Irrigation Applications

#### **Chapter 5**

## Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan

*Aliev Nozim Numonovich*

#### **Abstract**

Most of the territory of the Republic of Tajikistan (93%) is occupied by mountain ranges and only 7% of the territory is lands suitable for agriculture. In this regard, the population density is very high and amounts to 60 people per 1 square kilometer of the area. The population at the beginning of 2019 was 5.3 million people, and in 2021, it was 9,537,645 people, an increase of about 80%. The demographic situation, the lack of suitable land for agriculture leads to the violation of the ecological balance that has developed in the last 30 years in Tajikistan, including on irrigated lands, which led to a decrease in crop yields by 1.5–2.0 times. One of the reasons for the decrease in productivity is the irrational use of land resources and anthropogenic impacts on reclamation lands. The intensification of the use of agricultural lands leads to their degradation, the development of desertification; a special place is occupied by irrigated lands, the problems of their conservation and improvement of their condition. The solution of these problems is based on objective and up-to-date information about the state and use of irrigated lands, as well as timely and reliable information received. In this regard, there is a need to identify and assess the existing environmental and socio-economic problems in the use of reclamation lands, the timely reconstruction of reclamation systems, the development of ways to solve the identified problems, as well as the development of methodological recommendations to justify the effectiveness of the implementation of state agricultural land management programs, taking into account regional characteristics. The existing information on the state and use of agricultural lands is contained in various organizations, is fragmented, of different scales and of different information. To use such information, it is necessary to transform it, which can lead to a significant loss of information, a decrease in its accuracy, and, consequently, its reliability. Modern geoformation technologies using remote sensing methods of the Earth at the present time can significantly improve the quality of research conducted when monitoring irrigated lands. In this regard, monitoring, analysis, assessment and forecasting of the ameliorative state of irrigated lands of the Republic of Tajikistan, and their conservation based on the development of criteria for environmental and socio-economic assessment of the use of reclaimed lands and the development of recommendations for the reconstruction of melioration systems based on the use modern geoinformation technologies and the use of aerospace images is relevant.

**Keywords:** monitoring, landmanagment, melioration system, irrigate, agricultural crop, GIS, Gissar Valley, digital map, information

#### **1. Introduction**

The main results of the work of the geoinformation system for managing irrigated lands of the Gissar region are reports on the use of reclaimed agricultural land, made according to standard forms, forecasts of changes in the reclamation and environmental and economic situation, and, most importantly, thematic maps (cartograms) in an easy-to-read graphical form that reflect information on the use and condition of irrigated lands. Farmers and dekhkan farms grow crops to meet the needs of the national economy in food. The main agricultural crops in the study area are: wheat, cotton, rice and vineyards.

The organization of monitoring of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley using geographic information systems provides for the following steps:

Stage 1: Analysis of complex information on the state and use of natural environments on the territory of the Gissar Valley. The collection of information material on the object of study is carried out from various information sources, information is requested from the data bank of regional significance, multispectral space images are obtained from the Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellites, analysis of test data.

Stage 2: Mathematical analysis of multispectral satellite images on the territory of the Gissar valley. Analysis of multispectral satellite images from Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellites using ArcGis 12 software, determination of irrigated land areas in the Hissar Valley. Deciphering and vectorization of raster data for the study area.

Stage 3: Substantiation of the representativeness of indicators for assessing the state of irrigated lands. Establishment of negative processes arising in the Gissar Valley, grouping into the following groups: natural, technogenic, social. Analysis using software products "Statistica" v.10.0, JMP Statistic 15 and Minitab 19, on the basis of which an analysis of a set of indicators describing the state of natural environments in contact with irrigated lands is carried out: regression, correlation matrix. Determination of hidden factors affecting the state of irrigated lands and forecasting the development of changes in their state. Definition of areas for research.

Stage 4: Conducting field research. Inspection of the reclaimed area on the ground, search for interpretation parameters, visual analysis of the soil cover and crops of reclaimed lands, identification of areas with pronounced signs of salinization, control of intermediate interpretation, measurement of the depth of groundwater and sampling in a network of boreholes and wells, determination of the coordinates of reference observation points to correct data using modern technologies, GPS, UAVs, etc.

Stage 5: Organization of a single information space for monitoring irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley. It is envisaged to involve departmental services of the region, which carry out various types of monitoring, into a single information space.

Stage 6: Creation of digital thematic maps of the irrigated lands of the Gissar Valley, dekhkan farms in the form of: geographical (location, condition, connections of existing natural and social phenomena, cadastral information, etc.); environmental (pollution, infection, radioactivity, susceptibility to dangerous natural and naturaltechnogenic processes: mudflows, landslides, snow avalanches, landslides, earthquakes, etc.) and others; maps (including 3D terrain models); cartograms showing the required thematic characteristics of the factors of natural and anthropogenic impact.

Thematic maps are updated based on the collection of data obtained from various sources on various monitoring activities carried out on the territory of the Gissar Valley, formed on the basis of the proposed methodology for selecting the most representative monitoring indicators for irrigated lands in the Hissar Valley using software products "Statistica" v.10.0, JMP Statistic 15 and Minitab 19.

#### *Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

Thus, the introduction of monitoring of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley and based on the use of GIS technologies for monitoring irrigated lands makes it possible to create maps directly in digital form according to the coordinates obtained as a result of measurements on the ground or during the processing of Earth remote sensing (ERS) and UAV data obtained from various sources. Implementation of the analysis of multispectral satellite images from Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellites using ArcGis 12 software into the process of monitoring irrigated lands. When creating digital maps in a GIS environment, emphasis is placed on creating a structure of spatial relationships between objects.

Digital maps serve as the basis for the production of conventional paper and computer maps on a paper basis and contain data and rules describing the position and spatial and logical relationships of objects in the territory of the Gissar Valley.

The aggravation of the ecological situation makes more and more relevant work on the consciousness of information bases, applied geographic information systems and the use of GIS technologies to solve a set of problems that arise in the field of nature management and environmental protection. In the field of monitoring irrigated lands using GIS, it is possible to solve the following main tasks:


Using the developed methodology, data were collected from ground control points to obtain orthophotomaps from multispectral satellite images obtained from the Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellites in order to compare spatial data with the available data. To implement this approach, all locations of soil samples were recorded using a Garmin 90 hand-held GPS navigator, which recorded more than 150 points covering all parameters for linking remote sensing data to this territory.

Classification and generalization of input data was carried out on the basis of geographic databases compiled by the author, taking into account the table of attributes and primary materials.

#### *Irrigation Systems and Applications*

For further research, the author selected the irrigated lands of the dekhkan farm "Istiklol" of the Gissar district, located in Central Tajikistan. The total area of key sites is 150 hectares or 0.2% of the total monitoring area.

Field observations were carried out in determining the on-farm boundaries of land use; conditions of windbreaks; when taking soil samples to analyze its content in order to determine the degree of soil fertility in irrigated ecosystems of the study area.

Further processing was carried out on the basis of the developed model for creating monitoring maps for irrigated lands of the Gissar Valley using GIS and statistical data processing presented by "Statistica" v.10.0, JMP Statistic 15 and Minitab 19.

Issues related to anthropogenic impacts on the destruction of the ecological balance of irrigated potential on the process of degradation and water erosion of lands, which was obtained by us on the basis of field observations. Field surveys of dekhkan farms also provided data on the number of major crops produced on each farm.

Mapping. On the basis of the proposed methodology, we have compiled a number of thematic maps related to the objectives of the study, as well as obtained actual maps of the study area using GIS technologies.

Rasterization was performed when processing a satellite image in order to obtain a raster image, as well as preparing digital data for entering into a database.

The method allowed us to prepare more than 20 types of spatial data and obtain raster data from the resulting vector files. Data digitization was carried out using ARC GIS & Microsoft Excel software.

Vectorization. The process of interpretation of space images was carried out by us in order to determine the varieties of agricultural crops in the study area and a number of photogrammetric approaches to determine the parameters of the studied physical objects reflected in the images. All physical objects located in the study area were vectorized.

Vectorization was carried out on the basis of Arc Catalog in Arc GIS program using the object editing method. As a result, vector files were obtained for all objects of study.

Mathematical and statistical methods. Mathematical calculation methods make it possible to determine the number of studied phenomena in a particular area. We needed to use this method when calculating the number of row crops and other physical objects, their location, area, which are reflected in satellite images.

When using statistical methods, we can write that all tabular data and demonstrative-schematic data were obtained on the basis of statistical calculations of data recalculations. The most informative indicators were determined using statistical methods and approaches.

Laboratory methods. The objectives of the study required the analysis of soil content in key areas in order to find out the proportion of soil fertility, as well as soil composition to increase the productivity of irrigated lands. Using laboratory analyses, soil samples were analyzed from three farms in the study area.

Thus, it can be considered a key indicator of the possibility of using this technique this is the achievement of the goal, which is the implementation of state monitoring of the state and use of irrigated lands of the Gissar Valley using maps created using geoinformation technologies based on Arc Catalog in Arc GIS.

Based on this, we can single out the main criterion - the creation of thematic maps, for which the main indicators are: vector data, raster data, text data, their verification and processing.

Comparison of the two methods for these indicators. The indicators for data processing according to the second scheme depend on the specifics of the state and use of land in different areas of the valley. Comparing two methods of creating maps for

*Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

the implementation of state monitoring of the state and use of land, it can be noted that when using any of them, you can get the desired result - a thematic map that displays the state and use of land of any territory of interest.

But at the same time, it should be noted that when using statistical data processing in the second method, it is possible to achieve a better and more correct display of the real situation on the ground due to a double check for the reliability of the data statistical and expert.

Also, when using statistical processing, it is possible to find dependencies between indicators, determine trends in the development of indicators, predict the development of observed indicators, and make a management decision in advance to prevent the deterioration of the situation.

Conclusions. Thus, the authors in this article reviewed the analysis of the state of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley based on the use of multispectral satellite images from the Landsat 7 and Landst 8 satellites using the ArcGis software. In the process of their analysis, maps were obtained for the NDVI index from 2010 to 2019, on the basis of which changes in the area of vegetation cover for the period 2010–2019 were obtained. And then, MNDWI maps were obtained from 2010 to 2019 of water coverage, and plots related to irrigated land were determined using the obtained vegetation and water coverage data.

On the basis of the received set, an analysis of the qualitative state of the lands in the Gissar Valley was carried out and it was found that in the territory of the valley, the development of processes of degradation of soil and vegetation covers is observed almost everywhere, which affects the efficiency of agriculture and causes the expansion of territories, the ecological state of which is problematic or even critical. Thus, one of the key directions in organizing the rational use of land in the region, as experience shows, should be land management of agricultural enterprises on an agrolandscape basis in combination with other works, which in turn requires up-todate information about their condition and use, obtained as a result of monitoring of irrigated lands using modern information and telecommunication technologies and geographic information systems.

#### **2. Development of theoretical provisions for monitoring irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan using GIS technologies**

As noted earlier, land monitoring (Reimers, 1990) is based on a system of observations of various phenomena, conditions and processes, but a geographic information system is also very important for processing and predicting the state of the observed environment, given that in modern monitoring conditions, they receive a huge amount of various data that is almost impossible to process without the use of modern geoinformation technologies. Bearing in mind that information support for assessing the ecological state of irrigated lands should be based on obtaining up-to-date data on the state of the main components of the natural environment, the dynamics of changes and factors that affect the state of these lands.

Fomin et al. (1995), Derzhavin et al. (1999), Gostishchev et al. (2001); Biryulin and Manukyan (2002) note that the most important part of monitoring the state of irrigated lands is its information system.

Geographic Information System (GIS) - a software and hardware system capable of storing and using (showing, analyzing, managing) data describing objects in space, managed by special personnel, and the word "geographical" in this case means not so much "spatiality" or "territoriality", but rather the complexity and consistency of the research approach. The use of geographic information systems allows you to quickly receive information on request and display it on a map basis, assess the state of the ecosystem and predict its development.

GIS uses a special type of information - spatial (geographic) and associated databases, this information can be social, political, environmental or demographic, that is, any information that can be displayed on a map.

GIS is the best way to store information about land or sea. GIS can help make management more efficient, promote scientific work and the protection of natural resources, which is carried out for all territories, regardless of their area.

In recent years, geoinformation systems and WEB technologies have been actively used for processing aerospace images, accumulating and transmitting data.

The introduction of GIS systems solves a number of problems: maintaining a centralized accounting of agricultural lands, their inventory, monitoring the state and use, supervision of their use, preparation of analytical information; entering information into the information system for agricultural land management; use of Earth remote sensing data for monitoring the state of crops; accounting of land plots from agricultural land and land of other categories; preparation of information with aggregation at various levels, including the level of the Republic; providing access to information provided on the basis of state information resources on agricultural lands based on the use of GIS technologies. In fact, this system demonstrates an integrated approach to monitoring agricultural land. An important advantage of this approach is the possibility of creating a single Internet resource and providing access to geospatial data to interested parties [1].

It is important to note that the collection of information on agricultural lands in all the described systems is carried out mainly in the context of the state, regional, district levels, except for individual agricultural enterprises, and even more so crop rotation fields.

Geoinformation technologies provide ample opportunities in the development of irrigated land management systems. GIS allows structuring information on the geographical (spatial) position of objects - data sources, which is of particular importance for managing the state of not only irrigated lands, but also the environment.

Nowadays, one of the urgent tasks of agricultural science is to improve the quality and scientific validity of irrigated agriculture management, including through the development and use of modern software and information tools to support decisionmaking. Their main task is to provide all persons making decisions on the management of the reclamation complex with detailed, complete, timely and high-quality information in a form convenient for human perception, to ensure its mathematical and heuristic processing. At the same time, it is very important to link information flows that are heterogeneous in origin, but spatially interconnected.

The scope of GIS technologies is land management, land cadasters; design, engineering surveys and planning in urban planning; thematic mapping; inventory and accounting of objects; terrain analysis; land transport navigation; air traffic control; geology; environmental monitoring; environmental management; natural resource management.

The use of GIS technologies for monitoring irrigated lands makes it possible to create maps directly in digital form according to the coordinates obtained as a result of

#### *Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

measurements on the ground or during the processing of remote sensing materials. When creating digital maps in the GIS environment, the emphasis is on creating a structure of spatial relationships between objects, the concepts of exact and inaccurate coincidence of boundaries are clearly distinguished, it is easy to use previously digitized boundaries when creating adjacent objects, including when working in other industries, it is easy and relations of connectivity, neighborhood, adjacency, nesting, intersection, and other spatial objects necessary for solving a wide range of analytical and practical problems are fixed explicitly).

Digital maps serve as the basis for the production of conventional paper and computer maps on a solid substrate and contain data and rules that describe the position and spatial and logical relationships of terrain objects [2].

Since the adaptation of all components of irrigated farming systems requires complete and systematic information about the properties of soils, groundwater, irrigation network, etc. for specific fields of the economy, the information support should be based on local integrated GIS monitoring [3].

A natural and necessarily arising problem of monitoring agrolandscapes is the problem of transition from point-based data on the state of indicators of the ameliorative state of lands and their soil fertility to digital models of the spatial distribution of these indicators in the layers of digital maps. At present, many tools have been developed for constructing spatial distribution models using interpolation and approximation of point data. Our task was to select the best methods and develop algorithms for their application in the specific conditions of irrigated lands in Tajikistan on the territory of the Gissar Valley [4].

Thus, the monitoring of irrigated lands is created as a multi-level observation system, including complexes of ground and remote (including aerospace, from unmanned aerial vehicles) observation methods:


The monitoring program for irrigated lands must necessarily include primary information on the state and use of lands, the main criteria for this level are the importance and completeness of the information collected, such information can be obtained at the local level [5]. **Figure 1** shows the hierarchical structure of irrigated land monitoring using modern technologies.

Monitoring of the state of irrigated lands is carried out during complex work in the natural and technogenic systems of these lands, the main task of which is to obtain reliable and sufficient information about the factors that have a negative impact, the nature of their flow on irrigated lands and adjacent natural environments located in different landscape conditions under the actual use of land for agricultural production.

The monitoring program for irrigated lands should take into account the specifics of both the natural, economic, and socio-economic conditions of the Gissar Valley region, which are not repeated in other regions. Irrigated land monitoring information should be highly informative, meet the requirements of objectivity, reliability, accuracy, comparability, efficiency and availability [6, 7].

#### **Figure 1.**

*Hierarchical structure of monitoring of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley in the Republican system (compiled by the author).*

The monitoring system of irrigated lands allows planning and predicting the use of lands and adjacent environments, taking into account their further safety, taking into account those degradation processes in irrigated agricultural landscapes that lead to a deterioration in their ameliorative state, are groundwater rise and secondary salinization.

The information base for monitoring irrigated lands is various thematic maps that serve to study the current state, identify disturbances and predict the state of lands and adjacent environments using regional features and informative indicators for monitoring irrigated lands in the natural-technogenic system of the Gissar Valley.

An important component for monitoring irrigated lands in the natural-technogenic system is the determination of the boundaries of irrigated lands, established as a result of work on the land cadaster, taking into account protected and sanitary protection zones (**Figure 2**).

Spatial modeling of the use and condition of irrigated lands is carried out using a geographic information system, which includes the necessary set of basic objects of water management and melioration on irrigated lands and thematic layers, which include: a complex of engineering structures directly related to melioration and irrigation, for example, such as: ameliorative facilities; irrigation systems, mud storages; land reclamation sites; groundwater intakes; enterprises of motor transport and special vehicles; land resources, as well as other components of the environment (atmospheric air, soils, surface and ground waters, vegetation).

*Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Geoinformation system in the structure of modeling the natural-technogenic system of the Gissar Valley (compiled by the author).*

From this it follows that one of the most important components of a digital map are layers that reflect the level of groundwater and salinity of irrigated lands and adjacent areas. In this connection, requirements are imposed on the information system, which should provide the following indicators: (1) correspond to the organizational structures of the exploitation of irrigated lands; (2) reflect the structure, properties and relationships of the observed objects and processes occurring in them; (3) represent reclamation lands as an integral part of such an element of the natural environment as an agrolandscape; (4) ensure the security and confidentiality of information, as well as free access to information users; (5) have organizational, software, technical, mathematical, methodological, linguistic, metrological and legal support; and (6) provide promptly and in an accessible form information (digital or paper forms) for the entire observation period for various analysis and forecasting models.

In many cases, the land assessment procedure involves the use of not only soil, but also other indicators characterizing the relief (steepness, slope exposure), vegetation, hydrothermal regime, parent rocks, hydrographic network, as well as socio-economic conditions. Therefore, an objective assessment of land, taking into account all factors, is carried out on the basis of GIS technologies and its result can be presented in the form of thematic maps.

The software companies ESRI (Environmental Research Institute, USA) and ERDAS provide an excellent basis for the implementation of a full-featured land use management system of the subject (monitoring at the state level). This system involves deep analytical processing of large volumes of data of different scales, as well as interfacing with complex software applications.

From the above examples, it can be seen that the efficiency, integration of environmental, socio-economic, biomedical, management information on a single geographical basis in conjunction with mathematical analysis tools distinguish geographic information systems from a number of existing applications. This versatility explains the attractiveness of their use for specialists in almost any industry, including the field of land reclamation.

If we talk in general about the use of information technologies in agroecological research, then it must be said that the creation of databases (Database) and GIS has been the basis of theoretical and applied research in the geosciences for many years. Their main purpose is to provide a spatial analysis of the placement, relationships, dynamics and other relationships of spatial objects. In combination with modern mathematical methods for processing thematic data, databases open up new ways to quantitatively study the patterns of functioning of bio-geosystems at different spatial levels. The introduction of new geoinformation technologies into the theory and practice of research is especially important when creating and monitoring irrigated agrolandscapes for the Republic of Tajikistan.

Based on the foregoing, let us consider the general theoretical provisions of monitoring irrigated lands. Since, as already discussed, the ameliorative state of lands and the development of new irrigated lands, together with natural objects, are a complex natural and technogenic system, the monitoring of these lands must be considered in conjunction with other types of monitoring: the state of water bodies and groundwater; atmosphere; soils; vegetation; surface waters; functioning of reservoirs of irrigation importance; relief, etc.

Information support is based on obtaining up-to-date data on the state of the main components of the natural environment, the dynamics of changes and factors that affect the state of irrigated lands.

The structure and content of the monitoring of irrigated lands at each specific facility will be largely determined by the complexity of the facility itself and the complexity of its involvement in its interaction with natural resources. In accordance with the tasks set, the Program for local monitoring of irrigated lands includes the following sections and areas of work [8]: (1) Determining the purpose and objectives of monitoring irrigated lands. (2) Compilation of the initial passport of the territories occupied by land reclamation facilities. (3) Determination of indicators and regulations for observations that take into account the cumulative impact of anthropogenic impact on land resources and adjacent environments. (4) Development of an observation network and means of observation. (5) Obtaining and processing monitoring information and (6) Assessment of the state of lands and adjacent environments.

In the course of research, the author developed a model for monitoring irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley (**Figure 3**).

The presented model includes the following stages: study of the methodological base for land monitoring by classification criteria; identification of natural and geographical features of the Gissar valley; determination of factors of natural and technogenic processes that have a negative impact on the ecological state of irrigated lands based on the use of the software product "Statistica" v.10.0; determination of the most informative indicators for monitoring irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley; development of a methodology for the formation and updating of information on the state and use of irrigated lands in the Hissar Valley, obtained from open sources, within the established boundaries of irrigated lands, taking into account the land use zone, engineering reclamation and irrigation object, water management objecties, as well as the natural environment.

Based on the characteristics of the object under study, the scheme of the irrigated land monitoring model algorithm proposed by us includes the following levels: regional, local and detailed. For irrigated lands, a natural-technogenic system is determined, taking into account the established boundaries in accordance with the land cadastre and the zone of technogenic influence on adjacent natural complexes, observation parameters, methods and means of observation, as well as the frequency *Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Scheme of the algorithm of the irrigated land monitoring model using geographic information systems (compiled by the author).*

of observation, the observed network, the algorithm for processing and issuing the requested information.

The monitoring program for irrigated lands is developed in such a way that it is possible to ensure hierarchical subordination according to the main levels of monitoring: regional, subregional, local and detailed, taking into account natural regional, local features and technical features of reclamation systems (**Figure 4**).

Thus, the main principles of building a monitoring system for irrigated lands should be the following:


#### **Figure 4.**

*Scheme of hierarchical subordination of the main levels of monitoring of irrigated lands using GIS technologies (compiled by the author).*


Information sources in this case are all available official statistical data and data from the authorities of municipal and regional entities. The most detailed is monitoring at the level of an irrigated land plot, the territory of which is established within the boundaries, taking into account the buffer zone and adjacent territories.

Based on the collected information material using various sources, it is processed using geographic information systems, which allow for an objective assessment of the ecological and reclamation state of irrigated lands at the local level, identify ongoing negative processes and give objective recommendations for their prevention or elimination of consequences [9].

The cumulative assessment of the ecological and reclamation state of irrigated lands consists of the following stages:

Stage 1 - preparatory includes:


*Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*


Stage 2 - field studies of selected areas using Landsat multispectral images, the selection of images is carried out depending on the task being solved, which corresponds to the maximum determination of the state of the study area for the annual period.

Stage 3rd - office processing using GIS.

Information collected during field research and interpretation of images is modified in GIS using the ArcGIS online program. Thus, the GIS "Gissar irrigation system" will contain the following data:


Thanks to the use of geographic information systems, a combination of heterogeneous information can be achieved to conduct a qualitative analysis of the ecological and reclamation state of irrigated lands.

#### **3. Development of a model for creating maps of the state of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley based on the developed methodology for using GIS technologies and software products**

Using the developed methodology, data were collected from ground control points to obtain orthophotomaps from multispectral satellite images obtained from the Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellites in order to compare spatial data with the available data. To implement this approach, all locations of soil samples were recorded using a Garmin 90 hand-held GPS navigator, which recorded more than 150 points covering all parameters for linking remote sensing data to this territory.

Classification and generalization of input data was carried out on the basis of geographic databases compiled by the author, taking into account the table of attributes and primary materials.

For further research, the author selected the irrigated lands of the dekhkan farm "Istiklol" of the Gissar district, located in Central Tajikistan. The total area of key sites is 150 hectares or 0.2% of the total monitoring area (**Figure 5**).

Field observations were carried out in determining the on-farm boundaries of land use; conditions of windbreaks; when taking soil samples to analyze its content in order to determine the degree of soil fertility in irrigated ecosystems of the study area.

#### **Figure 5.**

*Map of general land use in the study area (Tursunzade, Shakhrinau, Gissar districts) (compiled by the author).*

**Figure 6.** *Scheme for creating monitoring maps of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley using Minitab 18.*

Further processing was carried out on the basis of the developed model for creating monitoring maps for irrigated lands of the Gissar Valley using GIS and statistical data processing presented ("Statistica" v.10.0, JMP Statistic 15 and Minitab 19) (**Figure 6**).

On the basis of the studies performed, we proposed the following organization of work to study the state of irrigated lands on the territory of the Gissar Valley using geoinformation technologies, consisting of the following stages:

1.**Field** work was carried out to determine the on-farm boundaries of land use, the state of windbreaks, to take soil samples and analyze its content in order to determine the degree of soil fertility in the irrigated ecosystems of the study area.

Issues related to anthropogenic impacts on the destruction of the ecological balance of irrigated potential on the process of degradation and water erosion of lands, which was obtained by us on the basis of field observations. Field surveys *Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

of dekhkan farms also provided data on the number of major crops produced on each farm.


Vectorization was carried out on the basis of Arc Catalog in Arc GIS program using the object editing method. As a result, vector files were obtained for all objects of study.

5.Application of mathematical and statistical methods. Mathematical calculation methods make it possible to determine the number of studied phenomena in a particular area. We needed to use this method when calculating the number of row crops and other physical objects, their location, area, which are reflected in satellite images.

When using statistical methods, we can write that all tabular data and demonstrative-schematic data were obtained on the basis of statistical calculations of data recalculations. The most informative indicators were determined using statistical methods and approaches.

6.Laboratory methods. The objectives of the study required the analysis of soil content in key areas in order to find out the proportion of soil fertility, as well as soil composition to increase the productivity of irrigated lands. Using laboratory analyses, soil samples were analyzed from three farms in the study area.

Thus, it can be considered a key indicator of the possibility of using this technique - this is the achievement of the goal, which is the implementation of state monitoring of the state and use of irrigated lands of the Gissar Valley using maps created using geoinformation technologies based on Arc Catalog in Arc GIS.

Based on this, we can single out the main criterion - the creation of thematic maps, for which the main indicators are: vector data, raster data, text data, their verification and processing.

**Table 1** clearly shows the comparison of the two methods for these indicators.

The indicators for processing data according to the second scheme (**Table 1**) depend on the specifics of the state and use of land in different areas of the valley. Comparing two methods of creating maps for the implementation of state monitoring of the state and use of land, it can be noted that when using any of them, you can get the desired result - a thematic map that displays the state and use of land of any territory of interest.

But at the same time, it should be noted that when using statistical data processing in the second method, it is possible to achieve a better and more correct display of the real situation on the ground due to a double check for the reliability of the data statistical and expert. Also, when using statistical processing, it is possible to find dependencies between indicators, determine trends in the development of indicators, predict the development of observed indicators, and make a management decision in advance to prevent the deterioration of the situation.


**Table 1.**

*Comparison of methods for creating maps for monitoring the condition and use of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley.*

#### *Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

TIN is a form of vector digital geographic data that is built by triangulating a set of vertices (points). The vertices are connected by a series of edges and form a network 03 of triangles. Therefore, in order to model the TIN surface for the study area alluvial marches, we first of all use the Global Mapper GIS to download data on the surface of the study area from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer to find the height points of the study area (**Figure 7**). Territory (**Figure 8**). Next, surface points with height data were displayed (**Figure 9**).

**Figure 7.**

*Map of rehabilitation measures for the irrigation system of the Gissar Valley on the Landsat 8 satellite image.*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Map of rehabilitation measures for the irrigation system of the Gissar Valley.*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Map of rehabilitation measures for the irrigation system of the Gissar Valley.*

The next step is to create an irregular triangulation network based on the surface height data, a way of modeling a continuous surface with points and values at these points selected with variable density (**Figure 10**). Further, based on the TIN-model of the surface, knowing the heights, slopes and exposure of any point on the surface, a model of the drainage areas of the territory is created (**Figure 11**).

#### **4. Summary**

Obtaining relevant and timely information obtained as a result of monitoring irrigated lands is one of the main problems in solving issues of studying the state and use of irrigated lands. Formation of up-to-date and reliable information, obtained in a *Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

**Figure 11.**

*Map of watershed areas of the surface of the Gissar Valley.*

timely manner with the help of modern information and telecommunication technologies, and processing of the obtained large-scale big data in geoinformation systems and other software products, will allow timely assessment, design and development of a management decision for carrying out measures to improve soil fertility, protection of irrigated lands and irrigation systems.

The problem of land degradation and environmental pollution when using irrigated lands requires the improvement of theoretical and methodological approaches to monitoring irrigated lands using modern technologies for remote sensing of the Earth, obtaining big data and processing based on the use of software products for processing big data, geographic information systems also for processing and assessing the ecological state and use, which will make it possible to obtain reliable graphic information that allows it to be used for designing, predicting the state of lands and developing measures to prevent the negative impact of the impact on these lands or eliminate the consequences of these impacts.

The studies conducted by the author made it possible to obtain up-to-date and reliable information on the state and use of irrigated lands for planning the rational and efficient use of these lands. The region of the Gissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan was chosen for research, the analysis of the results of which allowed the author to draw the following conclusions and suggestions:

1.The study of the theoretical provisions of the monitoring of irrigated lands showed the need to collect a large amount of data that combine the characteristics of various indicators that make up the environmental objects of the study area. It has been established that the prompt and most complete obtaining of such indicators for irrigated lands is possible based on the use of modern technologies and geoinformation systems for processing the obtained data. As a result of the research, the author proposed the basic principles for building a monitoring system for irrigated lands, one of which is the principle of the mandatory formation of complex information (cadastral, ecological state of

irrigated lands and the environment, technical state of reclamation, irrigation and other systems water management). Based on the developed principles of monitoring irrigated lands, the author has developed a model for monitoring irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan, the main goal of the algorithm is to create a methodology for monitoring irrigated lands for the conditions of increased natural and anthropogenic pressure. The proposed algorithm for the monitoring model of irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley includes such stages as: study of the methodological base for monitoring lands by classification criteria; identification of natural and geographical features of the Gissar valley; determination of factors of natural and technogenic processes that have a negative impact on the ecological state of irrigated lands based on the application of various statistical programs; formation of a system of indicators for monitoring irrigated lands in the Gissar Valley; development of a methodology for monitoring irrigated lands based on the developed system of monitoring and updating indicators for study sites on the territory of irrigated lands, engineering reclamation and irrigation facilities, water management facilities, as well as the natural environment.


#### *Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

severely affected, more than 14 thousand hectares of land, and almost 22 thousand hectares to a medium-low degree, including land in the old irrigated territory of the valley, arable land by almost two thirds are subject to water erosion (63.4%) and more than half of them are moderately and severely eroded. More than 93% of pasture lands are subject to erosion.


up-to-date information on their condition and use is required, obtained as a result of monitoring of irrigated lands based on remote sensing materials, field research and processing of a set of data obtained using various statistical software products and geographic information systems.

9.The author, based on the developed methodology for selecting the most informative indicators and using Landsat satellite images obtained for the period from 2010 to 2020, using geoinformation systems to process the received monitoring data of irrigated lands, developed maps that reflect the current state of the art. - the state of the irrigated lands of the Gissar Valley based on and developed proposals for the rehabilitation of the irrigation system of the Hissar Valley, which will ensure the sustainable development of the use of these lands.

#### **Author details**

Aliev Nozim Numonovich Geography Science, Faculty of Land Management and Geodesy, Tajik Agrarian University named after Sh. Shotemur, Tajikistan

\*Address all correspondence to: nnozim@gmail.com

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Monitoring of Irrigated Lands of the Hissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112506*

### **References**

[1] Geoanalytical system. "Agricultural management" now in the Tambov region-2013 [Electronic resource]. Available fron: http://press.scanex.ru/ index.php/ru/news/item/3991-agro [Accessed: June 16, 2014]

[2] Yu KE, Yu GI. Land monitoring using GIS technologies. Scientific Journal of the Russian Research Institute of Land Reclamation Problems. 2011;**4**(04)

[3] Pronko NA, Korsak VV. Management of irrigated agriculture based on the use of information technologies. Scientific Life. 2012;**2**:80-87

[4] Pronko NA, Korsak VV, Korneva TV. GIS-monitoring of the ameliorative state of irrigated lands (on the example of the dry steppe Zavolzhye). Melioration and Water Management. 2008

[5] Bogolyubova AA. In: Bogolyubov AA, editor. Aerospace Monitoring of Lands of Protected Natural Areas of St. Petersburg: Dis. … Cand. Tech. Sciences. St. Petersburg; 2012. p. 144

[6] Afanasiev YA. In: Afanasiev YA, Fomin SA, editors. Monitoring and Environmental Control Methods. MNEPU; 1998

[7] Baklanov AD. Ecological Zoning of Territories of Natural and Technogenic Systems of the Central Chernozem Region. In: Baklanov AD, Titova SL, Pribytkova NA, editors. Vol. 1, No. 16. Ecology of the Central Black Earth Region of the Russian Federation; 2006. pp. S. 78-S. 80

[8] Lepekhin PP, Fomin AA, Aliev NN. Problems of reclamation lands in the Gissar Valley of the Republic of Tajikistan and solutions using GIS technologies. International Journal of

Applied Sciences and Technologies "Integral" Certificate of media registration in Roskomnadzor: El No. FS77-74090 No. 159-RSCI dated May 13, 2020 [Electronic resource]

[9] Danilov-Danilyan VI. In: Danilov-Danilyan VI, Zalikhanov MC, Losev KS, editors. Ecological Safety: General Principles and Russian Aspect. ProgressTradition; 2001. p. 415

#### **Chapter 6**

## Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao* L.) Performance Improvement in the Rainforest Tropics

*Samuel Agele, Kayode Adejobi and Abel Ogunleye*

#### **Abstract**

Climate change poses significant threats to agriculture, including food security, livelihoods and economic growth. Based on the importance of cocoa, there is a need for sustainable crop production and resilience to anticipated changes in rainfall and temperature in the future. Irrigation is an important climate-smart practice for alleviating abiotic stress and enhancing crop productivity, and irrigation is seldom practiced in the cacao orchards of West Africa. Studies were conducted to examine the effects of dry season gravity drip irrigation on the rootzone moisture, tree water use (evapotranspiration), leaf area index and yield of cacao in a rainforest zone of Nigeria. Irrigation treatments were based on water application at 5- and 10-day intervals and 50, 70 and 100% Pan evaporation, which was applied using point source emitters on drip lines. The soil moisture content, photosynthetic active radiation, leaf area index and extinction coefficient differed among the irrigation treatments. Deficit irrigation (10-day and 50% EPan) enhanced water use efficiency by 25–44% (30 and 50% water savings), while full irrigation enhanced soil moisture, cacao ET, and pod and bean yields. This study established irrigation and water requirements for cacao in the dry season and confirmed the relevance of irrigation for enhanced cacao performance and climate mitigation.

