for students and teachers, including deeper respect for culture, understanding global citizenship, and a greater appreciation for varying teaching practices [16].

Reciprocal learning across international boundaries has been shown to benefit teachers in both countries. In addition to professional development seminars and opportunities, professional learning communities where educators can engage with and reflect on the differences in educational systems allow for the strengthening of teacher performance and personal practical knowledge [17].
