Palm Oil Sustainability

### **Chapter 3**

## Utilizing Waste Derived from *Elaeis guineensis* (African Oil Palm) for Partial Cement Replacement in Stabilizing Compressed Earth Blocks

*Adeola Sarah Ajayi*

### **Abstract**

The increasing demand for sustainable construction practices necessitates innovative approaches to reduce the environmental impact of conventional building materials like cement. African oil palm waste, abundant in palm-producing regions, represents a promising alternative material. This research explores the feasibility of utilizing waste materials derived from *Elaeis guineensis* (African oil palm) as a partial cement replacement in the stabilization of compressed earth blocks (CEBs). This study involves the collection and preparation of shells from oil palm waste for use in compressed earth block (CEB) production. Various proportions of these waste materials are mixed with conventional soil and cement to assess their impact on CEB properties. Compressive strength, durability, and environmental considerations are key parameters evaluated in this investigation. Preliminary findings suggest that incorporating oil palm waste in CEBs can enhance their compressive strength and reduce the carbon footprint associated with cement production. Moreover, this approach has the potential to address waste management issues in palm oil-producing regions while promoting sustainable construction practices. The research contributes to the development of eco-friendly building materials and aligns with global efforts to mitigate the environmental impact of the construction industry.

**Keywords:** *Elaeis guineensis*, African oil palm waste, cement replacement, compressed stabilized earth blocks, sustainable construction, waste utilization, environmental sustainability

### **1. Introduction**

In the pursuit of sustainable and environmentally conscious construction practices, researchers and practitioners have increasingly turned their attention to innovative solutions that minimize resource depletion and waste generation. This chapter delves into a promising avenue within this realm by investigating the potential utilization of

waste derived from *Elaeis guineensis*, commonly known as the African oil palm. The focus here lies in its application as a partial replacement for cement in the stabilization of compressed earth blocks (CEBs). This approach holds the promise of addressing two critical concerns simultaneously: the responsible disposal of agricultural waste and the enhancement of earth-based construction techniques.

The urgency of sustainable construction practices cannot be overstated. Traditional building methods often rely heavily on resource-intensive materials such as cement, contributing significantly to carbon emissions and depleting finite natural resources. In this context, exploring alternative materials that not only curtail these detrimental impacts but also harness agricultural waste is of paramount importance. *Elaeis guineensis*, a tree widely cultivated in various tropical regions for its oil-rich fruit, has emerged as a focal point for such exploration.

The utilization of waste derived from *Elaeis guineensis* presents a unique opportunity to transform a potential environmental burden into a valuable resource. The African oil palm industry generates substantial quantities of waste, including empty fruit bunches, palm kernel shells, and fibers. These by-products, if not managed properly, can contribute to pollution and environmental degradation. However, they also possess characteristics that make them potentially suitable for various applications, including construction materials.

Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs) offer a sustainable and low-carbon alternative to conventional bricks or concrete blocks. By stabilizing the soil with cement, lime, or other binders, CEBs provide durability and strength while minimizing the need for resource-intensive materials. This chapter investigates the viability of incorporating waste from *Elaeis guineensis* into the binder matrix of CEBs, thus serving a dual purpose of enhancing the blocks' properties and diverting agricultural waste from landfills or open burning.

The multifaceted benefits of this approach extend beyond waste management and resource conservation. The use of agricultural waste in construction materials can contribute to rural economic development by creating new markets for these materials and promoting sustainable practices within the agricultural sector. Additionally, by reducing the reliance on cement, which is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions during its production, this innovative solution aligns with global efforts to mitigate climate change.

As we delve deeper into this chapter, we will explore the mechanical and environmental aspects of incorporating *Elaeis guineensis* waste into CEBs. Through a combination of experimental analysis and theoretical considerations, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the potential advantages, challenges, and considerations associated with this sustainable construction approach. By shedding light on the practicality and effectiveness of utilizing waste from the African oil palm in earth-based construction, we hope to contribute to the ongoing dialog surrounding environmentally conscious building practices and inspire further research and adoption of innovative solutions in the field.

### **2. African oil palm and its waste**

Approximately three decades ago, the global production of oil palm experienced a nearly threefold increase. By the period of 2009–2010, the anticipated worldwide output of palm oil was projected to reach 45.1 million tons. Notably, Malaysia and Indonesia collectively contributed 85% to this production, each yielding more than

*Utilizing Waste Derived from* Elaeis guineensis *(African Oil Palm) for Partial Cement… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113281*

18 million tons. A report from the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN ESCAP) identified Indonesia and Malaysia as the principal contributors to the substantial presence of oil palm residues in Southeast Asian nations.

The extraction of oil from fresh fruit bunches leads to the generation of liquid and solid by-products, including fiber, shell, and seepage. Consequently, issues pertaining to pollution of the air, rivers, oceans, and groundwater have escalated due to the disposal of these waste materials. The responsible and effective management of agricultural by-products becomes imperative for the advancement of sustainable practices.

To mitigate environmental pollution stemming from oil palm cultivation, the principle of the "zero waste policy" must be extended to by-products. This entails utilizing empty fruit fibers for fuel and employing the ash as fertilizer. Historically, waste derived from the shells of African Oil Palm, more commonly known as Palm Kernel Shells (PKS), has been inadequately managed and often discarded near mills. Research indicates that PKS aggregates possess an abrasion value of approximately 4.8%, along with significantly lower impact and crushing values compared to conventional crushed stone aggregates. Consequently, PKS exhibits potential as a construction by-product.

Recent developments have seen the incorporation of palm kernel shells in the construction of access roads for oil palm mills. However, there is a paucity of published reports regarding their performance. Palm Kernel Shells (PKS) are acquired through the crushing or threshing of palm fruit to extract palm seeds subsequent to palm kernel oil extraction. Significant volumes of palm kernel shells are produced in Ondo State and Edo State, Nigeria, with moderate quantities available in other regions, particularly in the South.

Due to their inherent hardness, PKS demonstrates resilience once integrated into concrete, thereby minimizing the release of contaminants or toxic substances. Furthermore, PKS obviates the need for the processing of artificial aggregates or industrial by-products before their application, a distinction from certain artificially manufactured aggregates and industrial by-products.

The process of oil extraction at the mill industry generates both liquid wastes and solid residues. The endocarps of palm kernel shells (PKS), due to their sturdiness and hardness, fulfill the role of safeguarding palm kernels, which exhibit considerable variation in size and shape. With their natural lightweight characteristics, these shells offer a potential alternative for coarse aggregates in lightweight construction applications. Their intrinsic hardness and organic composition render them suitable for integration into concrete production, and their matrix-like structure minimizes the likelihood of contaminant release or formation of harmful substances. Notably, PKSbased lightweight concrete presents advantages over aerated concrete, as it exhibits lower permeability and reduced susceptibility to carbonation.

Palm kernel shells display an irregular shape after cracking, lacking a distinct and uniform definition. The cracks on the shells exhibit a range of forms, including semi-circular, parabolic, uneven, and flaking. While the overall contour of the shell demonstrates convex and concave features, the edges become coarse and spiky upon cracking. The thickness of the shell is found to vary, contingent upon the originating species, typically falling within the range of 2 to 3 millimeters.

Numerous studies have incorporated PKS as aggregate in concrete production, resulting in notable transformations in lightweight concrete (LWC) structures. Notably resilient, the shells resist deterioration even after being submerged for

24 hours, with water absorption capacity increasing by 21 to 33%. In comparison with conventional gravel aggregates, PKS displays higher water absorption capabilities. When incorporated into an accurately formulated mix design, PKS can effectively enhance the properties of concrete with an average strength of 20 to 30 MPa. In contrast, limited research has explored the potential of PKS for masonry purposes, particularly as bricks.

Over time, the construction of sustainable housing in numerous developing countries has frequently relied on clay mud. This housing approach is particularly favored by individuals with moderate to low incomes. The current landscape of housing development poses a significant challenge due to the substantial financial investments it demands. Additionally, when considering environmental factors, the feasibility of utilizing industrial waste in infrastructure development becomes apparent, given that these materials adhere to established standards and specifications. Efforts are being directed toward identifying alternative applications for industrial by-products, rather than allowing them to decay unused. The exploration of environmentally friendly material recycling and energy conservation has gained prominence in recent decades. Conversely, the surge in environmental regulations has heightened the demand for ecofriendly materials within the construction sector. A continuous investigation is imperative to ascertain the potential of palm kernel shells (PKS) for the production of masonry blocks. It is viable to partially replace traditional aggregates with PKS in the creation of sand-concrete blocks.

Wastes originating from the oil palm industry are often discarded without any profitable utilization, resulting in adverse environmental impacts. PKS encompasses particles of varying sizes: 0–5 mm, 5–10 mm, and 10–15 mm. In addition to posing challenges for disposal and waste management, these shells lack commercial value. The integration of palm kernel shells into construction practices is not prevalent in Ghana; local blacksmiths employ them as fuel, and they can serve as fillers or palliatives.

