**2.3 A conceptual framework**

Scholars of the IE and SoS literature have proposed further studies beyond their specific fields. For example, Tsujimoto et al. [14] suggested simultaneously applying a hybrid view of biological and industrial engineering systems to strengthen ecosystem research. In turn, Zhang et al. [26] recommended that engineered systems realize living organism abilities, such as perception, adaptation, and self-recovery, to maintain and improve system vitality.

Following these suggestions to merge the literature, the author combined the generic schema of ecosystems from Adner et al. [2] with the types of SoS from the Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology [17]. As a result, the study developed a conceptual framework to analyze the emergence and evolution of ecosystems. The emphasis is on actors and their interactions. **Figure 1** presents the conceptual framework. The model characterizes a simplification of reality and highlights the various types of authority between actors in ecosystems. The actors and interactions outlined in the figure are just one possible example and vary for each ecosystem.

### **Figure 1.**

*A conceptual framework to analyze interactions between ecosystem actors. Source: The author, based on [2, 17].*
