Functional Properties

#### **Chapter 3**

## Quinoa and Its Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties and Application in the Food Industry

*Reza Esmaeilzadeh Kenari and Maryam Azizkhani*

#### **Abstract**

Quinoa (*Willd quinoa Chenopodium*) is a pseudo-cereal. Quinoa seed is rich in antioxidants and also has a lot of carotenoids. Quinoa seed extract can be used as a natural antioxidant as well as a natural color in many food products, including food edible oils and high-fat dairy products, especially cream, can be used. One of the factors affecting the properties of quinoa seed extract is the extraction method, in which ultrasound and supercritical CO2 extractions are more efficient than green extraction. Therefore, the use of the Carotenoid extract of quinoa has a significant role in stabilizing heat-sensitive oils, especially soybean oil, as well as cream as a new approach to increasing shelf life and reducing the consumption of synthetic antioxidants and synthetic colors in food products.

**Keywords:** quinoa seed, soybean oil, green extraction, antioxidant activity, oxidative stability

#### **1. Introduction**

Quinoa is a medicinal plant native to South America. The plant belongs to the *Chenopodiaceae* family. There are about 250 types of *chenopodium* plant species around the world. Quinoa seeds are the main edible parts of the product and are available in at least three colors, red, black, and white (**Figure 1**). They are rich in protein with essential amino acids and unsaturated fatty acids including linoleic acid, oleic acid, and palmitic acid, as well as micronutrients such as vitamins, polyphenols, and minerals. The total carotenoid content is in different parts including leaves and seeds [1]. In terms of composition, quinoa seed has 60–69% carbohydrates, 13–20% protein, 9–12.6% moisture, 4–10% fat, about 52–60% starch, and 3–4% minerals (including iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc), are 10% fiber. Quinoa seeds are considered a source of vitamin E and tocopherols. Quinoa contains more protein than wheat, rye, oats, millet, corn, and rice. Quinoa seeds contain the amino acid lysine, which is an essential amino acid. Quinoa and soy have a similar composition of fatty acids. Therefore, it is considered a rich source of essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid and linolenic acid. The amount of oil in red quinoa is higher than in white and black types. Quinoa seeds contain polyphenols and flavonoids and have more riboflavin and alpha-tocopherol than rice, barley, and wheat [2]. Quinoa seeds have

**Figure 1.** *The seeds of white, red, black, and tricolor quinoa.*

lipophilic carotenoid pigments, which include carotenes, such as lycopene and betacarotene, which are composed only of carbon, and xanthophylls, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, which contain oxygenated functional groups such as epoxy, carbonyl, hydroxyl, and carboxylic acid groups [1]. Red quinoa contains a high amount of betacyanins, betaxanthins, and flavonoids [3]. Limited research has investigated the value of carotenoids in quinoa seeds. Some researchers have reported the presence of specific carotenoids, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, in quinoa seeds [1].

Consuming whole grains, such as wheat, is consistently associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity due to its rich content such as protein and phenolic compounds. Meanwhile, it is estimated that about 2% and 5% of adults and children with food allergies such as celiac disease, respectively, have gluten intolerance. Cereals are nonherbaceous broad-leaved plants with seeds that can be milled like flour and replace regular gluten-containing flour. Quinoa, amaranth, chia, and buckwheat are gluten-free nutrients. Amaranth and quinoa are highly valued for their protein, dietary fiber, polyphenols, and rich minerals and are consumed as a common grain and vegetable in many cultures. A variety of effective hydrophobic plant substances such as lipids, vitamins, and carotenoids have been found in the leaves, stems, and seeds of both amaranth and quinoa plants [4]. In the food industry, quinoa seeds are prepared as flour mixed with the flour of pseudo-cereals such as buckwheat and amaranth as well as wheat or other grains and are used in the production of products such as bread, pasta, pancakes, biscuits, cakes, and crackers. Quinoa leaves are consumed similarly to spinach or as salad components [5]. The main bioactive compound in red quinoa is rutin (vitamin P), a part of flavonoids. Rutin has anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, and antitumor properties and protects the liver [3]. Due to the presence of essential amino acids such as leucine and isoleucine, quinoa seeds have high nutritional value and quality and are highly digestible. Quinoa proteins have antibacterial, antidiabetic, and blood pressure biological activity [6].

#### *Quinoa and Its Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties and Application in the Food Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111646*

Carotenoids are pigments synthesized by photosynthetic organisms such as plants and some bacteria, algae, nonphotosynthetic fungi, and a small number of prokaryotes. Humans and most animals do not synthesize carotenoids. Therefore, they are included in the diet for physiological functions. The main source of plant carotenoids are mainly roots, flowers, fruits, and seeds [7]. In most plants, carotenoids are found in plastids, especially chloroplasts of photosynthetic tissues and chromoplasts [8]. Carotenoids are the most studied lipophilic natural pigments. They cause yellow, orange, and red colors in corn, carrot, papaya, tomato, watermelon, some fish, and crustaceans [9]. Beta-carotene is one of the most famous food carotenoids that are sometimes found together with alpha-carotene in red and yellow fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes, melons, carrots, mangoes, apricots, pumpkins, etc. Lutein is usually found in yellow or orange fruits and flowers, as well as green vegetables. Zeaxanthin is found naturally in corn, and egg yolk, as well as in some orange and yellow vegetables and fruits such as alfalfa and marigolds [8, 10]. Currently, more than 600 known carotenoids are found in nature, and about 40 carotenoids are regularly consumed in the human diet [11].

Synthetic colors are formulated colors that do not have a natural origin. Adding colored materials to products is required due to things like color replacement for those colors that have been lost during the production process and increasing the existing color. The effectiveness and economic factors provided by artificial colors have led to their widespread use in various industries, including the food industry. Unfortunately, the use of artificial coloring materials or color additives has a negative role in human growth and health, because their toxicity can lead to health problems [12]. Currently, carotenoids produced by chemical synthesis dominate the world market, but their acquisition from natural sources is growing. In fact, according to European Union directives, the importance of natural food additives as an alternative to artificial additives in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals is increasing [13]. In recent years, natural biologically active compounds have received attention due to the interest in natural foods. To meet the demand of consumers all over the world, the food industry has focused on using natural ingredients instead of artificial ingredients. These biologically active substances, in addition to adding economic value, depending on the concentration used, improve the quality of food and even have therapeutic effects. In this sense, carotenoids are natural substances that are often added to food products. Yellow, orange, and red carotenoid dyes are the most common natural pigments used in the food industry as a complete or partial replacement for yellow and red synthetic dyes, which are widely used in beverages and food products due to their stability and high solubility are used [8]. Most carotenoids are derived from the 40-carbon tetraterpenoid phytoene. Phytoene is biosynthesized from two 20-carbon diphosphate molecules [14] (consisting of eight isoprene units with a 40-carbon skeleton) [10]. The central unit usually has 22 carbon atoms, which have nine double bonds and four side chain methyl groups, if they are rearranged by keeping two central methyl groups, it is still classified as a carotenoid [15].

The extraction process is very important in determining the final result of preparing the desired amount of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids. The most important parameters affecting the efficiency of extraction of bioactive compounds from plant sources include matrix properties of a plant part, type of solvent, temperature, pressure, time, solvent concentration, and liquid/solid ratio [16]. Today, there is an increasing demand for the development of green extraction processes, with reduced operating time, better results and extract quality, and a significant reduction in the use of organic solvents. To increase the total yield of plant materials, ultrasound extraction, microwave extraction, and supercritical CO2 extraction are considered nonconventional methods [17]. Ultrasound is a nonthermal technology that shows a special effect for the extraction of heat-sensitive compounds. The effects of high-power ultrasound to improve extraction is related to acoustic cavitation, which includes: the formation, growth, and collapse of microbubbles in the liquid environment to transmit high-frequency sound waves. The mechanical effects of the ultrasound lead to the release of the desired compounds from the matrix, through the disruption of the cellular tissue and facilitate the penetration of the solvent into the cellular materials. Therefore, ultrasound leads to increased efficiency, increased extraction speed, reduced extraction time, reduced temperature, and the volume of the solvent used. Extraction with supercritical CO2 is an advanced technology with a high potential for extracting molecules that require standards. The above is in terms of performance without any complications from solvents. They are especially important when extracts are used for nutrients. Extraction with supercritical CO2 using carbon dioxide in supercritical conditions as an extraction solvent is an alternative to traditional extraction methods [18]. For the extraction of natural compounds, supercritical CO2 has physicochemical properties between gas and liquid and these properties (such as density, viscosity, and permeability) can be adjusted by modifying the pressure and temperature (always above the critical point). This method is suitable due to the critical point (temperature 31.1°C, pressure 73 atm). It is widely used for its chemical stability, nonflammability, and nontoxicity. Supercritical carbon dioxide has a nonpolar characteristic and ethanol or methanol is added in a small amount (5–15%) to increase the polarity, so it has a significant effect on the extraction of polar and nonpolar compounds [18].