### **2.1 Applications of palm kernel shells**

Various palm species, such as Dura, Pisifera, and Tenera, exhibit distinctions in their shells, fibrous oily components, and fruits primarily attributed to differences in thickness. Specifically, the Dura type is characterized by a slim fibrous component and an extensively thick shell. In contrast, the Pisifera variety typically possesses a minute shell or none at all, largely due to its fibrous nature, resulting in limited or negligible kernel production. The Tenera species combines attributes of both Dura and Pisifera, featuring a moderately thick shell and a medium-sized fiber component.

Palm kernel shells are put to the following uses:


*Utilizing Waste Derived from* Elaeis guineensis *(African Oil Palm) for Partial Cement… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113281*

v.In some areas, utilized to fill potholes within muddy terrain.

vi.Possibility of generating pre-stressed concrete through lightweight aggregates derived from shells, offering valuable thermal insulation.

### **3. Incorporating African oil palm shell ash (palm kernel shell ash) for earth block stabilization**

Compressed earth blocks (CEBs), commonly referred to as compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEBs), encompass compact brick elements with well-defined properties, obtained by compacting soil within a wet mold and promptly demolding. The cohesion of CEBs is influenced by the clay content within the soil. CSEBs, a refined variant of CEBs, are augmented through the inclusion of additives. As CEBs are sensitive to water, additives are introduced to counteract this effect. These additives not only address color and shrinkage cracks but can also modify other attributes. Additionally, CSEBs can be known as stabilized soil blocks (SSBs), Stabiblocs, Terracretes, Soilcretes, or Pressed Soil Blocks (PSBs).

Modern CSEBs evolved from molded soil blocks, also known as adobe blocks. Initial iterations of CSEBs employed wooden tamps, elevating the quality of molded earth blocks. Although the concept of enhancing strength through soil compression is not novel, the development of motor-driven, mechanical, and manual compactors in the 1970s and 1980s facilitated the emergence of the compressed earth block industry. Earth is the oldest building material, yet its popularity waned with the advent of modern construction materials and techniques until the energy crisis prompted its resurgence. Growing environmental concerns have further spurred the utilization of soil as a global building material.

CSEBs offer numerous advantages over alternative building materials [1]:

	- ix.Adaptability to diverse technical, esthetic, cultural, and social needs.

x.Transferable technology that is easy to learn and requires semi-skilled labor.

xi.Job creation, especially for less skilled and unemployed individuals.

xii.Market viability, often cheaper than fired bricks, dependent on local context.

xiii.Reduction in imports, owing to local production and unskilled labor utilization.

xiv.Flexible production scales, spanning from manual to motorized tools.

xv.Cost-effectiveness, stemming from local production and minimal transport.

Earth remains a primary building method in many developing countries, being easily accessible, cost-effective, and suitable for unskilled individuals. Its high thermal insulation, fire resistance, and thermal comfort contribute to its appeal. Earth-based construction methods, such as adobe blocks and wattle and daub, have been used for centuries. Moreover, compressed earth, a blend of soil and stabilizers compacted under high pressure, enhances performance and strength, despite the inherent heavy and weak properties of soil.

Durability challenges persist in earthen houses, prompting suggestions from past researchers for enhancing the strength and durability of earth raw materials. Strategies include using stabilizers, appropriate architectural design, reinforcing with bonding mortar, and applying protective plaster or render. While rendering, paint, or plaster can shield a compressed earth block or housing wall from external threats, their cost and disparities in expansion rates between these materials and soil blocks pose limitations.

### **4. Methodology (laboratory preparation and results)**

Palm kernel shells were dried in sunlight and burnt following BS specifications. Two types of blocks, Control Mix Block (CMB) and Cement-PKSA Block (CPB), were produced using lateritic soil. The variables included cement-PKSA ratio, compaction pressure, and curing conditions. CMB was stabilized with 10% cement, while CPB was prepared with mix ratios of 8:2, 6:4, 4:6, and 2:8 (Cement: PKSA). Compaction pressures of 6 and 10 MPa were applied to create 66 CMB and 528 CPB of dimensions 100 x 100 x 100 mm. The blocks underwent curing at 100% humidity followed by 28 days of secondary curing. Wet and Dry Compressive Strength tests (WCS and DCS) were conducted according to BS standards. The influence of mix hold-back times (5, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes) on compressive strength was examined. Block Dry Density (BDD) and Total Water Absorption (TWA) were also determined as per BS specifications. The data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA at α0.05.

For CMB at 6 MPa, WCS was 8.99 MPa, while CPB values were 9.84, 7.51, 5.29, and 3.21 MPa for mix ratios of 8:2, 6:4, 4:6, and 2:8, respectively. At 10 MPa, CPB exhibited values of 10.11, 8.41, 6.72, and 5.76 MPa, respectively. DCS values at 6 MPa for mix ratios of 8:2, 6:4, 4:6, and 2:8 were 11.79, 9.66, 7.33, and 4.61 MPa, respectively. These surpassed the recommended standards of 3.00 and 4.12 MPa for WCS and DCS, respectively. An inverse relationship was noted between WCS and hold-back time; WCS values were 5.28, 5.13, 4.41, 2.59, and 2.07 MPa for hold-back times of 5, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes, respectively. BDD for CMB and CPB at 6 MPa was

2128 ± 0.33 kg/m3 and 2132 ± 0.095 kg/m3 , respectively, and 2127 ± 0.01 kg/m3 at 10 MPa, meeting the required 2000 kg/m3 standard. TWA was 7.5% for CMB and 7.0% for CPB, both within the 12% standard. A 44% TWA decrease and 2.3% density increase were achieved with variations in cement content from 2 to 8%. The correlation coefficient and P-values were significant, indicating a positive relationship between BDD and WCS, and a negative relationship between TWA and BDD for both CMB and CPB.

Thus, palm kernel shell ash proves suitable as a partial cement replacement for producing compressed stabilized earth blocks.

### **5. Waste to wealth opportunity**

Throughout history, waste derived from agricultural and industrial activities has led to challenges related to waste management and environmental contamination. Nonetheless, the construction industry has the potential to harness the practical and cost-effective advantages offered by these agricultural and industrial waste materials [2]. These waste materials, often available locally and lacking commercial value, result in minimized transportation expenses [3]. Particularly in the realm of economical construction, agricultural waste materials can offer advantages over conventional alternatives. By incorporating waste materials into construction processes, the conservation of natural resources and environmental safeguards are promoted. Despite the considerable difficulties associated with the disposal and handling of industrial and agricultural waste, their utilization not only safeguards resources but also contributes to environmental preservation and reduces construction expenditures. This approach becomes viable due to the availability of waste materials at negligible or no cost, resulting in substantial contributions to the conservation of natural resources and the ecological equilibrium.

Given the substantial presence and volume of waste products worldwide, environmental risks and disposal challenges have come to the forefront. Nigeria's "Waste to Wealth policy" provides a framework for treating waste materials and subsequently utilizing them to enhance or stabilize soils with suboptimal geotechnical properties, particularly expansive soils. Many of these materials are sourced locally from traditional industrial and agricultural waste, including Palm Kernel Shell Ash (PKSA), maize cobs, Saw Dust Ash (SDA), coconut shell ash, rice husk, Locust beans ash, and Cocoa Pod ash. Typically, these materials originate from milling facilities, thermal power plants, and waste management installations [4–6].

Scientific exploration has delved into the feasibility of integrating agricultural waste materials into both building construction and civil engineering projects. Additionally, within the realm of oil palm manufacturing, specific waste products warrant consideration. One such by-product is Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA), which emerges from palm fruit residues derived from oil palm trees. The oil palm industry utilizes fresh fruit bunches as its primary raw material, yet the processing of these bunches generates substantial waste, including empty fruit bunches, shells, and fibers. Following the extraction of oil from the palm fruit bunches, roughly 70% of raw waste is produced. This waste can be classified into three categories: fruit-kernel shells, fiber husks, and gels. Notably, kernel shells and fiber husks are burned as fuel in oil palm mills, generating energy within the temperature range of 450 to 600 degrees Celsius. Subsequent to combustion, approximately 15% of solid waste materializes as oil palm fuel ash and palm kernel shell ash. The ash's color varies from light to dark gray shades, contingent on its carbon content, with uniformity achieved through

pulverization. Notably, there have been endeavors to substitute fine aggregate with palm kernel shell ash, often employing palm oil fuel ash as an admixture due to the pozzolanic properties of palm kernel shell ash when combined with cement.

### **6. Conclusion**

In the pursuit of advancing sustainable construction practices, the exploration of unconventional materials and innovative techniques emerges as a pivotal avenue for shaping the trajectory of the built environment. This chapter has undertaken a meticulous examination of the feasibility and potential merits associated with utilizing waste sourced from *Elaeis guineensis*, or the African oil palm, as a partial cement substitute within the context of compressed earth block stabilization. Through an intricate dissection of the benefits, challenges, and practical implications inherent in this approach, it becomes discernible that this novel methodology holds substantial promise for significantly influencing sustainable construction practices.