**Keywords:** *Theobroma cacao*, seasonal transitions, rainforest, irrigation, performance, climate stress

#### **1. Introduction**

Cocoa (*Theobroma cacao* L.) is an important perennial fruit tree with an estimated annual global production of 3.2 million tonnes [1]. In West African cocoa-producing countries, cocoa is a major foreign exchange earner and provides employment for millions of smallholder farmers whose small farm sizes range from 0.5 to 5.0 ha. In Nigeria, the main cocoa-producing areas are in the rainforest south where an estimated.

A total of 1.45 million hectares are cultivated, and cocoa productivity is low (approximately 250 kg dry beans/ha) compared with 600–1000 kg/ha for Cote d'Ivoire and Indonesia.

Cocoa is the most prominent perennial fruit tree species in the rainforest of Nigeria. Fruit trees are characterized by deciduous growth habits but are cultivated under rainfed conditions [2, 3]. The annual rainfall in the cocoa growing region of West Africa has a bimodal distribution of less than 2000 mm, resulting in wet–dry seasonal transitions [2, 4]. The dry season lasts approximately 3–4 months and is characterized by dry and hot weather. Smallholder farmers rarely practice irrigation; nevertheless, irrigation is effective for meeting crop water demand and ameliorating climate-related stresses [5, 6]. In West Africa, cocoa is cultivated as a rainfed crop and is thus subjected to poor soil and weather conditions [3, 5, 7]. Cocoa is cultivated as a rainfed crop, and it is highly sensitive to soil and weather conditions such as low rainfall, soil and air moisture deficits and temperature stresses [3, 5, 7]. The changing environmental conditions (marginal soils and extreme weather events) impose constraints on cacao growth and productivity. The annual rainfall in the cocoa growing region of West Africa follows a bimodal rainfall distribution pattern of less than 2000 mm (wet–dry seasonal transitions: [2, 4]). During the 3 months of dry and hot weather, smallholder farmers rarely practice irrigation. However, irrigation is effective for meeting crop water demands and ameliorating climate-related stresses [6].

Climate change, extreme and variable weather conditions and other climaterelated disasters, such as high frequency and severe drought events and warming temperatures (1.5–2°C), occur worldwide [8]. These changes may result in changes in regional precipitation and evapotranspiration [9, 10]. Among natural hazards, drought ranks first in terms of the number of people directly affected [11].

Climate mitigation may be built on adaptation practices to strengthen the resilience of farming systems to anticipated changes in rainfall patterns and temperature in the future. Climate-smart cocoa production landscapes may be built on agricultural innovations such as high-yielding drought-tolerant crop varieties, climate information services, agricultural insurance, nutrient and water management via irrigation, mulching, etc. Sustainable management practices for cacao (*Theobroma cacao* L.) in a changing climate may include irrigation schemes for climate stress alleviation and enhanced productivity.

The available information on cocoa water use in the field showed estimated values ranging from 3 to 6 mm/day during rains and less than 2 mm/day in the dry season [12, 13]. The FAO Penman–Monteith equation is accepted worldwide as the standard method for estimating reference evapotranspiration (ETo). The ETo indicates crop consumptive water use as the sum of evaporation from soil and plant transpiration f [13–16]. FAO Paper No. 56 highlights procedures to calculate ETo from radiation, wind, humidity and temperature data in addition to the crop coefficient *K*<sup>c</sup> for crops [17]. Allen et al. [17] suggested a *K*<sup>c</sup> value of 1.0–1.05 for a cocoa crop with a complete canopy. Field reports of cocoa water use (ETc) have shown values ranging from 3 to 6 mm/day during rains and less than 2 mm/day in the dry season [12, 13], while data based on the sap flow method suggest values less than 2 mm/day. Moser et al. [18] conducted a simulated El Niňo drought experiment and reported no significant differences between a rainfed control treatment and rain through-fall reduction (70– 80% under a dry soil profile near the permanent wilting point). The reports showed that the maximum cacao bean yields were obtained for cocoa drip irrigated with 20 l/ tree/ day (175 l/tree as total irrigation). Based on field trials, Diczbalis et al. [19] reported an annual irrigation requirement of 470 mm for cacao (a maximum weekly

*Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao *L.)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112674*

requirement of approximately 200 l/tree (1250 trees/ha)) and dry bean yields between 1.5 and 2.7 t/ha for young fruiting trees.

Information on soil moisture extraction, water use and cocoa yields under dry irrigation from the rainforest belt of West Africa is inadequate. Thus, experiments were designed to examine the effects of regulated dry season irrigation on the root zone moisture, tree water use and bean yield of cacao in a rainforest zone in Nigeria.

#### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Experimental site and conditions**

Experiments were conducted in the field using 5-year-old cacao trees that had been previously irrigated since the first year of field establishment (2012). The study was carried out at the Research Station of the Federal University of Technology, Akure, in the rainforest zone of Nigeria. In agroecology, rainfall patterns are characterized by bimodal and seasonal wet–dry transitions. The dry season is characterized by terminal drought caused by inadequate rainfall, soil moisture deficits, high vapor pressure deficits and temperatures and very clear skies [20].

#### *2.1.1 Irrigation strategies*

The drip irrigation system (drip irrigation) was laid out in the field. This included a pumping machine, good water source, pipes, drip lines, overhead tank (with stand), and pressure control valves. Water was applied via a gravity-drip irrigation system via point source emitters, which were installed on the laterals of each row of crops. The emitters were installed on the laterals of each row of crops and were spaced 3 m apart. The irrigation buckets were suspended on 5 m high tank stands to provide the required hydraulic heads [6]. The low-head (gravity) drip system supplied water to plant roots via drippers using inline emitters with a discharge rate of 2 l/h, which were spaced at 3 m intervals laterally. One drip lateral served each plant row. An inflow meter was installed at the control unit to measure the total flow distributed to all replications in each treatment.

#### **2.2 Experiment 1: irrigation treatments at 5- and 10-day intervals**

Preliminary studies based on variable irrigation amounts and frequencies for cacao in the study area have shown promising results (Agele, personal communication) [2]. The present study is a follow-up study aimed at validating the split-application of 14.28 mm (3.86 l/day) at 5- and 10-day irrigation intervals in the field. A pretreatment of 135 mm of irrigation water was applied to replenish the soil water within a 0.60 m profile depth (to field capacity). Irrigation was applied at 5- and 10-day intervals and was arranged in a split-plot design.

Irrigation was imposed based on the restoration of cumulative potential evapotranspiration (ETo) via the FAO method [17, 21] in the following form:

$$\mathbf{ETa} = \mathbf{K\_cETo} \tag{1}$$

where ETo is the potential evapotranspiration and *K*<sup>c</sup> is the crop coefficient [17, 21].

A crop coefficient (*K*c) of 0.83 was adopted for cacao (which was in the early fruiting stage) [17].

The potential evapotranspiration (ETo) from December to May was derived from the Penman–Monteith combination equation [17, 21] using data obtained from the Meteorological Observatory of the Experimental Station.

The water requirement (WR) was determined using the following relation:

$$\text{WR} = A \ast B \ast C \ast D \ast E \tag{2}$$

where WR = water requirement (l day/plant), *A* = open Pan evaporation (mm/ day), *B* = Pan factor (1.0), *C* = spacing of plant (m2 ), *D* = crop factor. The crop factor depends on plant growth; the value for fully grown cacao was 1.13, but for cacao in the early fruiting stage, 0.83 was adopted.

The irrigation amount (volume per application) was calculated as follows:

$$V = P \ast A \ast E\_{\text{Pan}} \ast K\_{\text{cp}} \tag{3}$$

where *V* is the volume of irrigation water (l); *P* is the wetting percentage (taken as 100% for row crops); *A* is the plot area (m<sup>2</sup> ); and *E*Pan is the pan evaporation and *K*cp pan coefficient (1.0). This corresponded to 14.28 mm (3.86 l/day), an amount that was applied at 5- and 10-day intervals.

The irrigation WR was determined using seasonal Pan evaporation data for the area. The total water requirement (TWR) of the farm plot was obtained as follows:

$$TWR = WR \* Number\ of\ plants\tag{4}$$

where TWR is the total water requirement and WR is the water requirement (l day/plant).

The maximum allowable deficit (MAD) for cacao was assumed to be 50% of the available water storage capacity of the soil (AWC).

The actual evapotranspiration (consumptive water use: ETc) of cacao trees was derived from the water balance equation (Eq. (1)) [6].

$$\text{ET} = I + P + \text{dS} - \text{Dp} - \text{Rf} \tag{5}$$

where ET is the actual crop evapotranspiration (mm) and *I* is the amount of irrigation.

Water applied (mm); *P*, precipitation (mm); dS, change in the soil water content (mm); Dp, deep percolation (mm); Rf, amount of runoff (mm). Since the amount of irrigation water was controlled, deep percolation and runoff were assumed to be negligible.

Soil water measurements were taken throughout the growing season using the gravimetric method.

The maximum (management) allowable deficit (MAD) for cacao was set at 50%.

Cacao LAI and solar radiation integrals (incident, transmitted and absorbed radiation, the ratio of radiation measurements below and above the canopy and PAR) were measured using a canopy analyzer (Delta T, UK). The incident solar radiation (*R*I) above the canopy was measured using a pyranometer connected to the canopy analyzer system.

The line sensor was attached to a metal frame and lifted above the cacao canopy.

*Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao *L.)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112674*

Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) was measured in addition to solar radiation. The analyzer measures light transmitted by the ratio of radiative measurements below and above the canopy [20]. The fraction of intercepted radiation (*R*fract, %) was calculated as follows:

$$R\_{\rm fracat} = (R\mathbf{1} - R\_{\rm T}/R\_{\rm I} \tag{6}$$

where I is the incident radiation above the canopy and T is the transmitted radiation.

Canopy extinction coefficient.

The Beer–Lambert law describes the absorption of light by plant pigments in solution. This function demonstrates that the absorption of light will be more or less exponential with increasing intercepting area down through the canopy. The light extinction coefficient (*k*), according to the Beer–Lambert law, is:

$$k = \left[ \text{loge} \left( \frac{I}{I o} \right) \right] / \text{LAI} \tag{7}$$

$$k = -\ln\left(I - I\_o\right) / \text{LAI} \tag{8}$$

where *I* and *I*<sup>o</sup> are the irradiance values upon and under the canopy, respectively.

LAI is the LAI of leaves causing light attenuation, and *k* is the extinction coefficient or slope of the curve when the natural log (In) *I*/*I*<sup>o</sup> is plotted against the LAI. The light extinction coefficient (*k*) was calculated by inverting Lambert–Beer's law Taku et al. [22]:

$$K\text{df} = -\ln\left(0.94\,\text{PAR}\,\text{transmitted}/\text{LAI}\,\tag{9}\right)$$

Fractional radiation (*I*) interception was calculated according to the following equation:

$$I = (R\_{\rm i} - R\_{\rm t}) / R\_{\rm i} \tag{10}$$

where *R*<sup>i</sup> is the incident radiation and *R*<sup>t</sup> is the transmitted radiation.

The proportion of transmission (TR) from the incident radiation (Ra) was obtained by the following formula:

$$\text{TR}(\%) = \left(\frac{\text{Rb}}{\text{Ra}}\right) \ast \text{100} \tag{11}$$

#### **2.3 Experiment 2: irrigation treatments with 50, 70 and 100% pan coefficients (***K***cp)**

The irrigation treatments were based on variable Pan coefficients and were delivered using point source emitters on gravity-powered drip lines installed on rows of trees [6, 17, 23]. Pan coefficients (100, 70 and 50% *K*cp amount to 0, 0.3 and 0.5 relative water deficits, respectively). Thus, the amount of irrigation water to be delivered was derived from the product of Pan evaporation and Pan coefficients (*K*cp) [17, 21]. The adopted coefficients were 1, 0.7 and 0.5, respectively:

$$\text{Ir} = A \, ^\ast \, E\_{\text{Pan}} \, ^\ast K\_{\text{cp}} \tag{12}$$

where Ir is the amount of applied irrigation water (mm), *A* is the plot area, and *E*Pan is the cumulative evaporation at the irrigation interval (mm) and *K*cp are the plant-pan coefficients. The irrigation treatments were IrT1 (*E*Pan \* 100 *K*cp) and IrT2 (*E*Pan \* 70% *K*cp) and IrT3 (*E*Pan \* 50% *K*cp).

These treatments denote the adequacy of water delivery (IrT1: the noncrop water stress baseline), and IrT3 denotes the maximum water deficit (the stressed baseline).

The actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc) of the cacao trees was calculated according to Eq. (5), and the TWR was determined according to Eq. (2) (Experiment 1). Therefore, the irrigation requirements (WRs) were 9.63, 6.75 and 4.82 l/plant/day for the IrT1, IrT2 and IrT3 irrigation treatments, respectively. The seasonal irrigation amount ranged from 4.82 l/day and 127,500 mm (at the DI1 level) to a minimum of 1.93 l/day and 20,400 mm (at the DI4 level). The irrigation WR and TWR of the farm plot were obtained according to Eq. (4) (Experiment 1).

The gross irrigation requirement (GIR) of the coca field (computed as ETc) is considered the net irrigation requirement (NIR), which is obtained following its division by the application efficiency (AE).

$$\text{GIR} = \text{NWR} = \text{AE} : \tag{13}$$

#### **2.4 Orchard water use efficiencies**

Crop water productivity (efficiencies of crop water use WUE) and irrigation treatments (irrigation use efficiency: IWUE) were determined using the methods of Sezen et al. [23] and Agele et al. [6]:


WUE ¼ biomass weight ð Þ *Y =*cumulative seasonal ETc (15)

where IWUE is the irrigation water use efficiency (t/ha/mm) and EY is the economic yield (t/ha), and Ir is the amount of applied irrigation water (mm).

#### **3. Results and discussion**

#### **3.1 Effects of 5- and 10-day irrigation intervals on cocoa production**

Compared with the dry season (December to March), the rainy season (March to early December) had a higher mean relative humidity average (71%), high cloud overcast (overcast sky) and lower air temperatures (32.8°C). The cumulative amounts of seasonal irrigation water delivered were 12,119, 8483 and 6059.3 mm (**Figure 1**). Compared with the 10-day interval, the 5-day irrigation treatment resulted in greater water delivery to the cocoa root zone across the sampling dates. The soil moisture contents differed among the irrigation water deliveries and measurement dates, and higher soil moisture contents were obtained for the 5-day irrigation interval than for the 10-day irrigation interval (**Figure 2**). On average, the soil moisture content was 48% greater for the 10-day irrigation treatments (**Figure 3**) than for the 5-day irrigation treatments. The lowest soil moisture contents were obtained for DOY 45 and 120, and the highest soil moisture contents were found between DOY 345 and 75 and between DOY 120 and 150 (**Figure 2**). There were significant differences (*P* < 0.05) in soil moisture between the 5- and 10-day irrigation intervals, while the 5-day

*Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao *L.)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112674*

**Figure 1.** *Seasonal irrigation water was applied (at 5- and 10-day irrigation intervals).*

**Figure 2.** *Effect of irrigation on the soil moisture status.*

intervals of irrigation delivered more irrigation and enhanced the soil moisture status compared with the 10-day intervals. The time course of the status of soil water before and after irrigation using moisture content measurements from soil samples within the 0–20 cm soil profile depth before and 1 day after each irrigation. At times, both irrigation intervals had values close to the wilting point between irrigation events, under which available water fell below 50% more often than not during the period of study. With more frequent irrigation (i.e., 5 days of irrigation), the soil moisture was

**Figure 3.** *Cacao evapotranspiration (ETc) as affected by irrigation intervals.*

mostly within the field capacity range. In general, based on the values of soil moisture, the stored water within the crop rootzone profile was used between irrigation cycles.

Soil moisture depletion over two measurement days was analyzed to determine the soil water use (ETc). Cacao water use (ETc) differed across measurement dates and irrigation treatments (**Figure 3**). The mean calculated evapotranspiration (ETc) values were 3.72 and 3.54 mm/day, 3.44 and 3.15 mm/day, and the seasonal totals were 48.2 and 38.3 for the 5- and 10-day irrigation intervals, respectively. The average Cacao evapotranspiration (ETc) for the 10-day irrigation treatment was 45% less than that for the 5-day irrigation treatment. The time course of cacao evapotranspiration (ETc) showed that cacao water use declined between DOY 345 and 45, while the lowest values were found for DOY 45 to 105.

for both 5- and 10-day irrigation intervals (**Figure 3**). Pod and bean yields were significantly different under the 5-day irrigation treatment, which produced more and heavier pods and beans than under the 10-day irrigation treatment. The pod and bean weights for the 5- and 10-day irrigation treatments were 78,000–6000 kg/plant and 4.8–3.2 t/ha, respectively, and the water productivities were 0.45–0.33 mm/kg/ha (irrigation efficiencies) and 0.11–0.09 mm/kg/ha (crop water use efficiencies), respectively (**Table 1**).