To maintain the safety and effectiveness of food, it is necessary to prevent the oxidation of lipids. In general, the oxidation of food can be inhibited by using natural and synthetic antioxidants. Antioxidants are a type of food additives that are used in the edible oil industry to increase shelf life and inhibit oxidation and degradation of edible oil, which include natural and synthetic antioxidants [19]. The most widely used synthetic antioxidants include Butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole, tert-butyl hydroquinone, and propyl gallate. Due to their low cost and high antioxidant activity, they are often used in the edible oil industry as a food additive to prevent the degradation of edible oil. But they have disadvantages including interfering with the synthesis and activity of enzymes, being toxic and carcinogenic, binding to nucleic acid and damaging it, and cell mutagenesis, which produces their effects over a long time and at high concentrations. While natural antioxidants are known as green antioxidants and include simple phenol compounds, phenolic acid, ascorbic acid, tocopherols, carotenoids, flavonoids, vitamins, and anthocyanins. Compared to synthetic antioxidants, natural antioxidants have greater antioxidant activity, increased thermal stability, and increased nutritional value of edible oils, and are more acceptable to consumers [20]. Oxidative stability of the oil is resistance to oxidation during processing and storage, which is an important parameter for determining the quality and durability of edible oil. The production of soybean oil has seen significant growth due to its availability and relatively low cost. One of the most common obstacles to using soybean oil is its level of unsaturation and its sensitivity to oxidation, which mainly leads to a change in taste. Singlet oxygen participates in the initiation stage of lipid oxidation so that it directly reacts with unsaturated fatty acids and creates a mixture of conjugated and nonconjugated hydroperoxides. Carotenoids are a group of fat-soluble pigments that can remove singlet oxygen with multiple conjugated double bonds. The quenching rate of singlet oxygen with carotenoids,

*Quinoa and Its Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties and Application in the Food Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111646*

lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene increases with the increase in the number of conjugated double bonds. Also, the antioxidant property of carotenoids is affected by their concentration, oxygen partial pressure, and environmental conditions. So that betacarotene reduces the oxidation ion of soybean oil at any concentration and effectively at higher concentrations. However, in high concentrations, it also helps to improve the taste and color of soybean oil [21, 22].

#### **2. Research, results and interpretation**

#### **2.1 Extracting quinoa seeds and adding extract to oil**

It is possible to extract the bioactive compounds of quinoa seeds through an ultrasound bath, supercritical CO2 methods. First, red quinoa seeds were powdered for extraction. Then, using ultrasound bath methods (solvent/solid) 50/1) f 100 W and 20 kHz and 45 ± 1°C for 3 min) [23] and supercritical CO2 (flow rate 15 g/min, temperature 59°C, pressure 350 bar) with two ratios of 10% and 15% ethanol extraction was done by method [24]. The extract obtained from the ultrasound extraction process was purified to prepare carotenoids [25]. In continuation of these two studies, the average total carotenoid content in ultrasound and supercritical CO2 extractions with 10% and 15% ethanol was determined as 128.568, 120.35, and 121.54 μg/g, respectively [26, 27]. In the following, purified carotenoid extract was added to investigate the effect of the antioxidant activity of carotenoid extract on stability in soybean oil without antioxidants [26, 27]. In ongoing research, quinoa extract was extracted with an ethanol-water solvent ratio (80:20 and 50:50) using the ultrasoundassisted extractionmethod [28].

The number of phenolic compounds was measured by the Folin-Ciocaltio method [29] and flavonoid compounds by the method [30] and antioxidant activity tests such as the ferric reducing antioxidant power by method [31] and DPPH radical inhibition by method [32] and also beta-carotene discoloration test were performed by method [32].

#### **2.2 Oxidative stability of oil**

The carotenoid obtained from ultrasound extraction was added to soybean oil with a concentration of 100, 200, and 300 ppm. To evaluate the oxidative stability and the effect of carotenoids on the color of soybean oil, tests such as peroxide value, conjugated diene value, thiobarbituric acid value, and color measurement were performed. 100, 200, and 300 ppm concentrations were compared and soybean oil without antioxidants was also investigated. The samples were kept at 60°C for 8 days [26].

In another study, carotenoid obtained from supercritical CO2 was added to soybean oil with 10% and 15% ethanol with a concentration of 200 ppm. The tests mentioned in the previous research were also done in this research. Commercial betacarotene samples with 200 ppm concentration and soybean oil without antioxidants were also examined and compared. The samples were kept at 60°C for 8 days [27].

In ongoing research, quinoa extract (with chitosan wall) was nano-encapsulated. The nano-encapsulated extract was added to the cream. Then, the cream oil was separated from the cream, and then to measure the oxidative stability of the cream oil, the tests of the peroxide value, the thiobarbituric value, and the release of phenolic compounds of the nano-encapsulated extract in the cream oil.

#### *2.2.1 Peroxide value*

Oil peroxide value was done by method [33]. The measurement method is based on iodometric titration, where iodine produced from potassium iodide was measured by peroxide in soybean oil. The results of this study showed that 200 mg/kg of commercial and natural carotenoids obtained by ultrasonic bath extraction had the best performance in reducing the PV of soybean oil samples during storage [26]. Concentrations higher than 100–200 mg/kg increase produced peroxide [34].

Samples containing carotenoid extract by supercritical CO2 extraction with cosolvent ethanol of 10%, and 15% had significantly less peroxide content than samples containing commercial beta-carotene on most days of storage. With increasing storage time, the amount of peroxide increased in all samples containing antioxidants. All the samples on the first day of storage had significantly less peroxide than the samples on the last day of storage. The lowest amount of peroxide on the last day of storage with a value of 7.21 (mEq/kg of fat) was related to the sample containing carotenoid extract with supercritical CO2 extraction with 15% ethanol solvent [27].

In the ongoing study of quinoa extract on cream oil, the amount of peroxide value was measured by method [35]. In this research, some sample was mixed with acetic acid-chloroform solution in the saturated potassium iodide phase and placed in a dark place. Then distilled water and finally, starch glue reagent were added to it and titration of the sample was done with sodium thiosulfate. Along with the titration of the samples, the titration of the control sample was also performed [35].

#### *2.2.2 Conjugate diene value*

For this purpose, soybean oil samples were diluted with hexane (1:600 g/ml). Then, the absorbance of the diluted samples was measured at a wavelength of 234 nm against hexane as a control. To determine the concentration of conjugated diene formed during oxidation, the method of [36] was used. The conjugate diene value of soybean oil samples containing commercial beta-carotene and natural carotenoids obtained from ultrasound extraction at 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg during 8 days of storage at 60°C was investigated. The results showed that the conjugate diene value of the samples containing 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg of commercial antioxidants had an increasing trend in the amount of conjugate diene, which showed that the conjugate diene value in these three concentrations increased during storage. Samples containing 100 mg/kg of commercial beta-carotene had the lowest conjugate diene value during 8 days of storage and showed the lowest conjugate diene value (18.53 mmol/L) on the eighth day. The sample containing 100 mg/kg of natural carotenoids obtained from ultrasound extraction had the lowest conjugate diene value throughout the storage period and it was significantly different from the samples containing 300 mg/kg of natural carotenoids on the first day to the eighth day. According to the findings, it can be concluded that natural carotenoids with a concentration of 100 mg/kg had the highest antioxidant power with the lowest conjugate diene value (16.972 mmol/L) on the eighth day. The sample without antioxidants had the highest conjugate diene value (22.3172 mmol/L) among all samples. Samples containing commercial beta-carotene at the rate of 100 mg/kg had the lowest conjugate diene value until the eighth day. Similarly, those containing 100 mg/kg of natural carotenoids had the lowest conjugate diene value on day 8, that is, the lowest concentration of carotenoids had the greatest antioxidant effect in reducing conjugate diene value on the last day of storage [26].