The amalgamation of *Elaeis guineensis* waste into the stabilization process of compressed earth blocks embodies a dual-purpose solution: It effectively addresses the imperative matter of waste management in the palm oil production industry while concurrently augmenting the mechanical and thermal attributes of the resultant construction blocks. This symbiotic synergy encapsulates the core ethos of sustainability by mitigating environmental impact while concurrently enhancing structural integrity. The comprehensive examination spanning scientific, engineering, and pragmatic domains demonstrates a compelling pathway toward a more ecologically conscious and resource-efficient paradigm in the construction domain.

Concluding this discourse, it emerges that the utilization of *Elaeis guineensis* waste as a partial cement replacement within compressed earth block stabilization represents not a singular panacea but rather a fragment within a broader panorama. It epitomizes the convergence of diverse disciplines encompassing agricultural practices, waste management protocols, material science intricacies, and construction engineering methodologies, all coalescing toward the common aspiration of sustainable progress. The success intrinsic to this innovative approach resides not solely in the confines of laboratory innovation but equally in the successful transposition of these innovations to real-world contexts, where their true potential is effectively harnessed.

Ultimately, the integration of waste materials from *Elaeis guineensis* into the process of stabilizing compressed earth blocks highlights the effectiveness of working across different fields, innovative thinking, and careful planning. By adopting this new method and understanding its core ideas, the construction industry is ready for a significant change. This change represents a shift where environmental challenges are reduced, the ability to withstand challenges is strengthened, and the overall structure of the built environment aligns with the principles of sustainability. This transformation benefits both the current generation and those to come.

*Utilizing Waste Derived from* Elaeis guineensis *(African Oil Palm) for Partial Cement… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113281*

### **Author details**

Adeola Sarah Ajayi Department of Architecture, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: ayangadeanthonia@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Riza FV, Rahman IA, Ahmad Zaidi AM. A brief review of compressed stabilised earth blocks. In: International Conference on Science and Social Research (CSSR). Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur; 2010. pp. 999-1004

[2] Chandra S, Berntsson L. Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Science Technology Application. New York: Noyes Publication; 2002. pp. 231-240

[3] Abdul-Rahman H. Some observations on the issue of quality cost in construction. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management. 1997;**14**(5):464-481

[4] Bheel N, Mangi S, Lal S. Coconut Shell ash as cementitious material in concrete: A review. Jurnal Kejuruteraan. 2021;**33**:27-38

[5] Ikeagwuani CC, Obeta IN, Agunwamba JC. Stabilization of black cotton soil subgrade using sawdust ash and lime. Soils and Foundations. 2019;**59**(1):162-175

[6] Zaid O, Ahmad J, Siddique MS, Aslam F. Effect of incorporation of Rice husk ash instead of cement on the performance of steel fibers reinforced concrete. Frontiers in Materials. 2021;**8**:66562, 1-66514

### **Chapter 4**

## Congo: The Next Frontier for the Palm Oil Industry

*Mpoko Bokanga*

### **Abstract**

The oil palm (*Elaeis guineensis* Jacq.) originated in West and Central Africa. Some of the earliest scientific breakthroughs that led to the development of the palm oil industry were made in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, earlier known as the Belgian Congo); these include the elucidation of the genetics of the kernel shell thickness and the identification of the basic engineering principles for palm oil extraction. In the past 50 years, Indonesia and Malaysia rapidly expanded palm oil production to account today for over 80% of the world palm oil supply. This accelerated development has significantly contributed to the socioeconomic development of those two countries, but has raised concerns regarding environmental sustainability. Current level of knowledge makes it possible to mitigate the negative impact of palm oil on the environment and to achieve Net-Zero Emission targets. The palm oil industry has proven its ability to lift millions of people out of poverty. With plentiful suitable land, diverse oil palm genetic resources, abundant labor, large palm oil local and regional markets, and commitment to sustainable palm oil sector, the DRC should become the next frontier for palm oil and chart the course for responsible development of a palm oil industry that contributes to human prosperity, social progress, and environmental protection.

**Keywords:** *Elaeis guineensis*, palm oil, sustainability, net-zero emissions, Democratic Republic of Congo

### **1. Introduction**

The oil palm (*Elaeis guineensis* Jacq.) originated in the rain forest of West and Central Africa but is now commercially grown throughout the tropical belt, with a high concentration in Southeast Asia. It arrived in South America in the 16th century but did not reach Asia until the middle of the 19th century [1]. It is in Southeast Asia that, in the second half of the 20th century, the growing of oil palm on a commercial scale for oil production developed rapidly; Indonesia and Malaysia today produce 87% of the global output of palm oil. In just fifty years, between 1970 and 2020, the world combined production of oil from the oil palm increased over 37-fold, from 2.31 million metric tons in 1970 to 87.32 million metric tons in 2020. The market share of palm oil relative to the other vegetable oils grew from 17% in 1970 to 42% in 2020 [2].

Palm oil is today found in nearly 60% of all packaged products in supermarkets because of its versatility and low cost relative to the other vegetable oils. In its refined form, palm oil is used as an ingredient in a wide range of foods, such as margarine, confectionery, chocolate, ice cream and bakery products where it contributes taste and texture [3]. Palm oil is also used in a variety of non-food applications including soaps and detergents, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels. Due to its versatility, and because the oil palm produces about ten times more oil per hectare of land than any other oilseed crop, demand for palm oil will continue to rise in the foreseeable future. The global palm oil market size, which was valued at USD 62.94 billion in 2021, is projected to reach USD 99.41 billion by 2030, a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.21% for the period [4]. According to Afriyanti et al. [5], the world demand for cooking oil and biodiesel by 2050 could rise to between 264–447 million metric tons of which Indonesia could provide 39–60%. Other palm oil producing countries are expected to fill the remaining gap.

The rapid expansion of the palm oil industry, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia, has generated mixed results; while it has been associated with perceived negative social and environmental impacts, it has led to positive benefits, including large fiscal revenues for producing countries and significant regular income streams that have taken out of poverty millions of smallholder growers involved in oil palm cultivation [6, 7].

In the past ten years, countries in South America have been rapidly expanding their acreage under oil palm while avoiding deforestation and guided by roundtable certification programs [8, 9]. With the current body of knowledge, plans are being developed to enable continued expansion of oil palm cultivation up to the year 2050 in Indonesia and Malaysia without deforestation and on peat-free land [4, 10, 11].

This chapter submits that the next frontier for the growth of the palm oil industry is in Africa, and particularly in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) where abundance of land, unique and diverse oil palm genetic resources, suitable weather, cheap labor, access to a large consumer base make it possible for this country to become a significant contributor to meeting the growing demand for palm oil. This can be achieved while contributing to the global effort of achieving the Net-Zero Emissions target [12–14]. The chapter gives a brief history of palm oil production and trade, describes the early discoveries made in Congo that led to the establishment of the palm oil industry in the world, and discusses lessons learned from the expansion of palm oil in Asia and Latin America that could be utilized to chart the course of a new development of the palm oil industry in a way that contributes to human prosperity, social progress and environmental protection.

### **2. Brief history of palm oil**

The rain forest of West and Central Africa is the center of origin of the oil palm (*Elaeis guineensis*). Its fruits were taken to other parts of the world between the 14th and 19th centuries. Palm oil (PO), extracted from the mesocarp of the oil palm fruit, and palm kernel oil (PKO) that is expressed from the fruit endocarp inside the kernel have been used for food, cosmetic and therapeutic applications in Africa for thousands of years. Wild and semi-wild groves of oil palm are found in the humid belt of Africa, from the coastal areas of West Africa to the Congo basin in Central Africa [1].

### *Congo: The Next Frontier for the Palm Oil Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114010*

There is archaeological evidence that palm oil was taken to as far as Egypt since a mass of several kilograms of it was found in the excavation of an early tomb dated to 3000 B.C. [15]. It is at the beginning of the 20th century that commercial scale planting of oil palm started mainly to supply the production of soap and margarine in Europe [16]. In 1911, Sir William Leverhulme, founder of the Lever Brothers company, arrived in Congo with an authorization from the Belgian Minister of Colonies to develop the palm oil business with access to a concession of about 750,000 ha [17]. The company he founded, *Huileries du Congo Belge (HCB)*, is still in operation in the palm oil business today, although under a different name, *Plantations et Huileries du Congo (PHC)*. Such a large concession was given to Leverhulme with a mandate to study the rational utilization of wild palm groves and find the technical basis for establishing plantations; to study the extraction methods for palm oil and the handling of palm kernels; to study appropriate transport and storage methods for palm products and to identify markets and industrial outlets for palm products [18]. In 1910, Congo exported 2160 tons of palm oil and 6140 tons of palm kernels. By 1957, the volume of export of palm oil had grown to 150,000 tons [19].

In Indonesia, the first commercial scale planting of oil palm is said to have been introduced by Adrien Hallet [20], a Belgian national who acquired the knowledge of planting oil palm in Congo [18, 21]. In 1911, Hallet established a plantation in Sumatra using seedlings obtained from the Buitenzorg (now Bogor) Botanical Garden. In Malaysia, Henri Fauconnier is credited with starting the first true oil palm plantation in 1917 at Tennamaran Estate in Batang Berjuntai, Selangor [22]. In the 1960s, the Malaysian government promoted the cultivation of oil palm through the agricultural diversification programme to reduce the country's dependence on rubber and tin, and to alleviate rural poverty [23]. The palm oil industry in Malaysia is credited with consistently contributing toward poverty eradication and narrowing the income gap between rural and urban residents [24, 25]. Palm oil has been shown to contribute to the sustainable development goals (SDG) more than any other vegetable oil [26].