Solar radiation integrals (the ratio of transmitted to incident radiation, PAR and LAI), the cacao canopy cover (LAI) and PAR intensities and the canopy extinction coefficient (*k*)) were greater under the 5-day irrigation interval than under the 10-day irrigation interval. AnimKwampong and Frimpong [4] and Agele et al. [20] reported that canopy size and resultant shade intensities affect light characteristics within cacao fields, particularly the ratio of transmitted to incident radiation, PAR and LAI [2, 24]. Anim-Kwampong and Frimpong [4] suggested LA1 > 1 as the threshold canopy cover of the land surface for optimum light interception and transmission. A relatively high LA1 will result in mutual shading, limiting light transmission and photosynthetic

*Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao *L.)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112674*


#### **Table 1.**

*Summary of measured soil and cacao parameters as affected by 5- and 10-day irrigation intervals.*

activity. The Cacao LAI affects light attenuation and other radiation characteristics within the canopy, such as an increase in diffuse light [25]. Diffuse radiation is associated with increases in canopy light attenuation (canopy extinction coefficient). The canopy extinction coefficient (*k*) was greater for the 5 days of irrigation, which also had a greater LAI. The higher extinction coefficient for the 5-day irrigated cacao may be due to the lower amount of transmitted light (diffuse radiation). Goudriaan and Monteith [26] affirmed that a low extinction coefficient enhanced growth when the plant canopy was fully developed and uniformly distributed. Acheampong et al. [27] reported that biomass accumulation and overall development of cacao depend on the intensity of the PAR received. Irrigation ameliorated the microclimate via a reduction in thermal load and improved the soil moisture status and crop evapotranspiration [2, 18]. Such modification of the microclimate would enhance CO2 assimilation by leaves and Charles et al. [2] reported that a large extent of tree canopy will increase vegetative growth and photosynthetic activity of leaves. Reduced hydrothermal stress has implications for cacao survival and productivity during the terminal drought situation of the dry season in the study area.

Cacao irrigation and WRs have been variously studied [12, 13, 18, 19, 28]. Cacao water use values were reported to range from 1.3, 1.15, 3 and 5 mm/day using *E*Pan coefficients between 1.0 and 0.6 and 224 mm cumulative seasonal water use during the dry season and weekly irrigation requirements of 470 mm and 200 l/tree. Penman [13] computed 3–5 mm/day as an ETc and an ETc of approximately 1.3 mm (10 l/tree/ day), Kohlerlscher et al. [28] reported 2 mm/day, and Moser et al. [18] reported 1.3– 1.5 mm/day. In Cote d'Ivoire, the depth of irrigation of 920–1650 mm and *E*Pan coefficients between 1.0 and 0.6 and 224 mm cumulative cacao water use during the dry season produced between 30 and 60% of the cacao bean yield increase [19]. The authors applied 470 mm of seasonal irrigation and 200 l/tree for weekly irrigation, resulting in bean yields of 1.5–2.7 t/ha. The present obtained cacao yields ranged between 7800 and 6000 kg pods/plant and between 430 and 280 g beans/plant (4.8 to 3.2 t/ha). The more frequent irrigation out-yielded deficits of 20 and 24% for pods and beans, respectively. More frequent irrigation (at 5-day intervals) than at 10-day intervals enhanced the soil moisture content and water use (ETc).

#### **3.2 Effects of irrigation using pan coefficients (Kcp) of 1.0, 0.7 and 0.5 on cocoa production**

The irrigation regimes computed using 100, 70 and 50% Pan coefficients affected the soil moisture content, water use, pod and bean yields and water productivity (irrigation and crop evapotranspiration) of cocoa. Irrigation with Pan coefficients (Kcp) of 1.0, 0.7 and 0.5 delivered different amounts of water to the cacao rootzone. The irrigation amounts (monthly averages) were 1009.88, 706.91 and 504.94 mm, while the seasonal totals were 2116.5, 8482.95 and 6059.25 mm for the IrT1, IrT2 and IrT3 treatments, respectively (**Figure 4**). Irrigation at IrT1 (*E*Pan \* 100 *K*cp) had the greatest effect, and irrigation at IrT3 (*E*Pan \* 50% *K*cp:0.5) had the least effect. Compared with IrT1, IrT2 and IrT3 delivered 79 and 68% more water to the cacao rootzone, respectively. The maximum irrigation amount occurred on DOY 45, 60, 75 and 90, which coincided with the highest *E*Pan values (>5 mm/day).

Irrigation treatments (IrT1, IrT2 and IrT3) affected the soil moisture content within the cacao root zone. (**Figure 5**). The highest soil moisture content was obtained for the well-irrigated treatment (IrT1), and the lowest was obtained for the deficit irrigation treatment (IrT3). For the respective deficit irrigation treatments (IrT2 and

*Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao *L.)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112674*

**Figure 4.** *Seasonal irrigation delivery (IrT1, IrT2 and IrT3).*

**Figure 5.** *Soil moisture contents as affected by irrigation treatments.*

IrT3: 0.7 and 0.5 Pan coefficients), the average soil moisture contents were 61, 48 and 42% lower than those in IrT1, respectively, and irrigation equated to 30 and 50% water savings (**Figure 5**). The decreasing trends of the calculated evapotranspiration (ETc) were IrT1 (9.6 l/tree/day) > IrT2 (6.8 l/tree/day) > IrT3 (4.8 l/tree/day).

Decreases in soil moisture contents were obtained from DOY 345 to 60, followed by increasing trends in soil moisture from DOY 75 until the end of the measurement (DOY 150). The decreasing trends in the values of soil moisture content may be attributed to the increasing intensities of climatic demand (high vapor pressure deficits).

Unfavorable weather, high temperatures, soil evaporation and low atmospheric humidity enhance soil moisture depletion and thus decrease the soil moisture status [5, 29]. In general, the observed trends in the status of rootzone moisture are attributable to the prevailing weather conditions, which are denoted by increasing intensities of climatic demand (vpd) and temperatures during periods (DOY 345 to 60) of the experiment. An increase in moisture was observed from DOY 75 until the end of the experiment (DOY 150) can be attributed to rainfall received following its commencement (mid-March). In general, the soil moisture within the crop rootzone profile decreased between irrigation cycles. This may be attributed to the intensities of climatic stress (high temperatures and vapor pressure deficits), which presumably enhanced soil evaporation. The soil moisture reserve was unable to meet the cacao water demand during the dry season [2, 30].

Cacao water use (ETc) was determined from two soil moisture measurement cycles. Cacao water use differed across measurement dates and irrigation levels (**Figure 6**). The average calculated evapotranspiration (ETc) values were 139, 97 and 63 mm/day for the IrT1 (*K*c:1.0), IrT2 (*K*<sup>c</sup> 0.7) and IrT3 (*K*<sup>c</sup> 0.5). Cacao evapotranspiration (ETc) under deficit irrigation (IrT2 and IrT3) was 45 and 70% lower than that under IrT1 (100 *K*cp). The observed differences in ETc values during the experimental periods are attributable to changes in weather conditions. Following the commencement of rainfall and associated replenishment of soil moisture, lowering of temperatures (air and soil) and high atmospheric humidity (declining atmospheric demand), high amounts of cacao water were obtained.

Yang et al. [31] recorded higher soil moisture status and cacao ETc for irrigated citrus plants using full-pan evaporation. The magnitude of the calculated ETc was also within the range reported by Carr [12]. Penman [13] obtained 3–5 mm/day during rains and less than 2 mm/day in the dry season for cacao under an irrigation regime of 10 l/tree/day. Similarly, Kohlerlscher et al. [28] reported an ETc of 2 mm/day, while Moser et al. [18] reported an ETc of 1.3–1.5 mm/day. A field study using sap flow sensors reported 2 mm/day for cacao water use, which is lower than that in earlier reports. For example, Penman [13] reported a potential ETo estimate of 3–5 mm/day using the Penman equation. Irrigation replenished soil moisture depletion, while cacao shade offered soil surface cover, creating a favorable microclimate for the trees and consequently reducing soil evaporation [9]. Studies have reported that the conditions at the soil surface are affected by wetting via irrigation (amount and irrigation intervals) in addition to soil exposure to light [31–34]. Soil surface conditions are known to

**Figure 6.** *Cacao water use (evapotranspiration; ETc).*


**Table 2.** *Summary of measured soil and cacao parameters as affected by irrigation at 100, 70 and 50% pan coefficient (* K*cp).*

*Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao *L.)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112674*

determine the magnitude of crop water use (evapotranspiration: ETc) in orchards [9, 29].

The irrigation regime affected the pod and bean yields of the cacao plants. The values were significantly greater for IrT1 (35.4 and 2.29 t/ha) than for IrT2 (22.1 and 1.37 t/ha) and IrT3 (10.3 and 1.03 t/ha); thus, bean yields decreased by 60 and 40%, respectively, under IrT3 and IrT2 (**Table 2**). Carr [12] and Charles et al. [2] reported that in addition to irrigation, the yield of cacao also depends on soil properties such as infiltration rate and water holding capacity. Other studies have reported the effects of irrigation on the biomass, pod and bean yields of cacao. Diczbalis et al. [19] applied seasonal irrigation of 470 mm weekly at 200 l/tree and obtained bean yields of 1.5– 2.7 t/ha.

The effects of the irrigation regime on the water productivity of cacao were evaluated. The ratio of yield to evapotranspiration (*Y*/ETc) ranged between 0.3 and 0.04 t/mm, while the yield to irrigation amount (*Y*/Irrig) ranged between 0.16 and 0.19 kg/mm (**Table 2**).

This confirmed the superiority of deficit irrigation in terms of water savings (30 and 50%) over the well-watered treatment.

#### **4. Conclusions**

Dry season irrigation enhanced soil moisture status, tree water use, canopy characteristics, pod and bean yield of cacao in a rainforest zone of Nigeria. Solar radiation properties (transmission through the cacao canopy, photosynthetic active radiation (PAR)) and canopy area and light attenuation (extinction coefficient, *k*) differed among the irrigation treatments. Compared with the 10-day irrigation interval, the 5 day irrigation interval enhanced the soil moisture status, cacao water use (ETc), and pod and bean yields of cacao. The deficit irrigation treatments (10-day intervals, especially irrigation at 50% Pan coefficient) increased the water use efficiency (25– 44%), which translated to 30 and 50% water savings, respectively.

Smallholder gravity drip irrigation can ameliorate climate stress and enhance cocoa performance and is recommended for scaling-up. This study established irrigation and WRs using variable irrigation intervals and Pan coefficients for cacao during the dry season in the rainforest zone of Nigeria. These findings will inform water management decisions for optimizing the yield and water productivity of cacao, especially in the era of warming and drought. The water-saving advantage of deficit irrigation strategies can be scaled up for adoption.

*Smallholder Irrigation for Climate Mitigation and Cacao (*Theobroma cacao *L.)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112674*

### **Author details**

Samuel Agele\*, Kayode Adejobi and Abel Ogunleye Plant Physiology and Ecology Group, Department of Crop, Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: soagele@futa.edu.ng

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[19] Diczbalis Y, Lemin C, Richards N, Wicks C. Producing cocoa in northern Australia. In: Australian Government, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Report 09/ 092. 2010

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#### **Chapter 7**

## Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry Planet

*Shanmugam Vijayakumar, Narayanaswamy Nithya, Pasoubady Saravanane, Arulanandam Mariadoss and Elangovan Subramanian*

#### **Abstract**

Increasing rice yield while reducing water usage is crucial to feed growing population. This chapter explores techniques to enhance irrigation efficiency and water productivity in rice farming while minimizing negative impacts like groundwater depletion, land subsidence, saltwater intrusion, and soil degradation. Modern techniques for rice farming bring significant benefits by increasing productivity, reducing water usage, and conserving natural resources. Promising techniques include direct-seeded rice, aerobic rice, drip-irrigated rice, saturated soil culture, IoT-based automated irrigation, and the system of rice intensification (SRI). For example, dripirrigated rice increases yield by up to 20% using 30–50% less water, and the SRI boosts yield by up to 50% with 25–50% less water. Implementing these techniques improves rice productivity, income, food security, and water conservation. However, effectiveness varies based on soil, climate, labor force, and socio-economic status. Selecting suitable water-saving methods is crucial for maximizing farmer livelihoods while ensuring environmental safety.

**Keywords:** direct seeded rice, drip irrigated rice, automated irrigation, alternate wetting and drying, saturated soil culture

#### **1. Introduction**

India, with limited freshwater resources (only 4% of world's fresh water) is faced with the challenge of supporting its 1.39 billion population (20% of the global population) and their water demands. The three main water-consuming sectors in 1977 were agriculture (376.1 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM)), industry (14.16 BCM), and domestic use (12.46 BCM), totaling 403.3 BCM. Over the years, this has steadily risen to around 761 BCM in 2018, with agriculture alone making up 90.4% of the water consumption [1]. India's per capita water availability has decreased dramatically from 5600 m3 in 1951 to 1481 m3 in 2021 and is projected to decline further to below the water-stressed norm of 1700 m3 per year by 2051. This decrease in water availability is rapidly

transitioning India from a water-stressed to a water-scarce country, with many regions facing compromised water supplies to its citizen. The majority of India's water stress is due to poor water management rather than physical scarcity [1]. According to National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog (2018), the country faces a significant water crisis, with most cities lacking a 24-hour supply of drinking water and most households lacking access to safe drinking water. Approximately, 75% of residences lack on-premises access to safe drinking water, while 84% of rural households lack access to piped water. The growing population, rapid urbanization, and industrialization, along with the increased cropping intensity, has resulted in competing demand for water in India [2]. There is a growing concern among the citizens of India regarding an impending water crisis in the country.

India has 53.4% of its total land area under arid (15.8%) and semi-arid (37.6%) regions, where water scarcity deters agricultural growth and development. More than 45% of annual agricultural production comes from 18 to 20% of the world's irrigated land using 70% of all freshwater withdrawals. Irrigated agriculture is at least twice as productive per unit of land as compared to rainfed agriculture, enabling for more crop diversification and intensification in irrigated areas. Rice is the staple food for more than half of the world's population, and as such, its production has a significant role in achieving global food security. Rice is one of the most water-intensive crops and it is estimated that rice cultivation accounts for up to 30% of the world's freshwater withdrawals, with some regions heavily reliant on it for their water supply in [3]. However, traditional rice farming practices have resulted in inefficient use of resources, environmental degradation, and lower yields. Some of the major problems of traditional rice farming practices include *Overuse of water*: Traditional rice farming practices involve the flooding of rice paddies with water to control weeds and pests. However, this method leads to the overuse of water and environmental problems such as water pollution and degradation of aquatic habitats [4]. Low *yields*: Traditional rice farming practices often result in low yields due to inefficient use of fertilizers and other inputs. *Soil degradation*: Traditional rice farming practices can lead to soil degradation due to puddling which facilitate hardpan development, and continuous use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which harm beneficial organisms and promote soil degradation [5]. *Dependence on external inputs*: It often relies on application of external inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, which can be expensive and lead to environmental pollution [6]. *Labor-intensive*: Traditional rice farming practices are often labor-intensive, requiring significant manual labor for completing tasks such as planting, weeding, and harvesting. This can be a significant constraint for small-scale farmers with limited access to labor. *Vulnerability to climate change*: Traditional rice farming practices are often vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as droughts, floods, and pest outbreaks [7]. *Economic inefficiency*: Traditional rice farming practices can be economically inefficient due to the high cost of inputs, low yields, and dependence on external inputs [8].

#### **1.1 Declining groundwater table**

The extraction of groundwater increased as farmers shifted from the use of monoblock water pumps in the 1980s to submersible pumps to irrigate paddy crop. In addition, the incentivizing of irrigation leads to irrational increase in the number of electric tube wells and subsequently consistent drop in groundwater table. In the last two decades, the groundwater level dropped drastically to 150 ft. to 200 ft. from 30 ft. to 60 ft. in most parts of Punjab due to indiscriminate extraction [9].

*Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

Over exploitation has made groundwater not only scarce but also increasingly alkaline. Farmers often borrow money from informal and formal sources to install tube wells and purchase powerful submersible pumps [10]. This has caused indebtedness resulting farmers suicides in many places.

#### **1.2 Food security nexus water availability**

According to the NITI Aayog's Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) report-2019, India is facing a significant risk to its food security. Also, the country's top ten agricultural producing states are struggling to manage their water resources effectively. India has been classified as the highest drought-prone country in the world by the world water resources institute in 2019 based on drought intensity, water stress, and vulnerability to drought, population, crop, and livestock density. Out of 634 districts in India, only 38% (241 districts) are resilient to drought, while the rest are vulnerable to varying degrees of severity: mild (180 districts), moderate (80 districts), and severe (40 districts). Only ten states in the country have more than 50% of areas that are resilient to drought or dry conditions. The water quality of rivers and lakes in India is poor, with most of the river water (70%) being unsafe for consumption due to contamination from various sources, including industries, urbanization, and agricultural chemicals [11]. As a result, India ranks 120th out of 122 countries in the Water Quality Index [1].

#### **1.3 Climate change nexus agriculture and its impact on water resource**

Climate change is affecting rainfall patterns, and droughts are becoming more frequent and severe in many rice-growing regions. By increasing irrigation use efficiency, farmers can become less reliant on rainfall and more resilient to the effects of climate change. It also reduces the amount of water, energy, and other inputs required for rice cultivation, resulting in a more sustainable production system. Droughts are becoming more severe and persistent, exacerbated by climate change, in both irrigated and rainfed agriculture around the world, posing a greater risk to rural livelihoods by reducing crop and livestock output [7, 12]. This emphasizes the need for water resource development, conservation, and efficient use.

#### **1.4 Low water productivity**

India has one of the lowest values of water use efficiency (US\$ 1.9/m3 ) as compared to countries like Australia, USA, Brazil, Malaysia, China, South Africa, Mexico, Turkey and many Southeast Asian countries, which have an average water use efficiency of \$15 per cubic meter [13]. Rice, a crop that requires a large amount of water, accounts for 50% of freshwater usage in agriculture. The water use efficiency of rice is also very low and the lowest among field crops [14]. In the state of Punjab, despite facing severe water stress, rice production relies entirely on irrigation and has a concerning annual groundwater extraction rate of 165.8%. Similarly, the trend of groundwater depletion is severe in Haryana (136.9%), Rajasthan (139.9%) followed by Tamil Nadu (80.9%) [15].