#### *Quinoa and Its Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties and Application in the Food Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111646*

In another study, oil samples containing commercial beta-carotene and carotenoid extract by supercritical CO2 extraction method with auxiliary solvent ethanol 10%, 15% increased the amount of conjugated diene with increasing storage time and also in all samples on the first and last day. There was a significant difference in maintenance. Soybean oil containing carotenoid extract obtained from supercritical CO2 extraction with 10% ethanol and 15% ethanol cosolvent had a significantly lower conjugated diene value in most days of storage, especially in the last days of storage, compared to soybean oil containing commercial beta-carotene. The reason for its higher carotenoid content. On the last day of storage, soybean oil containing natural carotenoid extract by supercritical extraction method with 15% ethanol auxiliary solvent and soybean oil containing commercial beta-carotene with the lowest value of 16.032 mmol/L and the highest value of 19.60 mmol/L, respectively. They had the amount of conjugated diene [27].

#### *2.2.3 Thiobarbituric acid value*

A portion of the sample was transferred to a volumetric flask and made up to volume with 1-butanol. Then, the contents of the balloon were stirred. Thiobarbutyric acid reagent was added to the stirred solution. Next, the samples were placed in a water bath and then cooled for 10 min. Then, the absorbance of the solution at a wavelength of 530 nm was read by a spectrophotometer against the control sample. Finally, the amount of TBA was determined in terms of millimoles of malondialdehyde per kilogram of soybean oil according to the method of [37].

Thiobarbituric acid value is widely used as an indicator for the second product of lipid oxidation (malondialdehyde) [38]. The thiobarbituric acid values of soybean oil samples containing different concentrations (100, 200, and 300 mg/kg) of natural antioxidants bath ultrasound extraction obtained from commercial, and were investigated during 8 days of storage at 60°C. The amount of thiobarbituric acid increased during storage with the increase in the concentration of commercial beta-carotene, and the highest antioxidant effect was related to the lowest concentration (100 mg/kg), which had the lowest amount of thiobarbituric acid. On the eighth day of storage, the amount of thiobarbituric acid of soybean oil samples containing different concentrations (100, 200, and 300 mg/kg) of natural carotene was similar to commercial beta-carotene, the sample without antioxidants had the highest amount of thiobarbituric acid. It can be seen that the lowest concentration (100 mg/ kg) of both antioxidants was more efficient in reducing the amount of thiobarbituric acid [26]. This can be related to the pro-oxidant properties of carotenoids, including oxygen concentration, the chemical structure of carrot carotenoids, and the presence of other antioxidants such as polyphenols and tocopherols [39]. Not only carotenoids but also other antioxidants are beneficial in increasing the oxidative stability of oils up to a certain concentration above which the pro-oxidant effects of such compounds appear [40].

In another study, in the early days, the amount of thiobarbituric acid is low, but over time, the primary oxidation products increase and begin to decompose, and the amount of this index increases, and volatile aldehydes, the main cause of the bad taste of the oil, are formed. Although in samples containing carotenoid extract extracted with supercritical CO2 with 10% ethanol from the sixth day and samples containing beta-carotene and carotenoid extract extracted with 15% ethanol on the last day, the amount of thiobarbituric acid was lower than the previous day, which

could be due to the oxidation secondary autoxidation products and the formation of carboxylic acids [27].

In the ongoing study to measure thiobarbituric acid value, 1 mg of sample was mixed with 1 ml of thiobarbituric acid reagent and 3 ml of *n*-butanol and placed in a water bath at 95°C for 2 h. After cooling to room temperature (25°C), the absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 530 nm [41]. Likewise, the release of phenol in cream oil was also tested by the method [29] was measured.

#### **2.3 Color measurement**

The color of the oil samples containing antioxidants was evaluated using a colorimeter system using the \**b*\**a*\**L* method. *L* = parameters indicate brightness, \**a* = indicates red/green, and \**b* = indicates yellow/blue [33]. Samples containing commercial carotenoids had lower \**a* values than samples containing natural carotenoids obtained from bath ultrasound. The highest value was related to the sample with 300 mg/ kg of commercial beta-carotene on the eighth day, which was due to the use of this compound in the highest concentration Samples containing commercial carotenoids had lower \**a* values than samples containing carotenoids obtained from natural bath ultrasound. Samples containing commercial antioxidants had higher \**b* values than samples containing natural antioxidants. Because commercial beta-carotene was more yellow than natural carotenoid [26]. In all oils containing carotenoid extract obtained from supercritical CO2 and commercial beta-carotene, the amount of \**b* is higher than zero and positive and is in the range of yellow color. The amount of index \**b* of a sample containing carotenoid extracts extracted by the supercritical CO2 method was higher due to the yellowness of the carotenoid extract added to the oil compared to commercial beta-carotene. Samples containing commercial beta-carotene showed a significant difference during storage at 60°C. There was none between them. The amount of parameter \**a* in most samples is lower than zero and negative, which can be due to the changes of carotenoid pigments in the oil during storage. The carotenoid extract extracted by the supercritical method with the help of 15%, and 10% ethanol solvents reduced the transparency of the oil samples due to its turbidity and yellowish color. Therefore, they had a significantly lower amount of \**L* than the samples containing commercial beta-carotene [27].

#### **3. Conclusion**

In general, in these two studies, quinoa carotenoids were extracted by ultrasound and supercritical CO2 methods with the help of 10%, and 15% ethanol solvents, and the total content of extracted carotenoids was measured. Since supercritical carbon dioxide is a suitable solvent for the extraction of carotenoids with low polarity and the selectivity of carotenoids with the supercritical CO2 method is high and it produces a purer extract than the ultrasound method, as a result, the carotenoid content is higher with the supercritical CO2 method than with the supercritical CO2 method. Obtained by ultrasound method. In this sense, the supercritical CO2 method showed very good performance compared to the ultrasound method. On the other hand, the supercritical CO2 with the help of 15% ethanol solvent obtained more carotenoid content due to more interaction with the sample matrix than with the help of 10% solvent. Today, in the edible oil industry, synthetic antioxidants such as commercial beta-carotenes are used to improve oil color and strengthen oil to delay oxidation reactions. However,

#### *Quinoa and Its Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties and Application in the Food Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111646*

due to the bad nutritional effects of these synthetic antioxidants and consumers' preference for natural antioxidants, their use as a substitute for synthetic antioxidants has attracted the attention of researchers. Therefore, there is the extraction of carotenoids from red quinoa and its use as a natural antioxidant in soybean oil. The extracted carotenoid extract was purified by ultrasound method and the extracted carotenoid extract by the supercritical CO2 method as natural antioxidants and commercial beta-carotene as artificial antioxidant were added to soybean oil and all in the same conditions in the oven with a temperature of 60°C for 8 days. To check the oxidation stability of soybean oil by adding the desired antioxidants and to check their antioxidant properties in preventing the formation of primary and secondary oxidation products, the methods of measuring the amount of peroxide, conjugated diene, and thiobarbituric acid were used. The antioxidant showed the highest oxidation rate on most days of storage compared to samples containing antioxidants. Therefore, commercial and natural carotenoids had similar efficiency and there was no direct relationship between carotenoid concentration and its antioxidant effect. As a result, red quinoa carotenoid can be a good substitute for commercial beta-carotene in soybean oil. The extraction of the carotenoid extract with the help of ultrasound and supercritical CO2 is an alternative based on the principles of green and efficient chemistry in obtaining heat-sensitive natural pigments, which have the potential to be used in food and pharmaceutical fields.