In 2022/2023, global production of palm oil was estimated at 76 million metric tons, a 4% increase over the 73 million produced in 2020/2021 [27]. Although world trade of palm oil started with production from Africa in the late 19th century, today Indonesia and Malaysia account for over 83% of the total production while the African production has been reduced to a mere 4% [28].

### **3. Early days of the palm oil trade**

In Africa, wild or semi-wild groves of oil palm have been used for thousands of years to produce oil for food, cosmetic and therapeutic uses [16]. There is archeological evidence that palm oil was traded as early as 3000 years ago, as several kilograms of it were found inside an ancient tomb in Egypt [1, 15]. Palm oil is reported to have been exported from West Africa to England as early as in 1790 [1]. But it is in the 1850s that the trade of palm oil between Africa and Europe developed, mainly to support the production of soap in England [29]. By 1870, up to 30,000 metric tons of palm oil extracted from the fruits of oil palms growing in wild and semi-wild groves were being exported to England from British colonies in West Africa. Palm kernels were also being exported in even larger quantities [30] for use in soap manufacturing and candle making. Palm kernel oil was preferred in those applications because the lather produced from it was more satisfying, and the candles were odorless upon burning. Palm oil was also perfectly suited to use as an industrial lubricant, for oiling engine parts and in tinplate production [29].

In Congo, export of palm oil and palm kernel started in the 19th century. In 1910, it was recorded that 2160 tons of palm oil and 6140 tons of palm kernel were exported to Europe, mainly England for the oil and Germany for the kernel [19, 31]. By 1960, the export of palm oil had risen to 167,000 tons, making palm oil export from Congo second only to Nigeria and ahead of Malaysia and Indonesia [18, 19]. While Congo produced 224,000 tons of palm oil in 1961, Malaysia and Indonesia produced 94,846 tons and 145,700 tons respectively. Sixty years later, Congo's production was stagnating at 300,000 tons, while Malaysia's and Indonesia's production had exponentially grown to 19.1 million tons and 44.8 million tons respectively. The next section shows that the technological bases of the palm oil industry were laid in Congo. However, those innovations did not benefit Congo or African producing countries. Instead, cooperation and competition between two different clusters in former colonial territories in Africa and Asia enabled the rise of palm oil as a global commodity in Indonesia and Malaysia [29].

### **4. Technological foundations of the oil palm industry**

### **4.1 Genetic control of the** *Tenera* **phenotype**

Some of the earliest scientific breakthroughs that led to the development of the palm oil industry were made in the Democratic Republic of Congo (earlier known as the Belgian Congo). These include the elucidation of the genetic basis of an important trait in *Elaeis guineensis*: kernel shell thickness. Fruits of the oil palm have kernels that may have a thick shell, a thin shell or no shell at all. Oil palm geneticists have called the palms with large kernel and thick shell the *Dura* form, the ones with small kernel and thin shell are called the *Tenera* form and, the palms without kernel shell are the *Pisifera* form [1]. Fruits of palms of the *Tenera* form contain more oil than those of the *Dura* form since in the *Tenera* form, the mesocarp represents 55–96% of the fruit, while the mesocarp in the Dura form only represents 35–65% of the fruit.

Genetic studies undertaken in the 1930s at the INEAC (*Institut d'Etudes Agronomiques du Congo*) research station located at Yagambi, DRC by Beirnaert and Vanderweyen [32] revealed that the kernel shell thickness was controlled by a single gene with two codominant alleles. The genome of palms of the *Dura* form carries two *sh+* alleles, while palms of the *Pisifera* type carries two *sh-* alleles. The *Tenera* form was identified as a hybrid between the Dura and Pisifera forms as it carries one *sh+* allele and one *sh-* allele. As early as 1946, Vanderweyen was able to demonstrate that by crossing *Dura* and *Pisifera* forms (called DxP cross), one could obtain 100% *Tenera* progenies [33, 34]. Crosses between two *Tenera* gave progenies that segregated according to Mendel's heredity law into 25% *Dura* form, 25% *Pisifera* form and 50% *Tenera* form. This was called the "Congo theory" and it was later confirmed in Nigeria [35] and in Malaysia [36]. The DxP cross has become the norm today for producing *Tenera* seedlings for planting in all commercial oil palm plantations and constitute an important basis for the genetic improvement of oil palm productivity [37].

### **4.2 Engineering principles of palm oil extraction**

Another scientific achievement that greatly contributed to the growth of the palm oil industry and trade was the establishment of the basic engineering principles of the palm oil extraction process that were published in 1955 in the Mongana Report [38]. The Association of producers and exporters of oil palm of Belgian Congo, known

under their French acronym CONGOPALM, set up a pilot plant at Mongana in DRC to investigate in detail the scientific, engineering and technoeconomic principles of processing oil palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB) into industrial grade palm oil. Their investigations were conducted between 1952 and 1955. Their findings were published in what is known today by all palm oil mill engineers as the "Mongana Report" [38, 39]. Over sixty years after it was published, the Mongana report continues to guide the design and operation of palm oil mills around the world [40].

### **5. Growth of the palm oil industry**

In the second half of the 20th century, the development of the palm oil industry received a very strong impetus, mainly from Malaysia and Indonesia. Between 1960 and 2010, global palm oil production has almost doubled every ten years, thanks to the output from these two countries [41]. Such an achievement does not come about by chance. In 1956, the Malaysian government established the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) with the objective of poverty eradication through the cultivation of oil palm and rubber [42, 43]. The authority oversaw land development and allocation to settlers, facilitating access to finance by planters, as well as implementing downstream projects covering the entire crop value chain and generating its own income through a variety of businesses and corporate entities such as the FELDA Holding Berhad, Felda Plantation Sdn Bhd and Felda Global Ventures (FGV).

In Indonesia, between 1967 and 1997, palm oil production increased 20-fold [44]. Although support to plantation agriculture was included in Indonesia's development plans since the 1950s, it is only in the late 1970s that sustained efforts were applied with the Nucleus Estate Scheme (NES) (*Perkebunan Inti Rakyat*; PIR), whereby state-owned plantation companies (the 'nucleus') helped smallholder farmers (namely plasma farmers) to grow oil palm [45]. Support to the palm oil industry came in three phases. First there was direct involvement of the government with state-owned companies having access to land and to institutional support. The scheme was implemented at the same time as a transmigration program. The state-owned nucleus estate held 20% of the land, while the relocated smallholders were allocated 80% of the land and received technical assistance from the nucleus estate. This so-called PIR-trans phase lasted from 1986 to 1994. In the second phase called KKPA (*Koperasi Kredit Primer untuk Anggota*; Primary Cooperative Credit for Members) between 1995 and 1998, the door was opened to foreign direct investment in large scale plantations but following the private-community partnership model tested in the PIR-Trans phase. After 1998, the Indonesian government shifted to a liberalization policy based on decentralization and encouraging public–private partnerships between market actors and the government, and social–private partnerships between market actors and smallholder communities but following a market-driven model [45]. Between 1970 and 2000, Malaysia and Indonesia have experienced economic growth and structural changes that have brought with them rural poverty reduction and improved living standards, all linked to, among other things, the growth of the palm oil industry [46, 47].

While the palm oil industry was growing and contributing to social and economic development of Malaysia and Indonesia, technical collaboration on oil palm plantation technology was on-going between palm oil producing countries of Southeast Asia and Africa [29, 48]. Several private companies were involved in the oil palm business in both clusters of producing countries. The main difference was government policies and support. In Congo, for instance, the government of the then Republic

of Zaire nationalized all foreign owned businesses, including farms and plantations [49]. Nationalized businesses were handed over to local citizens to manage. Many of them, including oil palm plantations collapsed and never recovered. Fifty years later, the missed opportunities have become evident to policy makers and to potential investors. In April 2023, the government of the DRC established the *Conseil consultatif présidentiel pour le pacte national de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation* (CCP-PNAA; Presidential Consulative Counci for the Food and Agriculture National Compact) which will be tasked with, among other things, designing and recommending policies to facilitate private investments in agriculture [50].

### **6. Opportunities for the DR Congo**

### **6.1 Increasing demand for vegetable oils**

The global vegetable oil market is expected to grow in value at over 7% per year from USD 318 billion in 2022 to reach USD 791 billion by 2031, with the palm oil segment being the biggest contributor to this growth [4]. Demand for vegetable oils over the past two decades has been driven by a combination of population growth, changing dietary patterns, economic development, and evolving consumer preferences. The specific trends and types of vegetable oils in demand may vary by region and market, but overall, this increase in demand has made vegetable oils a crucial component of modern diets and industries, and is expected to continue.