#### **1.5 Deteriorating water quality**

Pollution caused by various factors such as urbanization, industrialization, and the increased use of fertilizers and pesticides has led to significant deterioration in

both surface water and groundwater quality in India. A major cause of concern is the discharge of untreated or inadequately treated industrial waste, effluents, and sewage into rivers and rivulets, which demands immediate attention [16]. Unfortunately, traditional water bodies like ponds and wells in rural areas are also at risk. Many have already been filled or encroached upon, while others have been turned into dumping grounds [17]. To make matters worse, the mixing of stormwater and sewage in many municipal towns has resulted in the contamination of water resources. A report suggests that nearly 50–60% of groundwater is still fresh and fit for consumption, 20–30% is moderately saline and of marginal quality. However, 15–25% of groundwater is saline, alkaline, and unsuitable for irrigation.

As water resources become increasingly scarce, finding sustainable solutions to manage and allocate this precious resource is becoming more critical. Moreover, irrigation accounts for a significant proportion of rice production cost, making it essential to improve irrigation efficiency to address the water crisis while simultaneously increasing yields and reducing production costs. Several agronomic technologies and production methods are available for rice that can enhance water productivity. However, each technology comes with its own practical difficulties, despite its ability to increase grain yield, save water, and reduce GHG emissions. Therefore, it is essential to study the advantages, disadvantages, and future research needs of each technology to make informed decisions about their use.

#### **2. Technologies for saving irrigation water in rice cultivation**

#### **2.1 System of Rice Intensification**

In recent years, the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has gained attention as a revolutionary approach to rice production, offering significant opportunities for farmers to increase yields, reduce input costs, and improve environmental sustainability [18]. The SRI is a holistic approach to rice cultivation that emphasizes principles such as transplanting single, young seedlings (13–15 days old), keeping the soil moist rather than flooded, cono weeding, using organic inputs, and using wider spacing (25 × 25 cm) between plants (**Figure 1**). The approach is founded on the principle that rice plants do not need to be flooded to grow optimally, and by managing the plant's growth environment more effectively, farmers can achieve higher yields with fewer inputs. These practices promote vigorous root growth, which in turn leads to healthier plants and higher yields [19]. The method also promotes the use of locally available inputs and promotes organic farming practices. By using fewer inputs and promoting soil health, SRI can also reduce input costs, making it a more economically viable approach for small-scale farmers [6]. SRI has proven to be a highly effective approach that offers significant environmental and economic advantages. With over a 60% increase in yield, it has also helped to reduce GHG emission by 40%, ground-water usage by 60%, and fossil energy consumption by 74% per kilogram of rice produced [20]. A review of 78 studies comparing SRI to traditional rice cultivation methods found that SRI resulted in higher grain yields in 80% of evaluations, yielding 24% more than Best Management Practices (BMPs) and 56% more than Farmer Practices (FPs) while reducing input of seed, water, and fertilizer, making it an effective method for increasing production with fewer resources [21]. The evaluation of SRI in India found that it increased yield by 60%, while reducing net GHG emissions by 40%, decreasing groundwater depletion by 60%, and reducing fossil-energy use by 74% [20].

*Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

**Figure 1.** *System of rice intensification.*

However, despite its potential benefits, the adoption of SRI has been limited due to several constraints. One of the most significant constraints is the lack of awareness and understanding of the SRI approach among farmers and extension workers. This has led to limited adoption and scaling of the approach, particularly in areas where traditional rice farming practices are deeply entrenched. Another constraint is the lack of access to appropriate inputs. SRI requires inputs such as compost and organic matter, which may not be readily available or affordable for many small-scale farmers [6]. Additionally, the approach requires significant changes in traditional rice farming practices, which may be difficult for some farmers to adopt. Despite these challenges, there are several actions that can be taken to promote the adoption and scaling of the SRI approach. First, there is a need for increased awareness and education about the approach among farmers and extension workers. This can be achieved through training and education programs that highlight the benefits of the approach and provide guidance on how to implement it effectively [22]. Secondly, there is a need for increased investment in research and development to identify and promote appropriate inputs and technologies for SRI. This can include the development of locally appropriate composting techniques and the use of innovative technologies such as precision agriculture [22]. Thirdly, there is a need for policy and institutional support to promote the adoption and scaling of SRI. This can include the provision of financial incentives and technical support for farmers to adopt the approach, as well as the establishment of policies and regulations that can promote sustainable and environmentally friendly farming practices.

#### **2.2 Saturated soil culture**

Rice cultivation has traditionally relied on flooding the fields with water to create an anaerobic environment for the rice plants. However, this method is not sustainable and can lead to significant water loss through percolation. To address this issue, alternative methods viz. saturated soil culture (SSC) has been developed. In SSC, the water loss through percolation is significantly lower because the soil is kept at saturation level, without flooding the field. SSC also reduces the need for frequent irrigation (**Figure 2**). This makes SSC a more sustainable and water-efficient method of rice cultivation compared to conventional methods. In addition, SSC has several advantages over conventional flooded rice cultivation, including higher yields, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, improved nutrient use efficiency, and improved soil health. In SSC the crop roots are supplied with sufficient oxygen, which can improve crop growth and productivity. SSC has been shown to increase water use efficiency by reducing the loss of unproductive water outflows, allowing more water to be utilized by the rice plants [23]. It is important to note that the yield benefits of SSC can be impacted by various factors, such as water management practices, soil type, and climatic conditions. Careful management of water levels, nutrient inputs, and pest and disease control is necessary to maximize the yield potential of SSC. SSC can increase rice yields by up to 50% compared to traditional upland rice cultivation methods [24]. Sometimes, implementing the SSC practice may cause a decline in rice yields if irrigation is not managed properly [25]. Since SSC involves the alternate wetting and drying of the soil, weed growth can be a problem. Farmers may need to implement additional weed management practices to control weed growth [26]. In areas where the water used for irrigation is saline, SSC can lead to the accumulation of salt in the soil, which can reduce crop growth and productivity. SSC is suitable for regions with high rainfall or access to irrigation water, as the soil needs to be kept consistently wet. It is also best suited to soils that have good water-holding capacity, such as clay soils. Since the water level is maintained just below the soil surface, the methane emission from SSC is lower than those from traditional flooded rice cultivation. The impact of SSC on GHG emissions and yield depends on various factors, including the management practices used and the soil type [4]. However, SSC can lead to increased emissions of nitrous oxide, a potent GHG, due to the intermittent flooding and alternate wetting and drying.

Compared to traditional farmer practice, the use of saturation soil irrigation resulted in a reduction of 10, 18, and 14% in plant height, tillers, and leaves number,

**Figure 2.** *Saturated soil culture.*

#### *Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

respectively. However, when soil was saturated weekly at 120%, it showed higher irrigation productivity (0.69 kg/m3 ), rainwater productivity (1.02 kg/m3 ), and water-saving (90.53%) with minimal yield reduction (5 × 10−3 kg/m3 ) [27]. Yanti et al. conducted a study to investigate the impact of water availability on the growth of local rice varieties. The results indicated that plant height was unaffected by water availability, while the number of tillers was influenced. Tiller formation was observed during the vegetative phase, approximately 28 days after planting, until the start of the generative phase, around 55 days after planting. During the generative phase, unproductive tillers were eliminated or dried up [28].

#### **2.3 Aerobic rice system**

Aerobic rice approach involves cultivating rice in aerobic soil conditions, with lower water inputs and without flooding the fields. Aerobic rice cultivation requires 30–50% less water than traditional flooded rice paddies, making it a more sustainable and environmentally friendly approach [29]. By eliminating flooding, aerobic rice cultivation significantly reduces methane emissions, a potent greenhouse gas produced by traditional rice farming (**Figure 3**). Although aerobic rice systems have the potential to produce yields similar to or higher than those of traditional flooded rice systems, the success of the system may be influenced by a range of factors, including climate, soil conditions, and crop management practices. Proper soil management is critical to successful aerobic rice cultivation, including effective weed and pest control and nutrient management [30]. The adoption of aerobic rice systems requires changes in crop management practices, such as nutrient management, weed management, and planting density. Farmers may need training and support to adopt these new practices successfully. Aerobic rice systems require well-drained soils with good organic matter content. In areas where soil is poorly drained or low in organic matter, additional soil management practices may be

**Figure 3.** *Aerobic rice system of rice cultivation.*

necessary to ensure the success of aerobic rice systems. In an aerobic rice system, the presence of oxygen in the soil promotes the growth of aerobic microorganisms that decompose organic matter at a faster rate compared to anaerobic decomposition in waterlogged conditions [31]. This faster rate of decomposition can result in a decrease in soil organic carbon content over time, as compared to soil under waterlogged conditions. However, an aerobic rice system may offer other benefits such as improved plant productivity, better nutrient use efficiency, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Soil submergence or waterlogging in rice leads to less oxygen, favoring slow anaerobic decomposition and buildup of organic carbon, improving soil fertility. It also accumulates sediment and nutrients, altering soil structure and nutrient availability, affecting plant growth and ecosystem health. However, prolonged submergence may reduce productivity and increase disease susceptibility [32]. According to the survey conducted among aerobic rice farmers, several factors favored the adoption of the system, such as ease of operation due to direct seeding, an increase in resource-use efficiency, particularly for labor, higher net profitability, water-saving through reduced irrigation, and the option for crop diversification in mixed-cropping systems. Conversely, factors that discouraged repeat plantings included the unavailability of suitable fine grain basmati varieties, problems with weeds and diseases, poor germination, spikelet sterility, frequent irrigation requirements, low yields, and unsuitable soil types [33].

Here are some potential areas for new research in aerobic rice systems: *Crop management practices*: There is a need to develop crop management practices that are specific to aerobic rice cultivation, such as optimizing fertilizer use, irrigation scheduling, weed control, and pest management. In addition, research is needed to identify the most suitable rice varieties for aerobic conditions, and to develop improved breeding strategies for these varieties. *Soil health*: The long-term effects of aerobic rice cultivation on soil health and fertility are not yet fully understood, and there is a need for research to evaluate the impacts of different management practices on soil properties, including nutrient availability, organic matter content, and soil structure [31, 32]. *Climate resilience*: As aerobic rice systems are more susceptible to drought and other climate-related stresses than flooded systems, research is needed to identify strategies to increase the resilience of these systems to climate change, such as the development of drought-tolerant rice varieties or the use of conservation agriculture practices. *Water use efficiency*: Aerobic rice systems typically use less water than flooded systems, but there is a need for research to optimize irrigation practices and improve water use efficiency in these systems. *Economic viability*: The economic viability of aerobic rice system compared to flooded rice systems is not yet fully understood. Research is needed to evaluate the economic costs and benefits of aerobic rice cultivation, and to identify strategies to improve profitability and marketability of the produce.

#### **2.4 Alternate wetting and drying**

Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) technique involves allowing the paddy fields to dry out periodically instead of keeping them continuously flooded. This method is gaining popularity among rice farmers because it can reduce water use while maintaining or even increasing crop yields (20%), reducing methane emissions by up to 50% and increase oxygen availability to the roots [34]. In AWD, farmers must monitor the soil moisture level using a water level indicator (**Figure 4**). Once the water level reaches a certain point, the farmer stops the irrigation and allows the soil

*Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

**Figure 4.** *Alternate wetting and drying.*

to dry. When the soil reaches a certain dryness level, the farmer resumes irrigation. This process is repeated throughout the growing season, depending on the rice variety and weather conditions. AWD requires careful monitoring of the soil moisture level to avoid under or over-irrigation. IRRI's "safe AWD" recommendations, intended to minimize yield reductions, are that the soil is dried until soil water depth reaches 15 cm below the surface and that the field is re-irrigated to a standing water depth of around 5 cm [35].

The benefits of AWD can vary depending on the rice variety, soil type, and weather conditions. Therefore, farmers may need to adjust their irrigation practices accordingly.AWD can increase the risk of yield loss if the soil is allowed to dry out too much, particularly during critical stages of crop development such as flowering and grain filling. If the soil is too dry, it can result in reduced nutrient uptake, decreased photosynthesis, and decreased grain yield. AWD can also lead to increased weed growth if the field is drained for too long. Here are some potential areas for new research in AWD: *Water management*: There is a need to develop optimized water management practices for AWD, including determining the optimal timing and duration of the wet and dry periods, and the most suitable irrigation methods to use. In addition, research is needed to identify the most effective water-saving strategies for AWD, such as the use of mulching, cover crops, or different soil types. *GHG emissions*: AWD has been shown to reduce methane emissions from rice cultivation. However, there is a need for further research to understand the mechanisms behind this reduction and to quantify the overall GHG emissions impact of AWD compared to traditional flooded rice cultivation. *Economic viability*: Research is needed to assess the economic costs and benefits of AWD and to identify strategies to improve its profitability and marketability.

#### **2.5 Drip irrigated rice**

Drip irrigation is well-suited for rice cultivation as it allows precise control of water application, which is essential for this water-intensive crop. Irrigation water is supplied to the crop through drip emitters that are placed at regular intervals along the field (**Figure 5**). The spacing between emitters depends on the soil type, crop variety, and other factors, and can range from 30 cm to 60 cm [36]. The water is delivered slowly and evenly to the root zone of the plants, which reduces water loss through evaporation and runoff. It facilitates the precise application of fertilizers and other inputs, which can further improve crop performance. However, drip irrigation

**Figure 5.** *Drip irrigated rice.*

requires careful management and maintenance to ensure that the system is functioning properly and that the plants are receiving the appropriate amount of water [37]. Factors such as soil moisture, crop growth stage, and weather conditions must be monitored regularly to adjust the irrigation schedule as needed. The timing and amount of irrigation in drip irrigated rice depend on several factors, including soil type, climate, crop stage, and water availability. The frequency of irrigation in drip irrigated rice depends on the rate of water uptake by the plants, which is influenced by factors such as temperature, humidity, wind, and plant density. In general, drip irrigated rice should be irrigated when the soil moisture content in the root zone reaches the lower limit of the desired range. This can be determined by monitoring soil moisture using a soil moisture sensor or by checking the soil moisture by hand. Similarly, the amount of water applied should be sufficient to replenish the soil moisture deficit and bring the soil moisture content to the upper limit of the desired range. The desired range depends on the soil type and can range from 60 to 80% of field capacity [38].

Drip irrigation reduces weed growth compared to flood irrigation, but it can also result in more weeds growing directly under the drip lines. The use of drip irrigation resulted in a 29% increase in aerobic rice yield and a 50% reduction in water usage and the water productivity of aerobic rice under drip irrigation showed a twofold increase compared to other irrigation methods. Drip irrigation for direct-seeded rice increased yield (7.34–8.01 t ha−1) and water-use efficiency (0.81–0.88 kg m−3) while reducing water use by over 40% compared to flood irrigation (6.63–7.60 t ha−1 and 0.42–0.52 kg m−3, respectively). Root density at 15–30 cm soil depth was also higher in drip-irrigated crops (0.86–1.05 mg cm−3) than in flood-irrigated crops (0.76–0.80 kg cm−3) [39]. Among different drip irrigation configurations tested, the subsurface drip with a lateral distance of 0.8 m and 1.0 L/h dripper discharge irrigation system demonstrated the best performance in terms of rice growth, physiology, and yield [40].

#### *Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

Drip fertigation can be an effective and sustainable method for fertilizing crops, providing precise and uniform delivery of nutrients while reducing nutrient, labor and water use [41]. Subsurface drip irrigation in rice-wheat cropping system reduces the nitrogen requirement by 20% in both the crop and obtain grain yields similar to that of flood irrigated crops [42]. However, it requires careful planning and management to ensure proper functioning and effective nutrient application. Drip fertigation requires specialized equipment, such as a fertigation pump, injection system, and filters. This equipment must be properly installed and maintained to ensure proper functioning. The quality of the irrigation water can impact the effectiveness of drip fertigation. High levels of dissolved salts, bicarbonates, or other impurities can lead to clogging of the emitters or reduced fertilizer uptake by plants [43]. The timing and rate of fertilizer application through drip fertigation must be carefully adjusted based on the crop stage and nutrient requirements. Over-application of fertilizers can lead to nutrient imbalances, reduced crop quality, and environmental pollution.

#### *2.5.1 Prospects of drip irrigated rice*

Drip irrigation has several advantages over traditional flood irrigation methods for rice cultivation. *Water use efficiency:* Drip irrigation can reduce water use by up to 50% compared to traditional flooded rice fields. This can lead to cost savings for farmers and help conserve water resources. *Higher yields*: Drip irrigation can improve rice yields by ensuring a consistent and adequate supply of water and nutrients to the plants. This can lead to higher grain quality and quantity. *Better fertilizer management*: Drip irrigation can improve fertilizer use efficiency by delivering nutrients directly to the root zone of the plants. This can reduce fertilizer leaching and runoff, which can harm the environment. Drip irrigation combined with fertigation (the application of fertilizers through irrigation water) significantly improves rice yield and nutrient use efficiency. *Reduced labor requirements*: Drip irrigation requires less labor for irrigation and weeding than traditional flooded rice fields, which can lead to cost savings and increased efficiency. *Climate resilience*: Drip irrigation can help rice farmers adapt to climate change by providing more precise control over water and nutrient delivery. This can help reduce the risk of drought and flood damage to rice crops. *GHG emission*: Drip irrigation can significantly reduce methane emissions from rice fields, compared to flood irrigation. Based on two-year average, Fawibe et al. found that the global warming potential is reduced by 89% under drip irrigated plastic mulch system compared to conventional flooding [44]. *Soil compaction*: Drip irrigation in rice cultivation helps in improving soil health by reducing soil erosion and compaction.