#### **Author details**

Reza Esmaeilzadeh Kenari1 \* and Maryam Azizkhani<sup>2</sup>

1 Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University (SANRU), Sari, Iran

2 Amol University of Special Modern Technologies, Amol, Iran

\*Address all correspondence to: reza\_kenari@yahoo.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Multari S, Marsol-Vall A, Keskitalo M, Yang B, Suomela JP. Effects of different drying temperatures on the content of phenolic compounds and carotenoids in quinoa seeds (Chenopodium quinoa) from Finland. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2018;**72**:75- 82. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2018.06.008

[2] Sezgin AC, Sanlier N. A new generation plant for the conventional cuisine: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2019;**86**:51-58. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.02.039

[3] Lin TA, Ke BJ, Cheng CS, Wang JJ, Wei BL, Lee CL. Red quinoa bran extracts protects against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury and fibrosis in mice via activation of antioxidative enzyme systems and blocking TGF-β1 pathway. Nutrients. 2019;**11**(2):395. DOI: 10.3390/ nu11020395

[4] Tang Y, Li X, Chen PX, Zhang B, Liu R, Hernandez M, et al. Assessing the fatty acid, carotenoid, and tocopherol compositions of amaranth and quinoa seeds grown in Ontario and their overall contribution to nutritional quality. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2016;**64**(5):1103-1110. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05414

[5] Złotek U, Gawlik-Dziki U, Dziki D, Świeca M, Nowak R, Martinez E. Influence of drying temperature on phenolic acids composition and antioxidant activity of sprouts and leaves of white and red quinoa. Journal of Chemistry. 2019;**12**:2019. DOI: 10.1155/2019/7125169

[6] Piñuel L, Boeri P, Zubillaga F, Barrio DA, Torreta J, Cruz A, et al. Production of white, red and black quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd Var. Real) protein isolates and its hydrolysates in germinated and non-germinated quinoa samples and antioxidant activity evaluation. Plants. 2019;**8**(8):257. DOI: 10.3390/plants8080257

[7] Rivera-Madrid R, Carballo-Uicab VM, Cárdenas-Conejo Y, Aguilar-Espinosa M, Siva R. Overview of carotenoids and beneficial effects on human health. In: Carotenoids: Properties, Processing and Applications. Academic Press; 2020. pp. 1-40. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-817067-0.00001-4

[8] da Silveira VM, de Oliveira LM, Nunes-Pinheiro DC, da Silva Mendes FR, de Sousa FD, de Siqueira OL, et al. Analysis of tetraterpenes and tetraterpenoids (carotenoids). In: Recent Advances in Natural Products Analysis. Elsevier; 2020. pp. 427-456. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816455-6.00012-3

[9] Rodriguez-Amaya DB. Update on natural food pigments—A mini-review on carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains. Food Research International. 2019;**124**:200-205. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodres.2018.05.028

[10] Maoka T. Carotenoids as natural functional pigments. Journal of Natural Medicines. 2020;**74**(1):1-6. DOI: 10.1007/ s11418-019-01364-x

[11] Cheng SH, Khoo HE, Kong KW, Prasad KN, Galanakis CM. Extraction of carotenoids and applications. In: Carotenoids: Properties, Processing and Applications. Academic Press; 2020. pp. 259-288. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-817067-0.00008-7

[12] Hatta FA, Othman R. Carotenoids as potential biocolorants: A case study *Quinoa and Its Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties and Application in the Food Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111646*

of astaxanthin recovered from shrimp waste. In: Carotenoids: Properties, Processing and Applications. Academic Press; 2020. pp. 289-325. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-817067-0.00009-9

[13] Del Mar C-GM,

Gómez-Caravaca AM. Underutilized sources of carotenoids. In: Carotenoids: Properties, Processing and Applications. Academic Press; 2020. pp. 107-147. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-817067-0.00004-X

[14] Saini RK, Keum YS. Carotenoid extraction methods: A review of recent developments. Food Chemistry. 2018;**240**:90-103. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2017.07.099

[15] Black HS, Boehm F, Edge R, Truscott TG. The benefits and risks of certain dietary carotenoids that exhibit both anti-and pro-oxidative mechanisms—A comprehensive review. Antioxidants. 2020;**9**(3):264. DOI: 10.3390/antiox9030264

[16] Ilaiyaraja N, Likhith KR, Babu GS, Khanum F. Optimisation of extraction of bioactive compounds from Feronia limonia (wood apple) fruit using response surface methodology (RSM). Food Chemistry. 2015;**173**:348-354. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.10.035

[17] D'Alessandro LG, Dimitrov K, Vauchel P, Nikov I. Kinetics of ultrasound assisted extraction of anthocyanins from Aronia melanocarpa (black chokeberry) wastes. Chemical Engineering Research and Design. 2014;**92**(10):1818-1826. DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2013.11.020

[18] Molino A, Mehariya S, Iovine A, Larocca V, Di Sanzo G, Martino M, et al. Extraction of astaxanthin and lutein from microalga Haematococcus pluvialis in the red phase using CO2 supercritical fluid extraction technology with ethanol as co-solvent. Marine Drugs. 2018;**16**(11):432. DOI: 10.3390/ md16110432

[19] Bera D, Lahiri D, Nag A. Studies on a natural antioxidant for stabilization of edible oil and comparison with synthetic antioxidants. Journal of Food Engineering. 2006;**74**(4):542-545. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.03.042

[20] Sharma S, Cheng SF, Bhattacharya B, Chakkaravarthi S. Efficacy of free and encapsulated natural antioxidants in oxidative stability of edible oil: Special emphasis on nanoemulsion-based encapsulation. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2019;(91):305-318. DOI: 10.1016/j. tifs.2019.07.030

[21] Kaur D, Sogi DS, Wani AA. Oxidative stability of soybean triacylglycerol using carotenoids and y-tocopherol. International Journal of Food Properties. 2015;**18**(12):2605-2613. DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2013.803118

[22] Steenson DF, Min DB. Effects of β-carotene and lycopene thermal degradation products on the oxidative stability of soybean oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 2000;**77**:1153-1160. DOI: 10.1007/ s11746-000-0181-7

[23] Macías-Sánchez MD, Mantell C, Rodriguez MD, De La Ossa EM, Lubián LM, Montero O. Comparison of supercritical fluid and ultrasoundassisted extraction of carotenoids and chlorophyll a from Dunaliella salina. Talanta. 2009;**77**(3):948-952. DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2008.07.032

[24] de Andrade LM, Kestekoglou I, Charalampopoulos D, Chatzifragkou A. Supercritical fluid extraction of carotenoids from vegetable waste matrices. Molecules. 2019;**24**(3):466. DOI: 10.3390/ molecules24030466

[25] Mai HC, Truong V, Debaste F. Carotenoids purification from gac (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng.) fruit oil. Journal of Food Engineering. 2016;**172**:2-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.09.022

[26] Abdolahi Alkami P, Esmaeilzadeh Kenari R, Farahmandfar R, Azizkhani M. Investigation of the antioxidant effect of red quinoa (Chenopodium formosanum Koidz) carotenoid extracted on the oxidative stability of soybean oil. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 2022;**46**(3):e16406. DOI: 10.1111/ jfpp.16406

[27] Abdolahi P, Esmaeilzadeh Kenari R, Farahmandfar R, Azizkhani M. Antioxidant effect of red quinoa carotenoid extract obtained by supercritical fluid extraction on soybean oil stabilization. Journal of Food Research. 2023;**33**(1):83-96. DOI: 10.22034/fr.2022.50727.1827

[28] Arlene AA, Prima KA, Utama L, Anggraini SA. The preliminary study of the dye extraction from the avocado seed using ultrasonic assisted extraction. Procedia Chemistry. 2015;**16**:334-340. DOI: 10.1016/j.proche.2015.12.061

[29] Acquadro S, Appleton S, Marengo A, Bicchi C, Sgorbini B, Mandrone M, et al. Grapevine green pruning residues as a promising and sustainable source of bioactive phenolic compounds. Molecules. 2020;**25**(3):464. DOI: 10.3390/molecules25030464

[30] Shraim AM, Ahmed TA, Rahman MM, Hijji YM. Determination of total flavonoid content by aluminum chloride assay: A critical evaluation. LWT. 2021;**150**:111932. DOI: 10.1016/j. lwt.2021.111932