Palm oil has evolved to become one of the most widely consumed and traded vegetable oils globally, with its demand driven by its cost efficiency, versatility, and suitability for a wide range of products and applications. It is estimated that more than half of all packaged products consumed in the USA, including lipstick, soaps, detergents and even ice cream, contain palm oil [51]. The market share of palm oil compared to the other vegetable oils has steadily grown from 13.6% in 1961 to 36.5% in 2020 [2]. Palm oil is now the most traded vegetable oil in the world. The very high productivity of oil palm in terms of quantity of oil produced per hectare of land, which is five to ten times the productivity of other oilseed crops, gives palm oil a major role in meeting the demand for vegetable oil while maintaining a low ecological footprint. Environmental concerns have been raised regarding the rapid expansion of oil palm cultivation in Malaysia and Indonesia [52, 53]. While these countries are taking steps to address those issues, other palm oil producing countries, such as DRC, have a clear opportunity to contribute to meeting this growing demand.

### **6.2 Abundant and suitable land, favorable weather**

With 2.345 million square kilometers, the DRC is the second largest country in Africa after Algeria. Development agencies estimate that the country has over 80 million hectares of arable land, of which less than 10% is currently under cultivation [54, 55]. This figure concerns general agriculture and has always been used by the Ministry of Agriculture. In 2019, a team of researchers assessed the available land suitable for growing oil palm in the Congo Basin, of which 60% is contained in the DRC. Their data suggest that up to 280 million hectares could be suitable for oil palm cultivation in the Congo Basin, including 167 million hectares in the DRC alone [56]. The model used to calculate this land does not include primary forest. In fact, of the total suitable area available in DRC, only 13% is found in protected areas, meaning

### *Congo: The Next Frontier for the Palm Oil Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114010*

that 145 million hectares are found in areas that are compatible with current environmental standards such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) [57].

It should be noted here that DRC and other African countries of West and Central Africa signed the Marrakech Declaration in November 2016 during COP-22 committing themselves to sustainable development of the palm oil value chain with the support of the private sector and civil society organizations in what is known as the African Palm Oil Initiative [58]. These countries support the development of oil palm plantations but with a commitment to zero-deforestation. The Ministry of Agriculture in the DRC has targeted over 2000 farms and plantations abandoned since the 1973 nationalization for immediate development [59]; many of these plantations used to be under oil palm cultivation and could be rapidly brought back into production.

The climate of the DRC, with mean surface air temperature of 24–28o C and over 1500 mm of rainfall, is well suited to the oil palm cultivation. Straddling the Equator, the rainfall distribution throughout the year is rather uniform with a short dry period that grows longer as one get farther away from the Equator line.

While oil palm development can affect climate change, mainly by increasing carbon emission through deforestation and biodiversity loss, it is also true that climate change will affect the capacity of lands to produce palm oil [60]. It is therefore imperative to think of how the suitability for oil palm cultivation will be affected by climate change. Paterson et al [61] have described the CLIMEX mechanistic niche model which can be used to estimate the evolution of the scenarios of suitable growing areas for oil palm under climate change in Africa. With this CLIMEX tool, Paterson has shown that the highly suitable and suitable areas for growing palm oil between now and 2050 were concentrated in the DRC, with these areas expected to become less suitable after 2050 [62]. However, DRC will remain the region with the highest availability of suitable land for oil palm production.

### **6.3 Availability of adapted genetic resources**

The name "Yangambi" is found in the pedigree of elite oil palm varieties planted in many countries with a well-established palm oil industry [48, 63]. While the origin of the parent material has not been clearly determined, the Yangambi trait is usually associated with high yield [48, 63]. Yangambi is a town in the DRC that was the home of *Institut national pour l'étude agronomique du* Congo *belge (*INEAC) where, in the 1930s-1940s, the relationship between the *Dura*, *Pisifera* and *Tenera* forms of the oil palm was elucidated [1, 32, 33]*.* Its coordinates are 0.767475°N and 24.441404°E (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangambi). The use of this name for the oil palm material suggest that this material originated from the research station. Since DRC occupies a large proportion of the Congo Basin which is part of the center of diversity of the oil palm, it should be expected that material similar to, or even with better performance characteristics than, the Yangambi line that was taken to southeast Asia could be found. The oil palm is found naturally growing in a diversity of microclimates in DRC. An extensive prospection of local land races will certainly uncover new lines with genetic attributes that might prove useful to produce new varieties that will withstand the effects of climate changes.

### **6.4 Availability of labor and the poverty reduction imperative**

The DRC population stands today at 102 million people [64] with 54% living in the rural areas. The unemployment rate is officially set at 4.99% for 2022 [65], but

this figure represents the share of the labor force that is without work but available for and seeking employment. In the rural areas where opportunities for employment are scarce, people engage in subsistence agriculture, in petty trading or are selfemployed without being registered with an employment service and therefore are not counted as unemployed. The number of people in need of a regular income is very high. The minimum wage in DRC is set by law at 7,075 Congolese Francs (EUR 3) per worker per day [66]. In 2022, it was estimated at USD 92.47 per month [67], significantly lower than in Malaysia, where the minimum wage was raised from RM1,200 to RM1,500 (about USD 320) per month from 1 July 2023 [68], and lower than in Indonesia, where minimum wages range from USD 126 to USD 316 depending on the location [69].

### **6.5 Access to a large palm oil consumer base**

The production of palm oil in DRC is primarily targeted at satisfying the local demand for this commodity. In 2022, palm oil consumption in DRC was estimated at 425,000 metric tons [70], while domestic production is currently estimated at 300,000 metric tons [71]. Palm oil is consumed daily by the over 100 million people of DRC. Local prices for the commodity vary widely between location, from CDF 3,000 to CDF 6,000 per liter, equivalent to USD 1.25 to USD 2.50 per liter [72].

A strong demand for palm oil exists in all the countries around the DRC. In 2019, the demand for palm oil of African countries was 7.31 million metric tons. Against a local production of only 2.79 million tons [73]. This demand grew at over 6% per year for the period 2010–2019 and is expected to continue to grow at this rate in the coming years. As a member of three trading and customs unions in Africa (Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), East African Community (EAC), and Southern Africa Development Conference (SADC)) and having joined the treaty of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement on January first 2021 [74], DRC is uniquely positioned to export to all the countries of the continent estimated to contain over one billion consumers.

### **6.6 Lessons learned from Malaysia and Indonesia**

The accelerated development of the palm oil industry in southeast Asia has led to many concerns being raised regarding environmental sustainability of the palm oil industry. It has been estimated that 17% of the new plantations in Malaysia and 63% of those in Indonesia came at the direct expense of biodiversity-rich tropical forests over the period 1990–2010 [75–78], and up to 30% of this expansion occurred on peat soils, leading to large CO2 emissions [79–81]. On the other hand, in Indonesia and Malaysia, which together account for around 85% of global palm oil production, the palm oil industry is credited for lifting millions of people out of poverty by creating millions of well-paying jobs in rural areas where alternative employment opportunities are scarce and enabling tens of thousands of smallholder farmers to own their own land [82]. In its State of Sustainability Initiatives report, the International Institute for Sustainable Development has estimated that in Indonesia and Malaysia, the palm oil sector employs almost 5 million smallholders and workers and a further 6 million people indirectly, while being responsible for nearly 3 million downstream jobs in importing countries [83].

To become the next frontier for the palm oil industry, DRC will need to focus on generating the positive impact that the palm oil industry has produced in southeast

Asia while avoiding or minimizing the negative consequences, especially on climate change and biodiversity. The state of knowledge today makes both objectives achievable. Some of the actions that could be undertaken are briefly mentioned below:

### *6.6.1 Identify socio-economic impact targets for the palm oil industry*

The socio-economic impact of palm oil is complex and varies depending on several factors, including the region, local communities, and the practices of palm oil producers. Key aspects include employment in locations where few opportunities exist; income generation opportunities for rural dwellers with very few alternatives enabling them to support their families and improve their living standards; rural development opportunities through improved infrastructure such as roads and access to markets, which can stimulate economic growth and development in these regions; increased government revenues through tax payments; increased export earnings when palm oil is exported; technology and knowledge transfer on palm oil production and agriculture in general which can benefit local farmers and communities by improving agricultural practices; facilitated market access for other agricultural products and commodities, boosting the income of smallholder farmers and diversifying local economies.

However, there are negative socio-economic challenges that need to be considered and monitored and whose impact needs to be minimized. These include land displacement, particularly of indigenous communities and smallholder farmers; social disputes and conflicts over land ownership leading to social tension and unrest that can arise in areas where palm oil plantations are expanded; poor working conditions including low wages, and inadequate labor rights that can lead to social inequality and exploitation; workers' health concerns due to the use of pesticides and other chemicals in palm oil cultivation, affecting both workers and nearby communities; community health and well-being such as air and water pollution that can have direct health and well-being implications for local communities.

The socio-economic impact of palm oil is multifaceted. While it can provide employment, income, and development opportunities, it is also associated with challenges related to land displacement, social conflicts, working conditions, and environmental impact. The overall impact depends on various factors, including the practices of palm oil producers, government regulations, and efforts to promote sustainable and responsible palm oil production. Efforts to mitigate the negative socioeconomic consequences of palm oil production often involve promoting sustainable and responsible practices, ensuring land tenure rights, and supporting smallholder farmers and local communities in palm oil-producing regions.