#### *2.5.2 Constraints of drip irrigated rice*

*High initial investment*: Drip irrigation systems require significant initial investment in equipment and infrastructure, such as pumps, filters, and drip lines. This can be a significant barrier for small-scale rice farmers. *Technical knowledge and skills*: Drip irrigation requires technical knowledge and skills in installation, operation, and maintenance. The system must be regularly maintained to ensure proper functioning, which can involve tasks such as cleaning filters, replacing emitters, and checking for leaks. This is a time-consuming and labor-intensive process. Farmers may need training and support to adopt this method successfully. Soil *suitability*:

Drip irrigation is most suitable for well-drained soils with good water-holding capacity. Therefore, its use may be limited to regions with heavy clay soils or low water-holding capacity. *Pest and disease management*: Drip irrigation may increase the incidence of some pests and diseases, such as root rot and nematodes. Therefore, farmers need to implement appropriate pest and disease management practices to mitigate these risks. *Energy requirements*: Drip irrigation systems require energy for pumping and filtration, which can increase production costs and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions [45]. *Clogging*: Clogging of drip system due to the buildup of sediment, organic matter, or mineral deposits in the emitters or filters reduces the effectiveness of the system, leading to uneven application of fertilizers and water [43]. *Water quality*: Poor quality irrigation water requires additional treatment or management.

#### *2.5.3 Potential areas for new research in drip irrigated rice*

Drip irrigation has the potential to improve water use efficiency, increase rice yields, and reduce labor requirements. However, its adoption may depend on several factors, such as the availability of appropriate soil and water resources, farmer knowledge and skills, and the initial investment cost. Therefore, further research and extension efforts are needed to promote the adoption of drip irrigated rice among rice farmers worldwide. Here are some potential areas for new research in drip irrigated rice. *Water and nutrient management*: Drip irrigation provides precise control over water and nutrient application, but research is needed to develop optimized water and nutrient management practices for drip-irrigated rice, including determining the most suitable timing and quantity of water and nutrient application to maximize yield and minimize water and nutrient losses [36]. *Crop management*: Drip irrigation can affect crop management practices such as weed control, pest management, and disease control, and research is needed to develop integrated crop management practices for drip-irrigated rice that can optimize yield and reduce production costs. *Soil health*: Drip irrigation can impact soil health and nutrient availability, and research is needed to evaluate the long-term effects of this technique on soil properties, including organic matter content, nutrient availability, and soil structure. *Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions*: Drip irrigation requires energy to operate, and the energy use and associated greenhouse gas emissions of drip-irrigated rice need to be quantified and compared to traditional flooded rice cultivation. *Economic viability*: Drip irrigation has the potential to increase water and nutrient use efficiency and yield stability, but its economic viability compared to traditional flooded rice cultivation needs to be further evaluated. Research is needed to assess the economic costs and benefits of drip-irrigated rice and to identify strategies to improve its profitability and marketability.

#### **2.6 Automated irrigation**

Automated irrigation using sensors and the Internet of Things (IoT) can be an effective way to save water in rice cultivation as it requires large amounts of water to grow. This approach involves using sensors to collect data on various environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and weather conditions. The data is then transmitted to a central hub via the internet, which processes the information and triggers irrigation systems as needed (**Figure 6**).

*Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

**Figure 6.** *Automated smart irrigation system.*

In traditional irrigation methods, there is a risk of overwatering or underwatering, which can lead to reduced crop yield, increased water usage, and higher costs [46]. By using sensors and IoT, farmers can optimize water usage and reduce waste by ensuring that the rice fields receive only the necessary amount of water. Automated irrigation systems can also help farmers save time and labor by eliminating the need for manual monitoring and adjustment of irrigation systems [47]. This allows farmers to focus on other important aspects of rice cultivation such as soil management, pest control, and harvesting. The implementation of automatic irrigation system increased on-site water productivity by 12.7%, and the labor power required for water management decreased by 21.8%. Moreover, the investment in the automatic irrigation system yielded positive financial returns, with an internal rate of return of 8.6% higher than the discount rate of 4.5% and benefit-cost ratio was 1.23 [48].

The modern drip irrigation system is highly efficient in water usage when compared to traditional irrigation methods. Automated drip irrigation can save up to 41.5% of water compared to conventional flood irrigation and 13% compared to traditional drip irrigation methods [49]. Sensors used in automated irrigation help in accurate weather predictions which assist farmers in designing optimal irrigation schedules that consider expected rainfall and evapotranspiration rates. The high accuracy weather prediction can help in preventing overwatering, which can waste water and reduce water use efficiency [50]. In addition, farmers can take preventive measures such as adjusting irrigation schedules and creating adequate drainage facilities in response to extreme weather events like droughts, floods, and storms. Moreover, better weather prediction can aid farmers in planning the timing of fertilizer and pesticide applications. This can enhance nutrient uptake and pest management, resulting in improved crop growth and water use efficiency.

#### *2.6.1 Bottleneck for automated irrigation*

There are several bottlenecks that need to be considered when implementing automated irrigation systems in rice cultivation: *Cost*: Implementing an automated irrigation system can be expensive, especially for small-scale rice farmers. The cost of the sensors, communication systems, and other equipment needed to set up the system can be a barrier to adoption [51]. *Technical expertise*: Setting up and maintaining an automated irrigation system requires technical expertise. Farmers may need training to operate the system and troubleshoot any technical issues that may arise. *Infrastructure*: The implementation of automated irrigation systems requires reliable internet connectivity and power supply, which may not be available in some rural areas where rice cultivation is prevalent [52]. *Compatibility*: Not all automated irrigation systems may be compatible with the specific needs of rice cultivation. Rice cultivation requires different water management practices at different growth stages, which may need to be factored in when setting up the system. *Data analysis and interpretation*: Collecting data through sensors is not enough; the data also needs to be analyzed and interpreted to trigger irrigation events effectively. Farmers may need assistance with data analysis and interpretation to ensure that the system is functioning optimally [53]. *Cultural factors*: Some farmers may be resistant to adopting new technology or changing traditional irrigation practices, which could limit the adoption of automated irrigation systems.

Here are some potential areas for future research in automated irrigation for rice: *Sensor technology*: The effectiveness of automated irrigation systems depends on the accuracy of the sensor technology used to measure soil moisture and other environmental variables. Future research is needed to develop and improve sensor technology for automated irrigation in rice, including sensors that can measure soil moisture, temperature, and other factors at various depths and locations within the field [54]. *Decision support systems*: Automated irrigation systems rely on decision support systems that use real-time data from sensors to make decisions about irrigation timing and quantity. Future research is needed to develop and improve decision support systems for automated irrigation in rice, including machine learning algorithms that can predict crop water demand and optimize irrigation management [55]. *Crop modeling*: Crop modeling can be used to simulate crop growth and water use under different irrigation scenarios and can be a valuable tool for optimizing automated irrigation systems. Future research is necessary to develop and improve crop models for rice cultivation that can accurately predict crop water demand and growth under different irrigation scenarios. *Energy efficiency*: Automated irrigation systems require energy to operate, and the energy use and associated greenhouse gas emissions of these systems need to be quantified and minimized. Future research is needed to optimize the energy efficiency of automated irrigation systems for rice cultivation, including the use of renewable energy sources such as solar power. *Economic viability*: The economic viability of automated irrigation systems for rice cultivation needs to be further evaluated, including the costs and benefits of different types of sensors, decision support systems, and energy sources [51]. Future research is needed to identify strategies to improve the profitability and marketability of automated irrigation systems for rice cultivation.

#### **2.7 Direct seeded rice**

Direct-seeded rice (DSR) is a method of rice cultivation where seeds are directly sown into the field instead of transplanting seedlings. This method is

#### *Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

becoming increasingly popular as it saves labor, water, and time compared to traditional transplanting methods [56]. There are two types of DSR methods: wet DSR and dry DSR. In dry DSR, the rice seeds are broadcasted or drilled into dry soil (**Figure 7**), whereas in wet DSR, the pre-germinated rice seeds are sown on wet soil (**Figure 8**). Dry DSR resulted in higher yields (13–18%) and reduced total water inputs (8–12%) compared to TPR [57]. DSR has the potential to meet global demand while reducing water usage by 50%, labor costs by 60%, and increasing productivity by 5–10% [58]. Some of the common problems associated with DSR include poor seedling establishment, uneven crop emergence, weed competition, pest and disease infestations, and nutrient deficiencies. *Uneven crop emergence*: DSR can experience uneven crop emergence, leading to lower yields and reduced crop quality. This can be caused by factors such as uneven seed placement, variable soil moisture, and differences in soil temperature [59]. *Weed competition*: DSR is more vulnerable to weed competition than transplanted rice, as weeds can easily outcompete rice seedlings for nutrients and light [60]. *Pest and disease infestations*: DSR can be more susceptible to pest and disease infestations than transplanted rice, due to factors such as reduced plant vigor and higher weed pressure. *Nutrient deficiencies*: DSR can experience nutrient deficiencies, particularly during the early stages of growth, due to factors such as reduced nutrient availability and increased leaching [61]. *Water management:* DSR requires careful water management to ensure that the seeds do not dry out before germination, and that the young seedlings are not drowned by excessive flooding. *Labor requirements*: Direct-seeded rice can require more labor than traditional transplanting methods, particularly for weed control and crop establishment [62].

**Figure 7.** *Dry direct seeding of rice through seed drill.*

**Figure 8.** *Wet direct seeding of rice using drum seeder.*

#### *2.7.1 Research needs for DSR include*

*Seed technology*: Development of improved varieties that have better seedling vigor, higher germination rates, and tolerance to abiotic stresses such as drought and salinity [59]. *Weed management*: Development of effective and sustainable weed control strategies for DSR that minimize the need for herbicides and reduce the impact of weeds on crop yield [62]. *Nutrient management*: Optimization of nutrient management strategies for DSR that take into account the different nutrient requirements of direct-seeded rice and the impact of soil moisture on nutrient availability. *Pest and disease management*: Development of integrated pest and disease management strategies for DSR that reduce the incidence of pest and disease infestations and minimize the use of chemical pesticides. *Agronomic practices*: Development of agronomic practices that optimize crop establishment, promote uniform emergence, and reduce the risk of crop failure due to unfavorable weather conditions. *Economics and marketability*: Analysis of the economic viability of DSR compared to traditional transplanting methods and identification of strategies to improve the marketability of direct-seeded rice.

#### **3. Other agronomic management practices**

Farmers should adopt various strategies such as proper fertilization, timely and efficient weed management and the use of drought-tolerant crop varieties to improve crop growth, productivity, and water use efficiency. Building bunds or levees around the paddy fields can prevent water loss through runoff and seepage.

*Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

#### **3.1 Best nutrient management**

Balanced fertilizer application: Applying the right amount of fertilizers and balancing the nutrient supply with rice crop demand can improve the efficiency of water use [14]. Whereas, over-fertilization can result in excessive vegetative growth, leading to higher water demand, which ultimately results in low yield and reduced water use efficiency. Similarly, under-fertilization can negatively impact crop growth and yield potential, leading to lower water use efficiency. Therefore, maintaining an appropriate balance of fertilizers and nutrients is crucial for achieving optimal water use efficiency in rice cultivation [63].

Organic matter application: Incorporating organic matter, such as compost or manure, into the soil can improve soil structure and water holding capacity, which can increase water availability for plant uptake and reduce the need for irrigation.

Timing and placement of fertilizers: The timing and placement of fertilizers can affect the efficiency of water use. Applying fertilizers in split doses during the growing season, rather than in a single application, helps to reduce leaching losses and increase nutrient uptake efficiency [64]. Placing fertilizers near the root zone also improves nutrient uptake and reduces losses due to runoff or leaching. The increased uptake and efficient utilization of nutrients, in turn, promotes crop growth and yield, ultimately leading to improved water use efficiency.

Use of micronutrients: Micronutrients, such as zinc and iron, play a vital role in the growth and development of rice plants. Deficiencies of these micronutrients can reduce crop growth and yield potential, leading to lower water use efficiency. Supplementing the soil with these micronutrients can help to improve crop growth and yield potential, leading to more efficient use of water.

Nutrient deficiency is a common problem in improved rice production technologies like aerobic rice, direct seeded rice, drip irrigated rice and alternate wetting and drying [65]. Nutrient deficiency can limit the ability of crops to effectively utilize water resources. Nutrient deficiency occurs when plants do not receive adequate amounts of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients such as zinc, iron, and manganese. The lack of these essential nutrients can significantly impact crop growth and productivity, leading to reduced yields, poor quality produce, and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases which intern resulted in lower water use efficiency and water productivity. Thus, optimum fertilization based on soil fertility status and environmental factors could increase water use efficiency and water productivity.

#### **3.2 Efficient weed management**

Weeds compete with rice plants for water, nutrients, and sunlight. Thus, it is essential to manage weeds effectively to reduce their negative impact on crop growth, yield and water use efficiency [66]. When weed populations are high, they can reduce the amount of water available to the rice plants by increasing the water loss from the soil through transpiration. As a result, more water may need to be applied to the field to maintain the same level of soil moisture, leading to decreased water use efficiency. Weeds also interfere with the uptake of nutrients by rice plants. This can lead to reduced plant growth and development, which in turn can reduce water use efficiency. Weeds also act as hosts for many pests and diseases that can infect rice

plants. This can lead to reduced plant growth and yield, and again, reduce water use efficiency. Controlling weeds can reduce their competition for water, nutrient, space and light, thereby increasing water availability, water use efficiency and yield of rice plants [67]. Therefore, it is more advantageous to implement early weed control measures such as pre-emergence herbicides, manual weeding, and mechanical weed removal, as opposed to late season weed control, to maximize water use efficiency in rice cultivation [68].

#### **3.3 Selecting suitable cultivar**

Planting drought-tolerant rice varieties can reduce the amount of water needed for cultivation while maintaining yields. Selecting drought-tolerant cultivars is an important strategy for improving water use efficiency in rice production [69]. Drought tolerant cultivars have better yield stability (able to maintain yield under water-limited conditions) than conventional cultivars. If a region is expected to experience a drought, farmers may choose to plant drought-tolerant rice varieties that can thrive in dry conditions. Drought-tolerant rice cultivars have several adaptations such as deep root system, smaller and thicker leaves, stomata closing during the hottest part of the day, osmoregulation, early maturity and improved photosynthesis that enable them to thrive well in dry conditions. By using less water, drought-tolerant cultivars can help in reducing the environmental impact of rice production. This includes reducing water consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and nutrient runoff.

Globally several drought tolerant cultivars are developed in different countries (**Table 1**). Example, *BRS Primavera* cultivar was developed by the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) is known for its high yield potential, tolerance to low soil fertility and shown to perform well in aerobic rice cultivation systems in Brazil. *NSIC Rc222* cultivar was developed by the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) is known for its tolerance to drought, heat, and low


#### **Table 1.** *Drought tolerance rice varieties.*

*Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

soil fertility. *Aerobic Rice 1* cultivar was developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and is known for its tolerance to low soil fertility and high yields in non-flooded conditions. It has been tested and shown promising results in several countries in Asia. *IR72* cultivar was also developed by the IRRI and is known for its tolerance to drought and low soil fertility. *CT9993-5-10* cultivar was developed by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences and is known for its tolerance to drought and low soil fertility. WAB56-104: This cultivar was developed by the West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) and is known for its tolerance to drought, pests, and diseases. It has been shown to perform well in aerobic rice cultivation systems in West Africa. *Ariete* cultivar was developed by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and is known for its tolerance to low soil fertility and high yields in non-flooded conditions. It has been tested and shown promising results in several countries in Latin America.

#### **4. Conclusion**

Revolutionizing rice farming to maximize yield with minimal usage of water is crucial for sustaining a hungry planet. The overuse of water for rice cultivation in conventional rice cultivation method, particularly in regions with limited water resources, has placed a significant strain on water availability and led to various environmental issues, including greenhouse gas emissions. The development of innovative farming techniques such as the SRI, DSR, AWD, SSC and aerobic rice system and the use of drought-resistant varieties of rice has shown promise in reducing water wastage while increasing yield. Smart irrigation utilizing sensors and IoT is poised to revolutionize irrigation management in rice cultivation. Furthermore, incentivizing the adoption of improved irrigation methods through carbon and water credits can promote water conservation in rice farming. In addition to water conservation, researchers are taking a systems approach to address various issues in rice cultivation, including labor, greenhouse gas emissions, weed control, nutrient use efficiency, pest and disease management, production cost, and cropping intensity. Many of these improved irrigation methods are addressing most of the problems in rice cultivation beside saving irrigation water and improving water productivity. It is essential to continue research and development efforts in this area to ensure food security for the growing population while preserving our precious water resources. Through collective efforts, we can work towards a sustainable future where we produce more with less water, ensuring food security for all.

#### **Acknowledgements**

Authors would like to extend sincere gratitude to the authors whose research findings have greatly contributed to the writing of this chapter.

#### **Conflict of interest**

All the authors declare that there are no potential conflicts of interest associated with this submission.

*Irrigation Systems and Applications*

### **Author details**

Shanmugam Vijayakumar1 \*, Narayanaswamy Nithya<sup>2</sup> , Pasoubady Saravanane3 , Arulanandam Mariadoss4 and Elangovan Subramanian5

1 ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad, India

2 Department of Seed Science and Technology, SRS Institute of Agriculture and Technology, Vedasandur, Tamil Nadu, India

3 Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal, India

4 National Institute of Plant Health Management, Hyderabad, India

5 Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

\*Address all correspondence to: vijitnau@gmail.com; vijayakumar.s@icar.gov.in

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Revolutionizing Rice Farming: Maximizing Yield with Minimal Water to Sustain the Hungry… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112167*

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#### **Chapter 8**

## Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management

*Syeda Mishal Zahra, Muhammad Adnan Shahid, Zahid Maqbool, Rehan Mahmood Sabir, Muhammad Safdar, Muhammad Danish Majeed and Aneela Sarwar*

#### **Abstract**

Although technological advancements have sparked the beginning of the fourth agricultural revolution, human beings are still facing severe problems such as shrinking croplands, dwindling water supplies, negative consequences of climate change, and so on in achieving agricultural resilience to meet the demands of the growing population over the globe. Geospatial techniques involving the integrated use of geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing (RS), and artificial intelligence (AI) provide a strong basis for sustainable management of agricultural resources aimed at increased agricultural production. In recent times, these advanced tools have been increasingly used in agricultural production at local, regional, and global levels. This chapter focuses on the widespread application of geospatial techniques for agricultural resource management by monitoring crop growth and yield forecasting, crop disease and pest infestation, land use and land cover mapping, flood monitoring, and water resource management. Moreover, we also discuss various methodologies involved in monitoring and mapping abovementioned agricultural resources. This chapter will provide deep insight into the available literature on the use of geospatial techniques in the monitoring and management of agricultural resources. Moreover, it will be helpful for scientists to develop integrated methodologies focused on exploring satellite data for sustainable management of agricultural resources.