[31] Agregán R, Lorenzo JM, Munekata PE, Dominguez R, Carballo J, Franco D. Assessment of the antioxidant activity of Bifurcaria bifurcata aqueous extract on canola oil. Effect of extract concentration on the oxidation stability and volatile compound generation during oil storage. Food Research International. 2017;**99**:1095-1102. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodres.2016.10.029

[32] Saviz A, Esmaeilzadeh Kenari R, Khalilzadeh Kelagar MA. Investigation of cultivate zone and ultrasound on antioxidant activity of Fenugreek leaf extract. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences. 2015;**4**(11S):174-181. DOI: 10.1006/ abbi.1995.019

[33] Nour V, Corbu AR, Rotaru P, Karageorgou I, Lalas S. Effect of carotenoids, extracted from dry tomato waste, on the stability and characteristics of various vegetable oils. Grasas y Aceites. 2018;**69**(1):e238. DOI: 10.3989/ gya.0994171

[34] Tsuchihashi H, Kigoshi M, Iwatsuki M, Niki E. Action of β-carotene as an antioxidant against lipid peroxidation. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 1995;**323**(1):137-147. DOI: 10.1006/abbi.1995.0019

[35] Deepika D, Vegneshwaran VR, Julia P, Sukhinder KC, Sheila T, Heather M, et al. Investigation on oil extraction methods and its influence on omega-3 content from cultured salmon. Journal of Food Processing and Technology. 2014;**5**(12):1-3. DOI: 10.4172/2157-7110.1000401

[36] Saguy IS, Shani A, Weinberg P, Garti N. Utilization of jojoba oil for deep-fat frying of foods. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 1996;**29**(5-6):573-577. DOI: 10.1006/ fstl.1996.0088

*Quinoa and Its Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties and Application in the Food Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111646*

[37] Ojagh SM, Rezaei M, Razavi SH, Hosseini SM. Effect of chitosan coatings enriched with cinnamon oil on the quality of refrigerated rainbow trout. Food Chemistry. 2010;**120**(1):193-198. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.10.006

[38] Razavi R, Maghsoudlou Y, Aalami M, Ghorbani M. Impact of carboxymethyl cellulose coating enriched with Thymus vulgaris L. extract on physicochemical, microbial, and sensorial properties of fresh hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) during storage. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 2021;**45**(4):e15313. DOI: 10.1111/ jfpp.15313

[39] Shixian Q, Dai Y, Kakuda Y, Shi J, Mittal G, Yeung D, et al. Synergistic antioxidative effects of lycopene with other bioactive compounds. Food Reviews International. 2005;**21**(3):295-311. DOI: 10.1080/FRI-200061612

[40] Moure A, Cruz JM, Franco D, Domı́nguez JM, Sineiro J, Domı́nguez H, et al. Natural antioxidants from residual sources. Food Chemistry. 2001;**72**(2):145-171. DOI: 10.1016/ S0308-8146(00)00223-5

[41] Qiu H, Qiu Z, Chen Z, Liu L, Wang J, Jiang H, et al. Antioxidant properties of blueberry extract in different oleogel systems. LWT. 2021;**137**:110364. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110364

#### **Chapter 4**

## Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review

*Nataly Peña, Sergio Minguez and Juan-David Escobar*

#### **Abstract**

Amaranth grain is a pseudocereal that has been widely studied, standing out as a gluten-free seed and plant-based protein source. Amaranth seeds have been associated with functional properties and attractive medical benefits. Besides the seeds themselves, various other parts of the plant possess significant nutritional and functional value. Thus, on one hand, this chapter summarizes an overview of amaranth seeds, leaves, and flowers. Apart from this, recent research and studies have reported on amaranth's composition, its uses, and potential benefits for human health. This chapter also offers insight into the global socioeconomic scenario of farmers and producers. Possible strategies that include biotechnology, ingredient innovation, and ethical biotrade have been proposed here. These three fronts, acting synergistically, would exploit the considerable diversity of these species and promote programs to improve the value chain and, therefore, the life quality of their communities.

**Keywords:** amaranth, nutrition, pseudocereal, biotrade, functional ingredients

#### **1. Introduction**

Amaranth has been consumed throughout history as a staple food by the Inca, Maya, and Aztec civilizations like quinoa and chia seeds [1]. In the 1980s, an increase in interest in amaranth appeared as the US National Academy of Sciences conducted research on the grain and described its high nutritional value and agronomic potential [2]. Because of the growing demand for healthy foods, amaranth has gained recognition in countries where its consumption was not traditional. This recognition has been further supported by recent literature reviews focused on aspects such as the adaptation of amaranth to traditional cuisines [3, 4] as well as the functional and nutraceutical properties of this pseudocereal [5].

Amaranthus or amaranth comes from the Greek amarantos (Αμάρανθος or Αμάραντος), meaning the "one that does not wither," or the never-fading (flower) [6]. Several species of the genus are commonly referred to as weeds, while other species are used as leafy vegetables in many parts of the world [7]. Grain amaranth belongs to the order Caryophyllales, the amaranth family Amaranthaceae, which comprises 65 genera and 850 species, subfamily Amaranthoideae, genus *Amaranthus,* which

includes 50–60 species cultivated for leaf (greens) and grains. It equally includes a few wild species. The important leaf amaranth species are *Amaranthus tricolor* (syn. *A. gangeticus, A. tristis, A. mangostanus, A. polygamous, and A. meloncholicus)*, *A. dubius*, and *A. lividus* (*Amaranthus blitum*). In recent years, *A. caudatus L., Amaranthus hypochondriacus L., and A. cruentus L.* are the species that have created a strong interest in seed production [8].

All the grain of amaranth's real origin is traced to Central and South America. Notwithstanding, with some species such as *Amaranthus tricolor* are believed to be a native of India or southern China; *A. lividus* is reported to be a native of south or Central Europe, whereas *A. dubius* is from Central America [9]. It makes sense that the key producers are mostly in several South American countries, along with China, India, Russia, and Kenya [10].

Although amaranth production is not registered by the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), it is currently widely cultivated in several countries, including Nepal, Indonesia, Malaysia, Central America, Mexico, and Southern and Eastern Africa [11].

The data shows the strong influence of worldwide amaranth cultivation and the socioeconomic impact generated on farm families. This situation is overshadowed by the brightness of a food gem, which raises interest in its nutritional and functional properties. It should be noted that the leaves and flowers of amaranth have a high antioxidant activity compared with other parts of the plant and many other traditional leafy greens [12, 13].

This review begins with a summary of the composition, the functional properties, and the uses of the different anatomical parts of amaranth. Then, a comparative discussion among the results found in seeds, leaves, and flowers is presented. Finally, the current farmer scenario is analyzed.

#### **2. Functional properties of different parts of the Amaranth plant**

Overall, amaranth is a highly nutritious plant that can provide a range of important nutrients when consumed in its various forms. It is well known that the amaranth seed has been reporting outstanding nutritional and health properties. It is significant to note that other parts of the plant have also shown interesting functional potential. Therefore, the nutritional and functional aspects of the amaranth seed, leaves, and flowers are described separately below.

#### **2.1 Amaranth seed**

Amaranth seeds are a great source of plant-based protein, fiber, and several essential vitamins and minerals. They are high in lysine, an essential amino acid that is often lacking in grains. Amaranth seeds are also a good source of iron, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus. Amaranth seeds contain antioxidants, such as vitamin E and phenolic compounds, which may help to protect against cellular damage.

Amaranth seed is a dicotyledonous pseudocereal that has been consumed for thousands of years. It is known for its many health benefits. The protein content of the amaranth seed is superior to that of cereals, making it a highly nutritious food.

Extensive research has shown that amaranth seeds are also well-balanced. They are rich in protein content of between 12% and 16% and have an excellent balance of essential amino acids in their peptides. These peptide-rich fractions exhibit various

*Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

health benefits, including antioxidant, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, anticoagulant, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral activities [12]. This leads to a reduction in plasma cholesterol levels. It also has antitumor effects, lowers blood sugar levels, and treats anemia [1].