DRC has a young and rapidly growing population that needs access to adequate infrastructure and income opportunities. The example of Indonesia and Malaysia shows that such opportunities can be provided by the palm oil industry. In DRC, *Plantation et Huileries du Congo*, which with 30,000 ha of planted oi palm and three palm oil mills, is the largest private sector employer in the country, and through the social services it offers to its workers and neighboring communities, is the largest private provider of health services. It builds schools, maintains roads within its area of operations and supports local communities with development programs, facilitates the acquisition and distribution of primary and fast-moving consumer goods in the remote rural locations where it operates. This company intends to generate biogas from its palm oil mill effluents and converts that biogas to electricity, some of which will be made available to local communities that are currently disconnected from the national electricity grid.

The social and economic benefits that can accrue from the palm oil industry need to be quantified and set as national goals against which the growth of the industry in DRC would be measured.

### *6.6.2 Address environmental impact issues*

Key environmental concerns associated with palm oil include deforestation, because the oil palm is naturally suited for growth in the forest ecology. Large areas of rainforests and other natural ecosystems, particularly in Southeast Asia (Indonesia and Malaysia), have been cleared to make way for oil palm plantations. Deforestation can lead to the loss of biodiversity, disruption of ecosystems, and the release of stored carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The clearing of large tracks of land for palm oil plantations destroys the habitats of many endangered and endemic species, potentially putting these species at risk of extinction. The conversion of diverse natural ecosystems into monoculture oil palm plantations leads to a loss of biodiversity as plantations typically support far fewer species than the original forests.

Other negative environmental impact sources include air pollution when land clearing involves burning, and water pollution caused by excessive use of mineral fertilizers and plant protection pesticides on oil palm plantations; the chemicals used for this purpose can contaminate local water sources and negatively affect aquatic ecosystems.

In the past 20 years, substantial efforts have been made to address these environmental concerns. It started with the establishment of the RSPO in 2004 to promote sustainable and responsible palm oil production through adhesion to global standards and multistakeholder governance [57]. The stakeholders involved in this initiative are oil palm producers, palm oil processors or traders, consumer goods manufacturers, retailers, bankers, and investors, environmental or nature conservation NGOs and social or developmental NGOs.

Popkin et al. [84] have shown that increasingly, oil palm plantation and mill managers are adopting management practices that reduce the negative impact of the industry on biodiversity and environmental processes. Such practices include planting highyielding varieties, optimizing the application of organic and mineral fertilizers and maintaining a very high harvest quality index in fresh fruit bunches sent to the palm oil mill. Other practices include reliance on biological control of pests, the use of biopesticides and leguminous cover crops [85]. Precision agriculture with its information technology-based tools is relied upon to minimize the use of mineral fertilizers, predict the effectiveness of planned best practices, or identify new sites for expansion of oil palm cultivation [86, 87]. The author has visited several oil palm plantations and mills in Indonesia where these and other practices have been adopted and where the objective is not only for their operation to achieve their Net-Zero Emission target, but possibly to become Net Carbon Negative, thus creating a palm oil business that effectively contribute to the global effort of bringing climate change under control and keeping the temperature rise to below 1.5o C required to avoid a climate catastrophe [88].

### *6.6.3 Adopt enabling policies and enforce regulations*

In its quest to become the next frontier of the palm oil industry, DRC will need to formulate and adopt policy and regulations that are required to give rise to a sustainable palm oil industry that addresses all environmental, social, and economic challenges. Some key strategies and initiatives to be considered include the following:


Achieving a truly sustainable palm oil industry requires a multi-stakeholder approach involving governments, businesses, non-governmental organizations, local communities, and consumers. The goal should be to balance the economic benefits of palm oil production with environmental and social considerations, ultimately leading to a more responsible and sustainable industry. Efforts to promote sustainability are ongoing, and progress has been made. As it embarks on expanding its palm oil production capability, DRC should formulate policies, regulations and incentives to ensure that the industry will follow a sustainable course and avoid mistakes that were made elsewhere.

### *6.6.4 Facilitate financing processes*

Financial analysis of investment in palm oil shows that it is a very profitable undertaking [89], even though it takes three to four years before income could be generated from a new oil palm plantation. Financial resources required to gainfully participate in the palm oil industry are substantial and often beyond the means of smallholder farmers and low income citizens. Development finance that used to be available from Development Finance Institutions such as the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation stopped in 2009 because of pressure from non-Governmental Organizations but seems to be ready to resume [90].

Public finance for agricultural projects has not been successful in Africa, and in particular in DRC [91, 92]. Innovative approaches are needed that will target progressive private sector companies with clear and verifiable environmental, social and governance (ESG) policies.

### **7. Conclusion**

Countries of the equatorial belt where oil palm can be commercially grown need to use this highly efficient natural source of vegetable oil in the pursuit of their social and economic advancement. At the same time, they have become aware of and are committed to the protection of their natural resources and environment to secure a sustainable future for their generations yet unborn. These two seemingly competing demands can be reconciled, but it will take strong collaboration between producers and users of palm oil to limit, and even reverse, the contribution of the palm oil industry to climate change.

This chapter has shown that the DRC has played a key role in the birth and development of the palm oil industry and that only six decades ago the country was the second largest exporter of palm oil in the world. It has lost that position today and is not even counted among the ten largest palm oil producing countries. Nevertheless, the country's assets needed to become a large producer of palm oil remain intact.

*Congo: The Next Frontier for the Palm Oil Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114010*

Land, labor, and high-performance oil palm genetic resources are available in large quantity. The weather in DRC is conducive to oil palm cultivation, and even though climate change will most likely reduce the suitability for oil palm production in Africa, science-based projections suggest that the largest area of suitability for oil palm cultivation up to the year 2100 will be in the DRC.

The development of the palm oil industry in the Congo Basin, the largest carbon sink in the world and where historically the palm oil industry began, could be realized in a way that contribute to pathways which limit global warming to 1.5°C as recommended by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to avoid a climate catastrophe [88]. Innovations that reduce carbon emissions are already in application in oil palm plantation in several countries, while others are in the pipeline. *Plantations et Huileries du Congo*, the largest industrial producer of palm oil in the DRC, has demonstrated that in a very short period of time (less than three years), adoption of science-based, data-driven, environmentally and socially conscious management practices could lead to significant productivity increase enabling the company to meet the triple bottom line of improved welfare for its workers and surrounding communities, sustainability for the planet and acceptable return on investment. This example is offered as a proof of concept upon which a larger program can be built to take DRC back among the key palm oil producing countries.

### **Conflict of interest**

The author is an employee of *Plantations et Huileries du Congo* mentioned in this chapter. However, the statements and ideas expressed in this chapter are solely his own and do not necessarily reflect the position of the company or of its owners. No compensation or favor of any kind has been received for the writing of this chapter.

### **Author details**

Mpoko Bokanga Plantation et Huileries du Congo, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo

\*Address all correspondence to: mpoko.bokanga@phc-congo.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### **Chapter 5**

## Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities

*Flavio Linares*

### **Abstract**

Honduras is the third oil palm production country in Latin America region after Colombia and Guatemala. Deforestation of tropical forest has been key issue for market demand and EU countries, especially now that the new EU regulation has been approved to follow due diligence for export products. In this context, in 2017 a multistakeholder platform was integrated by Governmental agencies, private and cooperatives of farmers, and federation and civil society organizations to work together in the Volunteer Agreement for Zero Deforestation. The pause of the COVID 19 and the election of the new government in Honduras slowed down the process of the Voluntary Agreement. The progress achieved and the challenges and opportunities of this Agreement are explained step-by-step and constitute a road map to accelerate compliance with the agreement and therefor, the new regulation of the European Union-EUDR. Honduras palm oil growers and industry aspire to genuine sustainability that is inclusive and empowers people to generate prosperity for themselves and their communities, through production systems that are in balance with nature. The author led the multistakeholder plataform for Zero Deforestation in Honduras and Guatemala too.

**Keywords:** oil palm deforestation, EUDR regulation, oil palm smallholders, Honduras Volunteer Agreement for Zero Deforestation in oil palm sector, challenges and opportunities in the EUDR compliance, multi stakeholder platform, sustainability, inclusive business

### **1. Introduction**

Palm oil is one of the most popular and widely consumed oils; its versatility and oleo chemistry is found in food products, concentrates, cosmetics, cleaning and sanitation products, detergents, biofuels, vitamins, and so on. Its production efficiency is ten times higher in productivity per area than its closest relative, soybeans. The current global production is 79,464 (1000 MT) [1], and by 2050, it will be 90–156 (1000 MT). Its popularity is reflected by its presence in more than 50% of typical items in supermarkets [2]. In the present decade, deforestation and degradation of soils as well as ecosystems have gained enormous importance in value chains. The loss of forests and their degradation has an impact on the loss of biodiversity and carbon.