**Keywords:** geospatial techniques, agricultural resource management, crop growth monitoring, flood monitoring, land cover mapping

#### **1. Introduction**

Agriculture is the backbone of the economy, particularly in developing countries, and plays a pivotal role in economic stability and ensuring food security. As a matter of fact, the global population is increasing exponentially and is expected to reach 10 billion by 2050. This drastic increase in global population puts pressure on agricultural resources for more food production despite the constraints of the environment [1, 2].

Changes in climatic conditions, restrictions on expanding agricultural land, and scarcity of water are among the major complications for increasing crop production. Therefore, cropland management, protection of soil quality, judicious use of water, and increase in species diversity are the few basic steps for sustainable management of agricultural resources to meet future food demands [3]. More importantly, monitoring of crop growth and health coupled with timely intervention strategies are necessary for enhanced agricultural crop production along with a reduction in the use of input resources in accomplishing global food security goals.

Technological advances in recent years have shown much development in sensor technology, communication systems, and data analysis tools. Such advances in technologies have facilitated the sustainable use of agricultural input variables along with mitigation of future losses while promoting increased and sustainable yield to accomplish global food security goals. Numerous existing and newly developed techniques and tools such as Geographic Information System (GIS), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Remote Sensing (RS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), Internet of Things (IoT), and Big Data Analytics (BDA) have become essential for global food security through effective analysis of crops as well as soils. When merged with other sources of evidence, these technology solutions are supplying data-driven information and insight for focused or site-specific management of crops, trying to ensure higher production [4]. GIS is a type of database system that includes tools for gathering, storage, and information retrieval in addition to tools for analyzing, converting, and demonstrating spatiotemporal data for a particular intention [5–7]. GIS is one of the key technologies that gives the spatial frame of reference and information on numerous attributes, each of which can be accessed as a separate data layer. Furthermore, it supplies the tools necessary to modify both spatial and non-spatial data and illustrates the results in map formats that are both intuitive and demonstrative [8]. GIS has widespread applications in environmental studies, medical services, and resource management in food, industrial, and agricultural sectors. In recent times, GIS tools have been increasingly used in agricultural production at local, regional, and global levels. GIS together with other techniques such as RS, GNSS, and data analytics has been widely utilized to facilitate crop and soil interventions [9–11].

Remote sensing is a type of geospatial technique that involves acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object using space-borne or airborne satellites. Remote sensing technique captures images of the earth's surface in different wavelength regions of Electro-Magnetic Spectrum (EMS). Some of the images symbolize reflected solar radiation in visible and near infrared regions; a thermal infrared wavelength region represents estimations of energy emitted by the earth's surface, and a microwave region represents a measure of relative return from the earth's surface. The basic mechanism of remote sensing technology involves emitted electromagnetic radiations coming from sun, falling on different objects on earth and reflected to atmosphere, which is captured by the distantly placed satellite sensor as images of different wavelengths. However, the process involved in acquiring information about an object or area of interest by means of measuring radiant energy reflected or emitted by an object or surface has been summarized in **Figure 1**. The complete processing of remote sensing involves various steps including (1) emission of electromagnetic radiations; (2) energy transmission from source to earth's surface; (3) interactions of EMR with the earth's surface, that is, reflection and emission; (4) energy transmission from the surface to satellite sensors; (5) sensor data output; and (6) transmission, procession, and analysis of satellite data. This remotely sensed data is comprised of spatial information (size, shape, and

*Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

**Figure 1.** *Concept of remote sensing and GIS - applications of remote sensing.*

orientation) as well as spectral information (tone, color, and spectral signature). As it is known, GIS creates, manages, analyzes, and maps all types of data. GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data (where things are) with all types of descriptive information (what things are like there). This provides a basis for mapping and analysis in almost every industry and assists users to understand patterns, relationships, and geographic context. The benefits include improved communication and efficiency as well as better management and decision making. Although RS and GIS have been widely utilized in various domains of agriculture such as soil mapping, terrain analysis, crop stress mapping, crop yield mapping, soil nutrient assessment, and organic matter mapping, it has been suggested that the potential of highresolution remotely sensed data to deal with spatiotemporal variations make it valuable to be utilized in precision agriculture. When it comes to precision agriculture, various combinations of spatial resolutions, spectral coverage, and frequency ranges are utilized. It has been reported that monitoring of crop growth and mapping of crop yield can be achieved using low-resolution satellite data; however, mapping the severity of disease infestation necessarily requires fine-resolution satellite data. Literature suggests that RS and GIS are the core of precision agriculture because they collect, store, retrieve, and analyze feature- and location-based information and provide statistics alternatives particularly for site-specific monitoring [12].

Since its inception in the 1960s, remote sensing technology has been widely used in agriculture [13]. Several global and national agricultural monitoring systems based on remote sensing platforms are now in operation. These systems deliver consistent, timely, and important information to agricultural producers, managers, and policymakers. Crop identification and cropland mapping; crop growth monitoring and yield estimation/prediction; inversion of key biophysical, biochemical, and environmental parameters; crop damage/disaster monitoring; precision farming; and so

**Figure 2.**

*Different indices/ parameters for monitoring and management of various agricultural resources.*

on are all important applications of geospatial techniques in agriculture resource monitoring. This chapter is focused on the use of geospatial techniques for agricultural resource management. The various indices and other parameters determined using geospatial techniques for mapping and monitoring of crop growth and yield forecasting, crop disease and pest infestation, nutrient deficiency, land use, land cover mapping, flood monitoring, and water resource management are summarized in **Figure 2**.

Digital maps based on RS data and GIS differ broadly from traditional maps. In these maps, satellite data is utilized to map a given attribute such as soil analysis, crop yield, precipitation, nutrient availability, pest infestation, and so on. Satellite-based positioning or navigation system provides information about longitude, latitude, and altitude. GIS provides sophisticated abilities by using statistical techniques and geospatial predictive analysis to retrieve inter-attribute interactions. Such observations are beneficial for decision making and management of resources on a sustainable basis. These digital maps help farmers and researchers to identify hotspot regions, map field boundaries and water bodies, and recognize the relationship of different features inside and outside the field's boundary lines. High-fidelity field visualization allows site-specific implementation of nutrient content, herbicides, pesticides; irrigation to improve productivity; and to reduce input costs. In this chapter, we present the scientific work associated with the use of remote sensing and GIS techniques for sustainable management of agricultural resources. This chapter is organized in such a way that it starts with highlighting the need of RS and GIS technologies for mapping and monitoring agricultural resources. Afterward, research presents the recent developments in RS and GIS technologies involved in agricultural resource management.

*Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

#### **2. Crop growth and yield forecasting**

Monitoring development of crops and making estimates of their yields are both extremely vital for any nation to be able to make decisions on food production for its consistently expanding population. Typically, crop yield forecasting across crop growth includes models that integrate global climatic and soil conditions and other ancillary data as executed accordingly to characterize the development, photosynthetic activity, evapotranspiration, and yield of a particular crop relying on reliable physical and physiological theories. However, these models are a poor significant predictor when variations in soils, stress, pressure, or management practices are present. The process of anticipating crop growth and initial crop yield over agricultural fields is a crucial method for both the planning of food security and the prediction of agricultural economic return. Monitoring the growth of crops and estimating their output have been easier thanks to the ongoing development of RS and GIS technologies, which have led to improvements in both the process and procedures involved [14–16]. Estimation of crop yield has been demonstrated by multiple studies to benefit from the integration of GIS and RS technology. The research carried out by Memon et al. [17] evidenced how efficient integrating hyperspectral Landsat satellite imagery and contrasting various RS-based spectroscopy indices was in monitoring crop growth and early crop yield forecasting over agricultural fields. The focus of this research was on the impact of rice yields. The information can be useful in the longterm planning of agricultural sustainability in cropping systems involving rice and wheat. The findings of the study that was conducted by Hassan and Goheer [18] demonstrated that an accurate early forecast of wheat crop yield prior to growing crops could be achieved through the utilization of vegetation indices deduced from modest resolution imaging spectroradiometer satellite imagery in conjunction with crop yield information and a strategy that is based on GIS modeling. Muslim et al. [19] employed a GIS-based environmental policy-integrated climate model in yet another research. This model served as an effective tool for forecasting rice yield and was based on integrated climate policy. Several of the most popular vegetation indices (VIs) used in remote sensing are included in **Table 1** along with details such as their mathematical formulations, the scales they are designed for, and the factors they assess. These vegetative indices have several applications, including crop monitoring, stress detection, biomass estimation, and yield forecasting. However, the correct index must be selected considering the given task and surrounding factors.

The prototype regional- and local-crop-level data, soil data, agricultural production data, and climatic data to spatial and temporal approximate variability in crop yield. In a similar manner, Al-Gaadi et al. [16] predicted potato tuber crop yield by extracting the normalized difference vegetation indices and the soil-adjusted vegetation index from Landsat satellite data obtained during the different phases of potato growth. Simulations of crop yield prediction that are premised on GIS and RS have the potential to have broad applicability in the process of notifying agricultural production regulations that are geographically centered. For instance, based on the results of these modeling techniques, compliance review can be designed to change the contributing factors to crop yield and quality (that include farm management strategies, wind patterns, availability of water, altitude, terrain, plant health, and inclusive growth) [20, 21]. This is possible because policy intervention is a form of intervention. It is essential to make yield projections for crops well in advance of harvest time, especially in areas where there is a high degree of climatic variability. Planning and


#### **Table 1.**

*Shot description of frequently used vegetation indices (VIs).*

#### *Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

policymaking for food security and the prediction of agricultural economic return should include monitoring the conditions under which agricultural crops grow as well as making projections about the potential crop yield [14, 15, 19]. This could include the development of policies for increasing the efficiency of agricultural production and maintaining its sustainable development [15]. To provide food for a growing population in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), agricultural production systems need to work toward closing the yield gap that exists between the yields that farmers currently accomplish and the yields that may be conceivably easily achievable in a rainfed basic sustenance agricultural system. In order to evaluate and map crop yield gaps, Hochman et al. [21] created a simulation that consolidated numerical yield and crop varieties area data, remotely sensed data, cropping information processing paradigm, and GIS mapping. The purpose of this model was to address the discrepancy between the two sets of data.

There exist multiple approaches for predicting crop yield; some of the approaches are given in **Figure 3**. The conventional approach to predicting crop yield involves the assessment of crop condition by professionals. Throughout the crop-growing season, various observations and measurements are conducted, including but not limited to tiller number, spikelet number and fertility percentage, pest and fungal damage percentage, and weed infestation percentage, among others. The data obtained through this method can be utilized to make predictions about yield through the application of regression techniques or by drawing upon the insights of local experts [22]. Two additional techniques employed for predicting crop production are remote sensing and crop simulation models. The aim of the yield forecast is to provide accurate, scientifically sound, and impartial predictions of crop yield at the earliest possible stage in the growing season, considering the impact of weather and climate. The

#### **Figure 3.**

*Approaches used for yield forecasting include field survey, national yield statistics, crop simulation, weather monitoring, and remote sensing.*

disparities between forecasts and final estimates lie in the temporal aspect of their dissemination. Predictions are generated prior to the complete harvest of the crop, whereas evaluations are conducted after the harvest of the crop. The outcomes are derived from the implementation of a statistical estimator on the survey data, and the subsequent point estimates are analyzed by commodity.

Throughout history, farmers have consistently engaged in the practice of making predictions as a means of strategizing their agricultural methods. The selection of a cultivar, the optimal planting timeframe, and the appropriate quantity of fertilizer to utilize are contingent upon the prevailing climatic conditions. If farmers are aware of a high probability of rainfall in the upcoming week, they will promptly proceed to sow their seeds in the field [23, 24]. The accurate prediction of crop yield necessitates the concurrent prediction or knowledge of other significant parameters. An instance of this would be the measurement of the land that was sown at the commencement of the cultivation period and the measurement of the land that was reaped. The utilization of geospatial methodologies in the prediction of crop development and yield has numerous advantages, such as the capacity to furnish farmers, policymakers, and other interested parties with precise and prompt information. The utilization of this information can aid in the process of decision making, specifically in tasks such as identifying the most favorable periods for planting, choosing suitable crop types, and optimizing the management of resources, such as water and fertilizer, for greater efficiency.

#### **3. Crop disease and pest infestation**

It is essential that there should be no instance of hunger or malnutrition among the population if the nation is to experience long-term economic expansion and environmental sustainability. Malnutrition is the only cause of one-third of deaths and underweight, with retarded growth among children less than 5 years of age in poor nations. Food insecurity, poor maternal and childcare practices, a lack of access to safe drinking water, and insufficient quality sanitation and health services are all contributors to malnutrition, which is caused by a deficiency in both macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as an imbalance in nutritional intake and disease [25]. Over the past few centuries, the mismatch between the increasing food demand of the world's booming population and the amount of agricultural supply has made the issue worse [26]. The main limiting variables that can influence agricultural productivity, growth, and eventually food security are both biotic and abiotic constraints. These include unfavorable and harsh temperatures, a lack of water, bad soil, insect infestation, illnesses, and weeds. In addition, changes in temperature or climatic disruption have a significant and deleterious effect on agricultural output and productivity around the globe, particularly in tropical regions [27]. As the world's climate continues to shift, experts predict that agricultural output will drop by 20 percent by 2080 and that the situation would be even direr in developing nations like India. Droughts, floods, and other weather extremes are just a few examples of how climate change is affecting crop production. Insect pests and disease epidemics have become more common because of these shifts and disruptions [28]. Exports and imports of agricultural products have increased worldwide since the liberalization that followed the founding of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. The spread of invading alien species, which threaten native and introduced plant communities worldwide, has been accelerated by the globalization of trade. As a result of global warming and trade

#### *Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

liberalization, more infectious diseases and insect pest outbreaks have appeared. Furthermore, new tools have made it possible to reduce the impact on agricultural yield as much as possible [28]. Now, more than ever, GIS and remote sensing are being used extensively for precise data collection and analysis when it comes to crops as shown in **Figure 4**. In this section, it will look at how geospatial technology has played an admirable part in the detection and mitigation of plant/crop diseases and insect pests. This section may also illustrate the supplementary understanding of how geospatial technologies would be utilized in agriculture to lessen the impact of the disease and insect-pest attack.

The term "healthy" is used to describe a plant that is fully realizing its genetic potential in terms of physiological effects. When insects or diseases cause havoc on plant life, normal physiological processes are thrown off [29]. The plant's health, biomass, and output are all negatively impacted by pests and illnesses carried by insects. Typically, the effects of insect pests and diseases on yield and quality are not immediately apparent throughout the growing season. Forest diseases and pests can have a massive effect on ecological services, altering natural landscaping and its cultural value, hindering wildlife habitat and biodiversity, and limiting the forest's

**Figure 4.** *The emergence of crop-damaging diseases and pests, and the use of remote sensing.*

capacity for carbon sequestration, all of which harm agricultural output. GIS stores, captures, analyzes, and displays data that describes an area of the earth's surface. Most common GIS features include data storage and retrieval, presentation and querying, evaluation (geometric and thematically), conversion, and others. Information gathering, processing, administration, and display are the four pillars upon which a GIS is built [30]. The proliferation of data-capture methods is proportional to the variety of technological tools at our disposal. As a result of advancements in geospatial techniques like GPS, geodetic surveys, laser scanners, aerial photography, and satellitebased remote sensing, and so on, it is now much simpler to keep tabs on plant health. Arizona, Northern California, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon used GIS/GPS technology to analyze semi-automated data [31].

Using a unified strategy, we geo-referenced weather data, plant growth data, and satellite imagery in a GIS to assess the potential for pests and diseases as well as the optimal growing conditions for our crops. Using elevation, weather, and satellite data projections, projections for both favorable growing conditions and the spread of illness were developed for agricultural regions. Models for six insect pests and twelve crop diseases were computed and displayed daily in geo-referenced maps for agricultural survey regions. Dates and yields of grape harvests were also forecasted with remarkable precision. Information was disseminated daily via the Internet as regional weather, insect, and disease risk maps based on data derived from GIS [30]. Difficulties associated with plant nourishment, insect identification, crop forecasting, water requirements, and weed management are just some of the many areas where remote sensing has been utilized. Changes in plant characteristics are indicators of disease and pest attack, which can be detected by remote sensing. Typical ground-based optical scouting techniques may miss tiny variations in vegetation, but a remote sensor's capacity to do so makes it a helpful tool for assessing within-field variability, evaluating crop development, and managing fields based on present conditions [30].

Nowadays, precision agriculture relies on geospatial technologies like GPS integration with GIS for Insect-Pest Management (IPM). Crop management planning benefits further from the utilization of remote sensing and spatial analysis, as well as other technologies such as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) [32]. However, there are also some drawbacks to these techniques. For example, high spatial resolution imaging is not easily accessible for all locations, especially rural ones. While hyper-spectral photography is essential, consultancies and end-users/farmers often lack specialist knowledge of geospatial techniques, and timely mapping and near-realtime picture collection and delivery processes are crucial to the success of this field of study. Despite these difficulties, geospatial technology can also provide useful data in an IPM setting by facilitating a thorough comprehension of the relative spatial of the abiotic and biotic characteristics of a field and its crop, as well as giving information on the populations of diseases and pests that are either already present or likely to appear [30]. In a field where reports of pest and disease outbreaks on a massive scale are on the rise, this technology is proving invaluable. Improved production, pest and disease control, and other facets of forestry management are all possible thanks to geospatial technologies. These tools are now used mostly in academic settings, but with improved access to data and technology, this is likely to change. Increased yields and lessened concerns over food insecurity are two of the many benefits that have resulted from the widespread adoption of geospatial data and technology.