In addition to being rich in protein, amaranth seeds are good sources of crude fiber, dietary fiber, and minerals, especially calcium, iron, and potassium [13]. This translates into a remarkable nutritional profile, and it can be used in a variety of dishes, including salads, soups, and baked goods, making it an excellent option as an additive to improve the nutritional profile of other foods [8]. Finally, as a gluten-free ingredient for people with coeliac disease or gluten intolerance, the flour obtained from milling amaranth seeds has become a great alternative.

Amaranth seeds have been shown to improve the antioxidant potential of baked cookies [14, 15], and they have been used to make functional cookies with antithrombotic and antihypertensive activities [16]. Even after thermal and enzymatic treatments, end-consumer products derived from amaranth showed antioxidant capacity, which further increased after *in vitro* digestion [17]. Altogether, amaranth seeds exhibit antioxidant activity attributed to their content of polyphenols, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and tocopherols [18], which can help to prevent damage to cells and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. This proves once again the high potential of amaranth seeds as a source of functional ingredients.

#### **2.2 Amaranth leaves**

Amaranth leaves are a highly nutritious vegetable that is commonly eaten in many parts of the world. They are rich in vitamins A, C, and K, with a higher content of vitamin C than spinach and cabbage. These essential vitamins are involved in the healthy functioning of the immune system and can help to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

While amaranth leaves and stems contain high levels of several vitamins, they also contain riboflavin (vitamin B2), vitamin B6, folate, and niacin. Amaranth leaves also contain minerals such as calcium, iron, and magnesium [19]. Amaranth leaves are a nutritious vegetable with many health benefits when incorporated into a balanced diet, making it a healthy and nutrient-dense food [20].

It has been reported that amaranth leaves and their products are a valuable source of protein, calcium, iron, and ß-carotene [21]. Certain baked goods made with amaranth leaves were found to have significantly higher protein, fat, ash, and fiber content than their counterparts, while all fortified products had notably higher levels of calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc [22].

Compared to other edible leaves, amaranth leaves are known for their high protein content. Furthermore, studies have shown that extracts derived from the leaves possess a superior antioxidant capacity compared to those obtained from the seeds [23]. This has been confirmed *in vitro* in both the leaves and flowers of the amaranth plant [24].

Specifically, high concentrations of hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, such as caffeoylaldaric and -isocitric esters, have been found in amaranth leaves, although flavonoids and carotenoids were found in moderate concentrations compared to other leafy vegetables [25]. These unique compounds have been linked to potential health [26] and cosmetic benefits [27], including controlling lipids and obesity.

Additionally, tannins extracted from amaranth leaves have been identified as a promising source of antioxidants that may be used as food-preserving agents or as dietary supplements [28].

Concerning the unique antioxidant components found in amaranth vegetables, betalains (beta-cyanins and betaxanthins) and their physiological functions such as antioxidant, anti-lipidemic, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities are also emphasized [29].

Amaranth leaves are a versatile ingredient. They can be used in a variety of dishes, including soups, stews, and salads. Amaranth leaf infusions have also been used for treating anemia, chronic fatigue, diarrhea, coughing, and heavy menstrual bleeding, and even for soothing itchy, burning skin, and cleaning wounds [30]. The consumption of amaranth vegetables is also considered medicinal for young children, breastfeeding mothers, and patients suffering from constipation, fever, hemorrhage, anemia, and renal problems [31]. In this sense, some studies have proposed the incorporation of amaranth leaf flour in processed foods such as pasta, resulting in higher levels of iron, zinc, magnesium, potassium, and higher antioxidant capacity values after cooking [32]. Consumer acceptance of pasta made with amaranth leaf flour was found to be like that of pasta made with spinach. Once again, amaranth leaves have demonstrated their innate potential to increase the functional benefits of food and to improve human nutrition.

#### **2.3 Amaranth flowers**

Amaranth flowers are often used for ornamental purposes in gardens and floral arrangements. Furthermore, they are a good source of several important nutrients. They contain vitamin A, folate, and potassium, and they are particularly rich in vitamin C. Amaranth flowers also have certain health benefits due to their high antioxidant capacity. This depends on the flavonoid content.

Purple amaranth flowers contain higher levels of flavonoids than red amaranth flowers, which makes them particularly beneficial [33]. It is known that amaranth species are attractive sources of betalain because of the broad range of pigmentation [34]. Due to the global status of amaranth as a food, one of the major applications of amaranth flowers is as a natural food coloring agent.

Phenolic compounds found in the flowers include gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid, 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, genistein, ellagic acid, feluric acid, and salicylic acid. Rutin, quercetin, and kaempferol-3-rutinoside are also found. It is worth noting that although all parts of the plant have been analyzed, chlorogenic acid is the only compound detected in flowers [35]. Moreover, even though the tannin content is higher in the leaves, the amounts of it found in the flower still represent a potential antitumor agent [28].

Similarly, although the inflorescence of amaranth contains only half the amount of rutin compared to the leaves, the amaranth plant could still be an excellent source of this antioxidant in the human diet [36]. Food additives with a high content of betacyanin, obtained from amaranth flowers, showed higher stability, even after they were incorporated into biscuits [37].

Despite its potential health benefits, the amaranth flower has not been widely used as a foodstuff, so its properties have been studied only to a limited extent. However, the flowers have been used as a remedy for diarrhea, dysentery, coughs, and bleeding [38].

An important finding is that extracts from the flower of the amaranth plant have a valuable potential as an antimicrobial agent. Amaranth stem and flower showed higher antimicrobial activity than root and leaves against five strains of bacteria including *Staphylococcus* sp*., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas* sp*., Klebsiella* sp*., Paracoccus* sp.*,* and three strains of fungi including *Fusarium* spp., *Aspergillus* spp.,

*Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

and *Alternaria* spp. [38]. Furthermore, the globe amaranth flower was reported to have antibacterial bioactivity against *P. aeruginosa* [39]. This indicates great potential for its use in medical applications and the food and agricultural industry.

#### **3. Comparative discussion**

Amaranth has been extensively employed in food products throughout history due to its favorable nutritional value, as shown in **Table 1**. Despite anatomical and species variations in the *Amaranthus* plant, numerous studies have consistently shown that it contains various bioactive compounds (as listed in **Table 2**) and functional properties (as described in **Table 3**) that support human health. Recent research has further reinforced these findings, providing additional evidence of the beneficial effects of amaranth on human health.


#### **Table 1.**

*Nutritional value of Amaranth spp.*



*Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

#### **Table 2.**

*Biochemical studies validating bioactive compounds of Amaranthus spp.*

Apart from the anatomical parts of the plant discussed earlier, studies have also investigated the functional properties of whole plant extracts. The entire plant has been found to possess numerous beneficial properties such as wound-healing


**Table 3.** *Biochemical studies validating functional and health properties of Amaranthus spp.* *Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

acceleration and antimicrobial activities [81, 87] gut modulatory and bronchodilator effects [88], anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anthelmintic activities [75, 89], and even anticancer properties [90], among others.

Although the current data suggests significant potential for functional properties in the seeds and leaves of the amaranth plant, additional research is needed to explore the potential antibacterial, antioxidant, and antifungal properties of the flower. These properties could have promising applications in fields such as phytosanitary and pharmaceuticals. Furthermore, while extensive research has been conducted on the nutritional potential of the grain and leaves, there are no available reports on the nutrient profile of the flower.

Amaranth, particularly the vegetable variety, is commonly consumed as a source of protein in sauces, soups, or cooked with other vegetables as a side dish or standalone meal [91]. It is also utilized in processed foods such as pasta [92], biscuits, and snacks [22]. Furthermore, extracts from the flower and leaves have been integrated into active and smart packaging films [22]. While traditionally consumed in infusions, flower extract has also been used as a food additive [37].

Amaranth seeds can be processed in various ways such as popping, flaking, extruding, and grinding into flour. The resulting flour can be combined with wheat or other flour to make a variety of baked goods [91]. Other interesting proposals include using amaranth as a food supplement [93], a binder for meat burgers, cream soups, and sauces [94], and as an alternative like cow's milk in beverages [94].