The resonance has been greater in consumer countries with increasingly strict regulations and markets with a high appetite for raw materials and, to some extent, due to the commitments in the Nationally Determined Contribution—NDC—of producer countries that present very limited capabilities in secondary transformation. Governance undoubtedly affect the implementation of zero-deforestation policies in each value chain and compliance with the New European Deforestation Regulation, approved in June 2023 [3] for producing and exporting countries that will enter into effective December 30, 2024 (EUDR in English).

For more than a decade, we have observed in several countries, and Honduras is no exception, that the production of palm oil has improved the living standards of many farmers, but it has also been associated with innumerable risks such as deforestation, climate change, the loss of biodiversity, conflicts with the use and possession of the land and labor problems depending on the country, the farmer's associativity, and the configurations of organizations and companies [4].

### **2. Structure of the oil palm agroindustry in Honduras**

Oil palm was introduced to Honduras approximately 100 years ago, beginning with 6.5 ha in 1929 by United Brands-UFcO [5]. According to recent studies, there are currently 202,000 cultivated hectares, mainly on the northern coast, in the departments of Atlántida, Cortés, Colón, and Yoro (**Figure 1**). The impact of hurricanes ETA and IOTA caused the loss of approximately 18,000 ha [6]. In Latin America, Honduras ranks third in the Americas, after Guatemala and Colombia in cultivated area with oil palm (**Figure 2**).

**Figure 1.**

*Oil palm geographic distribution in Honduras.*

*Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*

### **Figure 2.**

*Honduras in the global top ten of palm oil-producing countries.*

Fresh fruit production is concentrated along the Atlantic Coast in the eastern part of the country, with plantations in 41 municipalities. More than 60% of the cultivated area is managed by small producers with extensions ranging from 1 to 25 hectares, so the supply base to the processing plants is in the hands of more than 16,000 small producers. The industry has 15 mills (5 refineries) of which 10 belong to companies in the social sector of the economy (social model based on national law, [7]) and only 5 to private companies. 10% of oil palm farms are managed directly by women and 90% by men.

### **3. Palm oil, engine of the Honduras national economy**

Honduras produced 600,000 MT of palm oil in 2021–2022 [8, 9] with internal consumption of 40%. Globally, it ranks ninth in producing countries (**Figure 2**). The most

**Figure 4.**

*Trading partner countries for the export of palm oil from Honduras (2022).*

important destination is the European Union (**Figures 3** and **4**), which received 83 percent of exports in 2022 [10], while the neighboring countries of Central America and Mexico accounted for the rest. With an export value of USD 400 million, the oilseed crop is an essential foreign exchange generator for Honduras, after coffee [11]. It contributes 3% of the GDP and generates around 33,666 direct jobs and more than 168,330 indirect jobs. The demand for certified oil comes from Western countries.

### **4. Deforestation and environmental degradation associated with oil palm cultivation in Honduras**

Honduras has an area of 112,492 square kilometers with a forest cover of 56%. Unfortunately, Honduras has seen a notable loss of forest cover over the years, with high levels of deforestation driven largely by unsustainable agriculture and illegal logging. On top of this, climate-related hazards such as forest fires, pests, and disease, illegal logging, firewood consumption, and land grabbing have also been enormously damaging. It is estimated that from 1990 to 2020, the country lost 9% of its forest coverage [12]. In 2022, 54.4 kha of natural forest were lost, equivalent 29.3. Mt. of CO2 emissions (Global [13]). From 2002 to 2022, Honduras lost 465,000 ha of primary humid forest, which represents 37% loss of total forest cover in the same period of time. The total area of primary humid forest in Honduras decreased by 22% in this period of time, reports Forest Watch. The protected areas, according to the National Institute of Forest Conservation and Development, Protected Areas and Wildlife— ICF— and Mongabay [14], are being affected by population growth, illegal logging, commercialization of fauna, and planting of monocultures. In the Punta Izopo and Jeanette Kawas national parks, the palm has taken over between 20 and 30% of the protected areas, respectively.

*Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*

### **Figure 5.**

*Vulnerability of high conservation value areas to oil palm expansion in palm oil-producing countries. Source: [15].*

The Oil palm expansion in Latin America [15] is following a different land-use change trajectory than the widespread deforestation associated with this industry in Southeast Asia. Deforestation associated with palm in the country from 1989 to 2013 is 0.4% according to studies by Vijay et al. [16]. Although is evident the change in land use in Honduras, from bananas (mostly affected by low prices in 2000) or conversion of pastures to oil palm, there is a high vulnerability of protected areas, wetlands, and riparian zones due to spatial expansion of this crop and violations of legal framework. Vulnerability to forests and areas of high conservation value persists with levels of 18% as a consequence of previous deforestation (**Figure 5**).

The environmental foundation PROLANSATE [17], co-administrator of the national parks Janeth Kawas and Punta Izopo, has alerted citizens to the threats to natural heritage, indicating "the progressive actions of intruders are worrisome, first deforestation and filling of wetlands, then cattle ranching, until they fulfill their ultimate purpose of cultivating oil palm. They drain lagoons, rivers and swamps until they are dry. In some protected areas, the palm was planted before its declaration, however, every year they expand, endangering the core area. In the Punta Izopo and Jeanette Kawas national parks, the African palm has taken over between 20 and 30% of the protected areas, respectively [18].

According to the study carried out by Fundación Solidaridad Latinoamericana (2019) and similar to the studies reported by the ICF, 15,855.22 ha of oil palm are located in buffer zones of protected areas (mainly in Janneth Kawas, Punta Izopo, Punta Sal, and Nombre de Dios) and 129.61 ha in watersheds [19].

In recent years, the Palm Sector has initiated a change of mentality and has listened to the proposal of the Solidaridad experts, in order to invest in vertical growth with high productivity and commitment to the conservation of biodiversity and human rights than to practice a horizontal expansion of the crop (see Solidaridad, Oil Palm Barometer [20]).

### **5. When the palms speak: Good practices to increase yields per area are key to avoiding expansion**

The different Latin American countries show considerable variations in the productivity of palm oil [21]. The highest yield is registered by Guatemala [22] with an

### **Figure 6.**

*Salama smallholders cooperative oil palm landscape and riparian zones. Aguan river basin.*

average crude oil of 5.6 MT/hectare (ha). In the medium range, Colombia, Costa Rica, Brazil, and Honduras register average yields between 3.4 and 3.0 MT/ha, while Mexico, Peru, and Ecuador register low yields of 2.6 to 2.5 MT/ha. By comparison, Indonesia and Malaysia achieved average yields of 3.6 MT/ha. The yields are influenced by internal factors such as the selection of the planting place, the quality of the genetic material, the seedlings, the age of the plantation, nutrition, maintenance, measurement of growth rates, installed technical capacities (producers or technicians), available resources, and the influence of external factors such as edapho-climatic conditions or recurring climatic variations or as a consequence of climate change.

In countries with a large number of small farmers, there are clear trends, in which lower yields are recorded. The yield of bunches of fresh fruit-RFF in Honduras at the small producer level is 12 MT/ha and 17 MT/ha at the national level (**Figure 6**).

### **6. Launch of the sustainable production of palm oil project in Honduras- (PASH in Spanish)**

In the 2013–2017 period, the Solidaridad Foundation implemented the PASH Project with the objective of promoting the adoption of best sustainable environmental, social, labor, and agricultural practices and achieving RSPO certification. One of the most significant results of this effort was the establishment of the Honduran multistakeholder consortium PASH, with a very active membership that included more than 90% of the Honduran palm oil industry, as well as local and international civil society organizations, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (SAG), and local municipal authorities of oil palm-producing areas (Ulua, Aguan, and Chamelecon river basins). The national interpretation of the RSPO standard in the national regulatory framework in 2015 [23] increased capacities of technical teams of key actors and commitments toward the production of certified sustainable palm industrial plants and their supply base. Solidaridad's leadership created frameworks of trust and credibility to guide the Sector toward solid paths of sustainability, closing environmental, social, and productive gaps. Likewise, through professional and expert teams, it provided advice to SAG to support vertical growth rather than horizontal expansion. *Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*

### **7. Management and commitments of the voluntary agreement of zero deforestation of the palm sector of Honduras—AVCD**

The Zero Deforestation Voluntary Agreement was generated by the consensual importance of actors in 2017–2018, finalizing its creation in July 2019, with the signature of all interested parties (social and private companies, civil society and state institutions, and the public declaration of commitment [24]. It is the result of the integrated management of the Sustainable Landscape promoted by the Solidaridad Foundation, implementing the baseline of the productive landscape of the northern coast of Honduras. The mapping of the vegetation cover and the main variables that influence or affect the oil palm productive chain deciphered the challenges and the definition of nine interventions aligned to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals—OSD—(including OSD 15, 13, 2) linked to the protection and conservation of terrestrial ecosystems (**Figures 7** and **8**). The AVCD agreement was ratified by all stakeholders on October, 2021 [25].