Crop output must rise along with population growth to guarantee that everyone, no matter where they live, has access to adequate food and water. Agricultural sustainability is achieved via the employment of a variety of technologies

#### *Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

and strategies that make production safer and reduce negative effects on the environment. Successful agriculture relies heavily on the use of precision agriculture tools. Using data gathered by geospatial technologies, precision farming is a method of micromanagement that improves agricultural and territorial management decisions. Pests and diseases have a significant impact on crop yields, which in turn affects the ability to feed the world's population. But the development of geospatial technology has facilitated the operations of controlling many pests and illnesses affecting plant health.

#### **4. Land use/land cover (LU/LC) mapping**

The terms "land cover" and "land use" are sometimes used indiscriminately; nevertheless, the true connotations of these concepts are significantly different from one another. The covering surface on the earth is referred to as land cover, and it might include things like flora, urban development, waterways, fallow land, or other things. To effectively carry out global monitoring investigations, resource planning endeavors, and development endeavors, it is essential to recognize, delineate, and map land cover [8, 33, 34]. The establishment of a benchmark from which monitored operations, such as change detection, can be carried out and the provision of ground cover data for baseline thematic layers are both accomplished through the process of identifying land cover [35]. However, the term "land use" relates to the use that the land is put to, such as for agricultural purposes, for the goal of providing an environment for wildlife, or for other recreational activities. Because it is necessary to have up-to-date data to determine what percentage of land is now being put to what kind of use and what kinds of changes occur in land utilization throughout the year; approaches for land use need both mappings as a baseline and ongoing monitoring [33, 36, 37]. The dynamic characterization of the world's LU/LC has been summarized in **Table 2**. Having this knowledge aids in the process of formulating plans to strike a balance among preservation efforts, competing uses, and the demands of development. Land use studies are being conducted because of several issues including the loss of forested land, the reduction in the amount of fertile land, and creeping urbanization [11].

Resource planning and control, preservation of wildlife habitats, baseline modeling for GIS inputs, urban expansion and encroaching, route and logistical planning for



#### **Table 2.**

*Dynamic categorization of the world's land use and land cover (LULC).*

geophysical investigation, resource exploitation operations, disaster characterization (storms, inundation, volcano, earthquake, and fires), legislative borders for taxation and asset appraisal, object tracking (identifying landing fields, highways, hillsides, and crossings), and delineating of the land/water boundary are the important tasks that can be performed using LU/LC data gathered using geospatial techniques. However, in agricultural resource management, LU/LC refers to the physical characteristics and use of land in a particular area, including vegetation cover, soil type, water availability, and land use activities as shown in **Figure 5**.

Understanding LU/LC is crucial for sustainable agricultural management, as it provides information on land use change, crop suitability, and environmental impacts. In agriculture resource management, LU/LC data is used in various ways, including:

**Crop Suitability Analysis:** LU/LC data can be used to identify areas suitable for specific crops. For example, if a farmer is interested in planting a particular crop, they can use LU/LC data to identify areas with suitable soil types, water availability, and

#### **Figure 5.**

*Global 10 m land use/ land cover (LU/LC) map for 2021 using geospatial technologies [source: ESRI website (https://www.esri.com/partners/impact-observatory-a2T5x0000084pJXEAY/land-use-land-cover–a2d 5x000005juReAAI)].*

#### *Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

vegetation cover for that crop. This analysis helps to optimize crop production, leading to higher yields and better resource management.

**Land Use Planning and Management**: LU/LC data are also used in land use planning and management. By understanding the current and past use of land, farmers and land managers can develop land use plans that maximize productivity while minimizing environmental impacts. For example, if a particular area has a history of intensive agriculture, land managers may decide to rotate crops to avoid soil degradation and nutrient depletion.

**Environmental Monitoring**: LU/LC data are also essential for environmental monitoring. By tracking changes in land use and vegetation cover, environmental impacts such as deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat loss can be identified and addressed. This information is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies and ensuring sustainable resource management.

**Natural Resource Management**: LU/LC data are also used to manage natural resources such as water and soil. By understanding the characteristics of the land, farmers can implement practices such as soil conservation, water harvesting, and irrigation that optimize resource use and minimize waste.

**Disaster Management**: LU/LC data are also essential for disaster management. By identifying areas at risk of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, and droughts, farmers and land managers can implement measures to mitigate the impact of these events. For example, farmers may decide to plant crops that are more resistant to drought or implement soil conservation practices to reduce soil erosion during floods. So, LU/LC data are essential in agriculture resource management and provide crucial information on crop suitability, land use planning and management, environmental monitoring, natural resource management, and disaster management. By using LU/ LC data, farmers and land managers can optimize resource use, minimize environmental impacts, and ensure sustainable agricultural practices. The efficacy of remote sensing (RS) data in facilitating land use and land cover (LU/LC) mapping has been substantiated by scientific literature. The use of RS data has been shown to provide precise and current data on land use changes, thereby aiding sustainable land management practices.

#### **5. Flood monitoring**

Floods are one of the most destructive environmental disasters worldwide, contributing to more substantial economic and social consequences compared to any other natural event. Because of their widespread distribution, floods cause more death and destruction than any other natural calamities [38]. When it rains heavily in a place, downstream areas frequently become inundated because of the excess water. Whenever water flows overland and into low-lying areas, this can cause flooding [39]. Floods and other environmental disasters wreak havoc on both human and natural resources and generate significant amounts of destruction [40, 41]. Flooding has an adverse impact on the lives of around 140 million citizens each year on average. Assessment of extensive flooding is of the utmost significance regarding the repercussions on society, the economy, and the environment [42]. Flood control and mitigation efforts are essential to minimize the damage that can be caused to environmental assets, agricultural land, and other infrastructures, among other things [43, 44]. As a result, doing a study of the likelihood that an area will be flooded is a crucial responsibility for advance warning systems and emergency responders as they work toward developing management plans for preventing and mitigating future flood disasters [45]. For instance, HAZUS is a GIS-based natural hazard assessment tool formulated for evaluating flood hazards; HEC-FDA is a computer program to facilitate agricultural engineers across vulnerability assessment of flooding-riskreduction strategy. These are just two examples of the many comprehensive techniques that are currently available and utilized by many data analysis organizations around the world. GIS is a computer-based system that handles georeferenced data by providing the capability for inputs, information management (data management and access), modification and evaluation, and dissemination. GIS offers a wide variety of techniques that may be used to determine the region that has been impacted by floods and to make predictions on the areas that are expected to be inundated because of high-water levels in rivers [41]. GIS will be utilized to a significant degree to compile material obtained from a variety of maps, aerial pictures, satellite images, and digital elevation models (DEM) [44]. The vulnerability assessment also will appropriate utilization of the data from the census as well as any other appropriate statistical abstracts to better cater to the requirements of the native population. The research and technique of collecting data (spectrum, geographical, and temporally) about a region or material thing without making direct physical touch with the entity or region under inquiry are known as remote sensing [42–44].

In recent years, remote sensing technology and geographic information systems have emerged as the two most important tools for flood inundation mapping [43]. The demarcation of flood zones and the creation of flood danger and flood risk mapping for places that are prone to flooding are the two primary focuses of attention in this sector of industry [42]. Any endeavor at flood evaluation or hazard modeling in this region is hampered by the limited availability of high-resolution DEMs, even though river flooding in developing countries is very severe because of their overreliance on agriculture. However, the accessibility of high-resolution DEMs is limited. In places prone to flooding, flood hazard mapping is an integral part of carrying out the necessary planning for land use [45]. It generates charts and maps that are simple to understand and can be accessed quickly, which makes it easier for administrators and planners to identify areas of risk and prioritize their activities to mitigate or respond to such risks [46]. Worldwide natural disasters due to flood hazard, the hotspot areas, flood frequency, distribution and deciles using geospatial technologies are illustrated in **Figure 6.**

The traditional methodologies of predicting floods were not trustworthy enough to make a precise forecast. The techniques used for flood monitoring are illustrated in **Figure 7**. But usage of remote sensing and GIS technologies is extremely helpful in determining and evaluating flood-related consequences caused by excessive rainfall in a catchment area or by ocean wave surges in coastal areas. During the previous year, numerous researchers and engineers put various models to use in order to estimate flood levels [46]. At the present time, geospatial approaches offer a diverse selection of data sources that can be utilized for the modeling of floods. In the field of disaster modeling, including flood inundation mapping, cartography, and the analysis of complicated problems, the analytic hierarchy process, abbreviated as AHP, is among the most well-known and successful methodologies [40, 43]. In addition to the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), other recognized and appropriate models for hazard assessment include the Multi-Criteria Decision Support Approach (MCDA), the Weights of Evidence (WoE), the logistic regression (LR) model, the responsive neuro-fuzzy interface system, artificial neural networks (ANN), and the FR model [47, 48]. Researchers attempted to demonstrate a connection between the predictor variables and the

*Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Global natural disaster hotspots for flood hazard frequency and distribution using geospatial technologies.*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Geospatial techniques and global map for flood hazard [58] [online source: SEDAC website (https://sedac.ciesin.c olumbia.edu/data/set/ndh-flood-hazard-frequency-distribution/maps)].*

occurrence of the flood by using the ANN approach, which was used in the forecasting of flood [48]. It has been stated that the ANN approach can deal with all inputs that are unpredictable to derive useful information. The employment of MCDA, RS, and GIS techniques is particularly helpful in the study and mapping of possible flood-prone regions because these techniques are dependable and precise [48]. The MCDA method is applicable for flood assessment and mapping in areas with insufficient or no available data, and it may be of use to local authorities in the process of flood mitigation. In China, the AHP model was used for the purpose of flood deflection [47, 48].

The modeling of floods is a complicated process that requires considering a great number of different parameters. The application of the RS approach makes a substantial contribution to the mapping and evaluation of flood risks. Because they are rapid and more effective, RS and GIS offer the greatest opportunity to catch, preserve, integrate, alter, access, analyze, and present information for the assessment of prospective risk regions. This is especially useful in situations where time is of the

essence. This study is an example of an ensemble method that demonstrates how effective GIS-based flood modeling can be. The frequency ratio (FR) method, GIS, and remote sensing were all utilized in the process of estimating the likelihood of flooding.

#### **6. Water resource management**

Water is a fundamental element of nature's resources and can be found in many different varieties, including underground aquifers, rivers, streams, lakes, glaciers, and so on. The capability of water to keep humans alive, transport nutrition to agricultural production, neutralize pollutants and hazardous substances, and regulate the hydrological regime are the primary reasons for the significance of water [46]. Consequently, the management of water resources is an important problem for us to address now to lessen the likelihood of water shortages for coming generations. Substantial oscillations in the hydrological system are currently causing degradation or water contamination supplies, as illustrated in **Table 3**. These high variations are a direct result of the significant economic and demographic shifts that have occurred in recent times [45]. As a direct consequence of this, this invaluable asset is currently subject to competition and requires both protection and management for conservation. In this section, we have presented the critical issue of gaining knowledge of water resources through the application of geo-informatics by utilizing different types of intelligence, including classic, enhanced, composite, and artificial [49].


**Table 3.** *Water resources management strategies.*

#### *Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

The primary purpose of water resource management is to comprehend and manage water resources, whereas geospatial approaches make use of remote sensing, geographic information systems, and global positioning system to make this process more efficient. In addition to its function as a factor in maintaining life, water also plays a part in the generation of potentially lethal risks in the manner of floods and droughts [11, 43, 48]. GIS databases document and catalog water supply information. There are servers located all around the world where the data accumulated on water resources are kept. Some of the details are generally the product of GIS data acquisition [11]. So, with the aid of GIS, researchers can store and distribute massive amounts of information about water resources. Large geospatial satellites launched from outside the Earth's atmosphere are interconnected with GIS and utilized to aid in the global dissemination of data/ information. When a base station needs to obtain geographical data, the satellite makes it available to them wirelessly. Fortunately, cloud-based deployment options are available for most GIS systems today. This allows information stored in any GIS server to be accessed by geospatial centers located anywhere in the world. The widespread availability and adaptability of data and information access are features of GIS applications [50].

Research published on water has revealed that water alters both its condition and pressure throughout the course of time [1, 45, 51]. When it is necessary to keep monitoring various water circumstances, GIS becomes an extremely useful tool. Therefore, hydrologists are among the professionals who stand to benefit the most from geographic information systems. Using a GIS that has been carefully constructed, one can do a variety of studies on water. For instance, hydrogeology is a field of study that analyzes groundwater along with its preservation, incidence, and mobility properties. The nature and properties of water that is either stored deep inside the earth or that is on the surface and is either motionless or moving can be entered into GIS as data, stored there, and retrieved for use in the system's subsequent processing. This can be done for water that is either underground or on the surface. The process of modeling groundwater entails hydrologists trying to comprehend the behavior and features of groundwater. Keeping in mind the limited supply of water, there is a lot of research that can be done to safeguard water catchment zones [52]. In addition to this, GIS can assist in the production of models and designs that can assist in the responsible utilization of underground water. When conducting investigations and case studies, the application of geospatial techniques can allow the creation of digital photographs of groundwater [53]. On this planet, there are many kinds of water, and not all of them are fit for human or animal consumption. Studies on aspects such as slope, drainage features, and patterns of land exploitation can all be analyzed with GIS to determine whether the water in a certain region is suitable for consumption by humans. Sample data can be analyzed, saved, and used to report generation thanks to the capacity of GIS to manage vast volumes of data sets. GIS also has the capability to handle the generation of maps [54]. These studies can be utilized by the relevant organization, or even by the authorities, to make future studies and laws on water, as well as to assess whether the water is suitable for human consumption.

#### **7. Conclusion**

The present chapter aims at highlighting the importance and usage of geospatial techniques (remote sensing together with GIS technologies) in agricultural resource management, including monitoring and mapping of crop growth and production forecasting, crop disease and pest infestation, land use and land cover mapping, flood monitoring, and water resource management. Literature suggests that the use of remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS) in agriculture has been increasing rapidly over the past few decades due to advancement of digital technologies that have leveraged GIS as a vital alliance technology for evaluating crops, soils, and their environments. In this chapter, we discussed various analyses and methodologies involved in using remotely sensed satellite data for management of agriculture resources. Based on the scientific literature, it can be concluded that geospatial techniques have been effectively utilized for digital mapping of agricultural resources and play a crucial role in ensuring sustainable agricultural production. It has been observed that multispectral satellite sensors are preferably used in mapping and monitoring of agricultural resources because of their low cost but have limited application, which is linked with their low spatial and spectral resolution. However, hyperspectral satellite sensors with fine spatial and spectral resolution allow more promising results with greater accuracy and provide exceptional abilities to address enormous challenges associated with regular monitoring and mapping of agricultural resources at large areas. This book chapter will be helpful to develop cost-effective and accurate monitoring solutions for agriculture resource management at fine spatial resolution for decision making especially in land use issues in agriculture crop production.

### **Acknowledgements**

We acknowledge the funding provided by Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan for the establishment of Agricultural Remote Sensing Lab at University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. We also acknowledge the support of Vice Chancellor, UAF, for providing us with infrastructure facilities at University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.

### **Conflict of interest**

All the authors and co-authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

*Application of Geospatial Techniques in Agricultural Resource Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112222*

#### **Author details**

Syeda Mishal Zahra1,2,3, Muhammad Adnan Shahid1,2, Zahid Maqbool1 \*, Rehan Mahmood Sabir1,2, Muhammad Safdar1,2, Muhammad Danish Majeed1,2 and Aneela Sarwar4

1 Agricultural Remote Sensing Lab (ARSL), National Center for GIS and Space Applications, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

2 Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

3 International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Lahore, Pakistan

4 Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

\*Address all correspondence to: zahid.maqbool@uaf.edu.pk

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### *Edited by Muhammad Sultan, Muhammad Imran and Fiaz Ahmad*

This edited volume *Irrigation Systems and Applications* will introduce the reader to new irrigation technology and its diverse applications in modern farming. This work is organized into two distinct sections on "Irrigation Systems" and "Irrigation Applications" each offering a unique view into the potential of smart farming practices. From the deployment of hybrid energy-powered systems for smallholder farmers to the revolutionary impact of advanced micro-irrigation techniques, this book presents the reader with the latest trends and innovations in sustainable agriculture. Explore the evolution of rice production in the face of climate change, the enhanced productivity achievable through hydroponics, and the application of geospatial techniques in agricultural resource management. Smallholder irrigation for climate mitigation and cacao performance improvement in rainforest tropics and the quest for maximizing rice farming yields while minimizing water usage to sustain a hungry planet are also presented in this volume. With a focus on practical solutions and forward-thinking approaches, this book takes you through the essential facets of irrigation, providing valuable insights for researchers, students, and professionals alike. The book will help you understand irrigation's pivotal role in shaping the future of global agriculture. *Irrigation Systems and Applications* is not just a book; it is a gateway to a greener, more resilient tomorrow in agriculture.

### *W. James Grichar, Agricultural Sciences Series Editor*

Published in London, UK © 2024 IntechOpen © Irena Carpaccio / unsplash

Irrigation Systems and Applications

IntechOpen Series

Agricultural Sciences, Volume 6

Irrigation Systems

and Applications

*Edited by Muhammad Sultan,* 

*Muhammad Imran and Fiaz Ahmad*