### **Figure 7.**

*HONDUPALMA mill: Social company responsible for collecting and industrializing fresh fruit bunches from 28 cooperatives of small producers in the supply chain.*

### **Figure 8.**

*View of CA-13 main road Honduras divided by oil palm plantations: Jaremar Group and Agroindustrial Corporation Group-CORAPSA.*

**Figure 9.** *Smallholders selling oil palm fresh fruits bunches. Baracoa, Cortes, Honduras.*

A jurisdictional landscape model was built in which deforestation, soil loss, water and food security, migration, low productivity, investment in renewable energy, and financing for small producers, among others, were highlighted as challenges. In the multi-stakeholder platform, the findings and prioritization of strategic impact investments [26] were shared, as well as individual dialogs with companies and civil society, explaining three management scenarios: 1. Business as usual (BAS business as usual in English), 2. Businesses with certification standards, and 3. Businesses with an integrated Landscape management approach. In scenario 2, workshops and discussion groups were held to accelerate the adoption of the RSPO and ISSC standard by analyzing win-win, company-community-government business models and an analysis for the RSPO jurisdictional certification option.

Since 2013, it is evident that small producers are forced to be more competitive because the requirements of large buyers in terms of quality, reliability in delivery, and product differentiation have raised the level of competition required. The New European Regulation for the import of deforestation-free products-EUDR, [3] will impact the weakest part of the value chain, small producers, who require greater support and technical, financial, and legal assistance (**Figure 9**).

### **7.1 Methodological framework**

• *Governance*: Founded on the principles of dialog, transparency, and goodwill, a multi-stakeholder platform was established to address the economic, social, and environmental importance of the oil palm value chain, taking advantage of Organización Solidaridad's previous links with the different key stakeholders. The individual and collective discussion, and the leadership to guide the Palm Sector to a Sector and Country management, involved dedication, motivation, and empathy, recognizing the representativeness of the parties and the interpretation of their voices to propose a Voluntary Agreement aligned and respecting the regulatory framework of the country as well as the interpretation of market trends toward obtaining palm oil free from deforestation and exploitation or abuse of related human rights. The approach included discussions about the risks associated with environmental, social, and economic issues and the future consequences with possible changes in consumer demand, fines, and sanctions by the government due to the implementation of deficient practices by *Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*

### **Figure 10.**

*Organizational chart of the technical Commission of the Voluntary Agreement on zero deforestation of the Honduran palm Oil chain.*

producers, intermediaries, and plants of benefit. Governance as a mechanism for work and dialog was made possible by the authentic leadership of Solidaridad staff committed to change. Countless face-to-face and team work sessions were key to reaching consensus between the parties, establishing responsibilities and an ad hoc Technical Commission supported through an assembly election process for the entire sector (see **Figure 10**).

Within the framework of the AVCD Agreement, current legislation and market demands for sustainable palm oil, free of deforestation declarations, were considered such as the Declaration of New York 2014 [27], Amsterdam [28], the buyer's policies No Deforestation, and No burning and No exploitation of communities and workers—NDPE.

The Technical Commission has played a crucial role in the implementation of the AVCD Agreement in response to the mandate established in the Assembly of the companies and governmental and nongovernmental organizations that sign the Agreement. Peter Ducker's phrase "*The best way to predict the future is to create it*" was introduced by Flavio Linares to facilitate and motivate consortium partners and the Technical Commission members.

	- Ensure environmental conservation for present and future generations
	- Demonstrate the traceability of deforestation-free palm oil production in all processing companies in Honduras
	- Establish a verification system for the Zero Deforestation process associated with oil palm with a robust monitoring and follow-up system.
	- Provide differentiated export products, generating trust among customers, mainly in the European market.

The technical Commission, in accordance with the strategy shared in the Assembly of the signatories of the agreement, establishes the steps for the organization of information, analysis, and monitoring using the SIGMOF system, which is the tool used by the ICF Institute for monitoring deforestation, reforestation, and monitoring and control of forest fires in the Republic of Honduras.

A database of each company in the social sector of the economy, private, associations, and cooperatives of producers, was prepared and socialized by the Technical Commission. All the technical teams of the production units, including the members of the National Federation of African Palm Associations of Honduras—FENAPALMAH—were trained on the SIGMOF platform and the information required to upload it to the digital system. Each organization has an access code to the SIGMOF system, protecting the information and data based on strategy shared with all companies and interested parties (see **Figures 11** and **12**).

The strategy focuses on four phases:.

### **Figure 11.** *Strategy and phases to get information from smallholders and companies.*

*Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*

**Figure 12.** *Work blocks based on the strategy of the AVCD agreement.*

	- Contributes tangibly to compliance with the New European Regulation launched in May 2023 by ensuring the conservation of natural resources, producing differentiated palm oil that generates trust in customers in the global market, the traceability of fresh fruit, and the implementation of a compensation system for deforested areas or loss of forest cover.
		- The AVCD Agreement generates inclusive benefits and market opening, financing opportunity, and actions toward the conservation and protection of natural capital, continuous improvement in sustainability processes, job creation, and contribution to the improvement of the livelihoods of the small, medium, and large producers in the palm oil value chain [29].
		- Strengthens the internal control system of the supply base of the processing plants and the strategic investment plans to implement international certification schemes and compliance with national and international regulations.
		- Generates positive synergy and integration of the palm sector with shared responsibility to implement integral solutions in its implementation.

◦ Contributes directly to the sustainability of the value chain and generation of job opportunities by reducing the irregular migration of Hondurans to the United States of America.

### **7.2 Results of the AVCD agreement and influence of external factors**

### *7.2.1 Progress results*


### *7.2.2 External factors*


*Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*

### **Figure 13.**

*Fresh fruit transportation system used by smallholders.*

percentage points in the national GDP for 2020 and 0.3 percentage points in 2021 [6]. The rehabilitation of planning and industry required more than 6 months, and it was necessary to negotiate with financial organizations and future markets, rescheduling deliveries of crude palm oil. The livelihoods of the rural population of the north coast were devastated by this climatic shock, which caused a pause to the meetings on the AVCD agreement.


### **7.3 Identified barriers to compliance with the AVCD agreement**

See **Table 1**. Summary of barriers for the compliance of Voluntary Zero Deforestation Agreement in the oil palm value chain in Honduran (AVCD is Spanish).



*Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*



### **Table 1.**

*Barriers to compliance of the AVCD agreement.*

### **7.4 Opportunities to complement EUDR with the AVCD agreement**

See **Table 2**. Summary of opportunities to complement EUDR regulation by the AVCD agreement.




### **Table 2.**

*Opportunities to promote zero deforestation in oil palm under the AVCD agreement.*

### **Author details**

Flavio Linares Programs for Central America, Mexico and Caribbean Region, Solidaridad Network, Tegucigalpa, Honduras

\*Address all correspondence to: flavioflavus@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Deforestation-Free Palm Oil in Honduras: Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113232*

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[3] Forwood G, Connellan C, Killick J, Nordin S. 10 Key Things to Know about the New EU Deforestation Regulation. New York: White and Case Firm; 2023

[4] Fromm I, Ferrer M, Mengel S. Sustainable Palm Oil Production in Honduras: Myth or Reality. Bern University of Applied Sciences, School of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences. Switzerland; 2020

[5] World Rainforest Movement. Neocolonialism and Plantations on the Garifuna Coast of Central America. Netherlands: Bulletin 226; 2016

[6] CEPAL. Evaluación de los efectos e impactos causados por la tormenta tropical Eta y el huracán Iota en Honduras. Santiago de Chile; 2022

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[20] Solidaridad. Oil Palm Barometer. Utrecht, The Netherlands; 2022

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[24] Michail N. Honduras Commits to Deforestation Free Supply Chain. Available from: https://www.foodnaviga tor-latam.com/Article/2019/07/29/ Honduran-palm-oil-sector-commits-todeforestation-free-supply-chain

[25] Solidaridad Central America. Chain Reaction. Sustainable Palm Oil Production in Honduras. Available from: https://www.solidaridadnetwork.org/ news/solidaridad-central-america/

[26] PLB Netherlands Environmental Agency. Eco agriculture, solidaridad. Modelización espacial de escenarios para apoyar la gestión integrada de paisajes en la Costa Caribe del Norte de Honduras: Un estudio de caso sobre las estrategias en el paisaje para alcanzar los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. 2018

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## *Edited by Viduranga Y. Waisundara*

*Elaeis guineensis* is the scientific name for oil palm. It is also referred to as African oil palm as well as macaw fat. The industry is undoubtedly one of the most important commercial businesses in the world at present. The high oil yield of oil palms has made it a common cooking ingredient in Southeast Asia and the tropical belt of Africa. There are many new technologies hailed and explored to maintain the sustainability of the palm oil industry. This book provides an overview of these aspects while providing information on managing the gaps and voids of the industry in order to sustain its viability and feasibility. It is hoped that this book will provide valuable information to academics, industry personnel, manufacturers, and other categories of stakeholders of the palm oil industry alike.

## *W. James Grichar, Agricultural Sciences Series Editor*

Published in London, UK © 2024 IntechOpen © Irena Carpaccio / unsplash

*Elaeis guineensis* 


IntechOpen Series

Agricultural Sciences, Volume 3

*Elaeis guineensis*

New Insights

*Edited by Viduranga Y. Waisundara*