Further research is necessary to comprehensively explore the nutritional and functional properties of all parts of the amaranth plant, especially the flower, which remains relatively underexplored. Nonetheless, based on the available information, amaranth offers multiple health benefits and has various potential applications, notably in its leaves and seeds. Despite this, research on the flower has been limited, despite its potential health benefits that may rival those of the leaves.

#### **4. Current scenario of amaranth farmers**

The global situation of amaranth producers is diverse. While amaranth's high nutritional value and versatility in cooking are driving an increase in demand and production in some countries, there are also concerns regarding the sustainability of its production and its potential negative impact on the environment and small-scale farmers' livelihoods. The economic and social conditions of amaranth farmers differ based on the size and location of production.

Small-scale farmers operating in areas affected by migration, economic instability, and environmental degradation often belong to the rural poor. A 2008 report presented at the IFOAM Organic World Congress [95] indicated that amaranth was viewed as an alternative crop and livelihood that could provide valuable resources to these farmers in addressing these challenges. Amaranth is adaptable to extreme conditions such as drought and saline soils, making it particularly valuable for small farmers in the central and southern regions of Mexico. Nevertheless, the economic and social status of amaranth farmers varies depending on the region and the scale of production.

Small amaranth farmers face several limitations, one of which is the monopolization practices developed by certain associations. These practices include the transfer of knowledge and technology, seed distribution, and contact with potential national and foreign buyers. To support small-scale livelihoods, the government can take a

more proactive role by establishing stricter requirements for cooperatives to ensure that small farmers are included as true partners or co-owners.

It is important to consider the entire value chain when promoting sustainable livelihoods in amaranth. Therefore, national consumer associations, particularly in European markets, can play a vital role by demanding more active and tangible participation of small farmers associated with cooperatives that control the amaranth value chain. This can ensure that small farmers are included as true partners or co-owners and can benefit from the knowledge, technology, and seed distribution practices developed by these cooperatives. By doing so, consumer associations can contribute to the promotion of fair and sustainable trade practices that benefit smallscale amaranth farmers and their communities.

According to a study carried out in Kenya, the production of amaranth faces several economic and environmental challenges. These challenges include droughts, limited awareness about crop utilization, inadequate seed supply, lack of market access, competition with other cereals, insufficient value-added equipment, low and unstable prices, limited knowledge about packaging, inadequate capital, and pest and disease pressure. The study indicated that farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to amaranth production, value addition, and utilization were relatively low due to insufficient technical support.

Studies have shown that crop diversification through intercropping can lead to yield increases in amaranth production, compared to monoculture. However, despite its benefits, only around half of Kenyan farmers practice intercropping [96]. Intercropping also serves other purposes such as medicinal, commercial, and animal feed purposes. Gender and education levels were found to have a significant positive effect on the adoption of intercropping in amaranth crops, with women being more likely to adopt the practice since they provide most of the agricultural labor for food production. However, women face several challenges in accessing key productive resources such as land, labor, and capital, and are often disadvantaged in terms of education and knowledge. Cultural factors also limit women's access to extension meetings and the transfer of knowledge.

In contrast to the previous study, a study conducted in Kampala found that more men were involved in the cultivation of amaranth than women, suggesting a potential shift in gender roles [97]. While female farmers primarily grew amaranth for personal consumption, male farmers focused on generating income. This study also highlighted the economic, employment, and social benefits of amaranth cultivation. Specifically, improved land use and increased empowerment of women were observed as potential social impacts. Social capital in the form of social groups is another way to empower women in agricultural production, leading to greater gender equality and increased income. It was noted that women have access to social capital, and households can acquire more assets such as land, livestock, and irrigation. Extension programs and services, such as training and mentoring, should consider the triple role that women play in creating equal opportunities.

Amaranth is a more competitive crop compared to others, primarily due to its short growth cycle, which enables farmers to obtain income quickly. The additional income generated is used for subsistence and to improve amaranth production by purchasing better agricultural inputs, resulting in greater capital obtained from the sale of products. The adoption of modern agronomic practices, including domestic agriculture and the use of small spaces, could promote sustainable and better land use. However, the overall observation shows that most households are growing amaranth using rudimentary technology [10]. This is combined with existing agricultural *Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

challenges in developing countries, such as limited land access, high labor costs, lack of irrigation facilities, fertilizer scarcity, poor transportation, poor market channels, and lack of financial support exacerbate the situation.

Various recent studies have come to a similar conclusion that amaranth can enhance household livelihoods owing to several benefits, including high productivity and stress tolerance, high nutritional and bioactive content, and significance for both household and industrial purposes. Nonetheless, the cultivation of amaranth grain confronts challenges such as inadequate availability of high-quality seeds, insufficient awareness of effective agronomic practices, and weak farmer organizations resulting in weak connections with political bodies, extension services, and research institutions.

The cultivation of protein crops and support for farmers is encouraged by the European Union (EU). The EU has implemented many initiatives including Protein2Food, the Green Deal, or the Common Agricultural Policy [98]. Protein2Food, for instance, aims to increase the production of selected protein crops such as quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat, lupin, fava beans, chickpeas, and lentils by improving their quality and quantity.

According to the report from MarketsandMarkets, the protein ingredients market offers several opportunities [99], including the following:


In this sense, the growing demand for plant-based ingredients in natural cosmetics and finished food products is expected to drive the amaranth grain market expansion. This growth is further enhanced by opportunities arising from the popularity of international cuisines, creating marketing opportunities for pulses, and promoting "new" ancient grains such as natural breakfast cereals, pasta, bakery, and healthy snacks [100]. However, research and development into industrial uses of underutilized crops are mainly taking place in developed countries, with the support of their policies, which may not be appropriate for developing countries. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the promotion of appropriate scales of development in line with local conditions in these countries.

Developing a network for stakeholders in grain amaranth is imperative. The goal of this network should be to facilitate knowledge and resource sharing and coordinate actions. One effective approach would be to include ethical biotrade practices [101], which promote good practices for companies and their suppliers in harvesting, collecting, or cultivating biodiverse ingredients in a way that is respectful of the local environment and communities. Moreover, in addition to generating new knowledge and technologies, researchers must also prioritize technology transfer, leveraging new knowledge and technology to enhance processes and empower stakeholders. Recognizing the crucial role of farmers in amaranth production, it is essential to involve them throughout the entire process.

Collaboration among all stakeholders involved in the production, marketing, and sale of amaranth products is crucial to fully realize the potential of this crop. This requires a joint effort from farmers, researchers, extension workers, processors, marketers, and policymakers to promote amaranth cultivation, develop valueadded products, and create effective marketing channels to increase the demand and sale of amaranth products. By working together, they can maximize amaranth's economic, social, and health benefits, ultimately improving the livelihoods of those involved in its production and consumption. Moreover, it is important to establish unanimous policies and regulations to raise awareness and generate support for amaranth production and consumption, while aiming to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

#### **5. Conclusions**

During this review, we discussed the composition and functional properties of the different parts of the amaranth plant, including the seeds, the leaves, and the flowers. While most research has focused on the seeds due to their high nutritional content and versatility, recent studies have shown that the leaves and flowers exhibit even greater antioxidant activity. However, research on the flower has been limited in the past and should receive more attention in upcoming studies. Developing and promoting amaranth species that are both highly nutritious and resilient to environmental stress is essential for achieving sustainable agricultural systems.

To ensure the sustainability of amaranth farming and construct a resilient food system for future societies, it is crucial to consider the economic and social situation of amaranth farmers, which varies depending on the region and scale of production. However, initiatives to support and promote these farmers can positively impact their livelihoods and well-being. Achieving a sustainable food system requires ensuring the availability of high-quality and nutritious food for present and future generations, while also promoting the well-being of farmers and minimizing environmental impacts. This can be accomplished by distributing nutritious and healthy foods using ethical biotrade practices and through balanced and synergistic work among all stakeholders, including political and research entities.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The authors want to thank Purificación García, Javier Martínez, and Marta Igual from the Food Investigation and Innovation Group, Food Technology Department, Universitat Politècnic a de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 València, Spain.

*Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

This review was funded by the Valencian Innovation Agency (AVI). Project: Design and Development of New Food Products based on Natural and Sustainable Ingredients with High Nutritional Value and Gluten-Free. Reference number INNTA2/2021/15. Talent Promotion Program. Incorporation Line 2.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

### **Author details**

Nataly Peña\*, Sergio Minguez and Juan-David Escobar\* Qomer BioActive Ingredients S.L. Valencia, Av Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch, Valencia, Spain

\*Address all correspondence to: ngomez@qomer.eu and jescobar@qomer.eu

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Kumar Maurya N, Arya P. Amaranthus grain nutritional benefits: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2018;**7**(2):2258-2262

[2] National Research Council Amaranth. Modern Prospects for an Ancient Crop. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; 1984

[3] Dixit AA, Azar KM, Gardner CD, Palaniappan LP. Incorporation of whole, ancient grains into a modern Asian Indian diet to reduce the burden of chronic disease. Nutrition Reviews. 2011;**69**:479-488. DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00411.x

[4] Boukid F, Folloni S, Sforza S, Vittadini E, Prandi B. Current trends in ancient grains-based foodstuffs: Insights into nutritional aspects and technological applications. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2018;**17**:123-136. DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12315

[5] Shahbaz M, Raza N, Islam M, Imran M, Ahmad I, Meyyazhagan A, et al. The nutraceutical properties and health benefits of Pseudocereals: A comprehensive treatise. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2022:1-13. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2071205

[6] Kumari A, Arunabh J, S, R.M., Radheshyam, S. Assessment of the morphological and molecular diversity in Amaranthus Spp. Afr. Journal of Agricultural Research. 2013;**8**:2307-2311. DOI: 10.5897/AJAR12.1802

[7] Stallknecht GF, Schulz-Schaeffer JR. In: Janick J, Simon JE, editors. Amaranth Rediscovered. New York: Wiley; 1993. pp. 211-218

[8] Luis GM, Hernández Hernández BR, Peña Caballero V, Torres López G,

Martínez Espinoza VA, Ramírez Pacheco L. Usos Actuales y Potenciales Del Amaranto (*Amaranthus* Spp.) current and potential uses of Amaranth (*Amaranthus* Spp.). JONNPR. 2018;**3**:423-436. DOI: 10.19230/ jonnpr.2410

[9] Sreelathakumary I, Peter KV. 22 - Amaranth: Amarathus spp. In: Kalloo G, Bergh BO, editors. Genetic Improvement of Vegetable Crops. Pergamon; 1993. pp. 315-323. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08- 040826-2.50026-6. ISBN 9780080408262

[10] Aderibigbe OR, Ezekiel OO, Owolade SO, Korese JK, Sturm B, Hensel O. Exploring the potentials of underutilized grain Amaranth (Amaranthus Spp.) along the value chain for food and nutrition security: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2022;**62**:656-669

[11] Soriano-García M, Saraid Aguirre-Díaz I. Nutritional Functional Value and Therapeutic Utilization of Amaranth. IntechOpen; 2020. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.86897

[12] Zhu F. Amaranth proteins and peptides: Biological properties and food uses. Food Research International. 2023;**164**:112405

[13] Singh A, Punia D. Characterization and nutritive values of amaranth seeds. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2020;**39**(3):27-33. DOI: 10.9734/cjast/2020/v39i330511

[14] Alvarez-Jubete L, Wijngaard H, Arendt EK, Gallagher E. Polyphenol composition and in vitro antioxidant activity of Amaranth, quinoa buckwheat and wheat as affected by sprouting and baking. Food Chemistry. *Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

2010;**119**:770-778. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2009.07.032

[15] Chauhan A, Saxena DC, Singh S. Total dietary fibre and antioxidant activity of gluten free cookies made from raw and germinated Amaranth (Amaranthus Spp.) flour. LWT. 2015;**63**:939-945. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.115

[16] Sabbione AC, Suárez S, Añón MC, Scilingo A. Amaranth functional cookies exert potential antithrombotic and antihypertensive activities. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2019;**54**:1506-1513. DOI: 10.1111/ ijfs.13930

[17] Pazinatto C, Malta LG, Pastore GM, Maria Netto F. Antioxidant capacity of Amaranth products: Effects of thermal and enzymatic treatments. Food Science and Technology. 2013;**33**:485-493. DOI: 10.1590/S0101-20612013005000076

[18] Escudero NL, Albarracín GJ, Lucero López RV, Giménez MS. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of flour and protein concentrate of Amaranthus cruentus seeds. Journal of Food Biochemistry. 2011;**35**:1327-1341. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4514.2010.00454.x

[19] Ajuka Obasi N, Chinyere Chinyere G, Amadike Ugbogu E. Mineral and phytochemical contents in leaves of *Amaranthus hybridus* L and *Solanum nigrum* L. subjected to different processing methods. African Journal of Biochemistry Research. 2008;**2**:40-044

[20] Ebert AW, Wu T-H, Wang S-T. International Cooperators' Guide: Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus L.). Shanhua, Taiwan: AVRDC-The World Vegetable Center; 2011. pp. 1-9

[21] Darshan P, Yadav SK, Gupta M, Khetarpaul N. Nutrient composition of Amaranth (*Amaranthus tricolor*)

and Kondhara (*Digera arvensis*) leaves and their products. Journal of Food Science and Technology (Mysore). 2004;**41**:563-566

[22] Singh S, Punia D, Khetarpaul N. Nutrient composition of products prepared by incorporating Amaranth (*Amaranthus tricolour*) leaf powder. Nutrition & Food Science. 2009;**39**:218- 226. DOI: 10.1108/00346650910957465

[23] López-Mejía OA, López-Malo A, Palou E. Antioxidant capacity of extracts from Amaranth (*Amaranthus hypochondriacus* L.) seeds or leaves. Industrial Crops and Products. 2014;**53**:55-59. DOI: 10.1016/j. indcrop.2013.12.017

[24] Ozsoy N, Yilmaz T, Kurt O, Can A, Yanardag R. In vitro antioxidant activity of *Amaranthus lividus* L. Food Chemistry. 2009;**116**:867-872. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2009.03.036

[25] Schröter D, Baldermann S, Schreiner M, Witzel K, Maul R, Rohn S, et al. Natural diversity of Hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, flavonoid glycosides, carotenoids and chlorophylls in leaves of six different *Amaranth* species. Food Chemistry. 2018;**267**:376-386. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2017.11.043

[26] Alam MA, Subhan N, Hossain H, Hossain M, Reza HM, Rahman MM, et al. Hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives: A potential class of natural compounds for the management of lipid metabolism and obesity. Nutrition & Metabolism (London). 2016;**13**:27. DOI: 10.1186/ s12986-016-0080-3

[27] Taofiq O, González-Paramás A, Barreiro M, Ferreira I. Hydroxycinnamic acids and their derivatives: Cosmeceutical significance, challenges and future perspectives, a review.

Molecules. 2017;**22**:281. DOI: 10.3390/ molecules22020281

[28] Jo H-J, Chung K-H, Yoon JA, Lee K-J, Song BC, An JH. Radical scavenging activities of tannin extracted from Amaranth (*Amaranthus caudatus* L.). Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2015;**25**:795-802. DOI: 10.4014/jmb.1409.09088

[29] Sarker U, Lin YP, Oba S, Yoshioka Y, Hoshikawa K. Prospects and potentials of underutilized leafy amaranths as vegetable use for health-promotion. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 2022;**182**:104-123

[30] Ruth ON, Unathi K, Nomali N, Chinsamy M. Underutilization versus nutritional-nutraceutical potential of the Amaranthus food plant: A minireview. Applied Sciences. 2021;**11**:6879. DOI: 10.3390/app11156879

[31] Akubugwo IE, Obasi NA, Chinyere GC, Ugbogu AE. Nutritional and chemical value of *Amaranthus hybridus* l. leaves from Afikpo, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2007;**6**:2833- 2839. DOI: 10.5897/AJB2007.000-2452

[32] Cárdenas-Hernández A, Beta T, Loarca-Piña G, Castaño-Tostado E, Nieto-Barrera JO, Mendoza S. Improved functional properties of pasta: Enrichment with Amaranth seed flour and dried Amaranth leaves. Journal of Cereal Science. 2016;**72**:84-90. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2016.09.014

[33] Jo H-J, Kim JW, Yoon J-A, Kim KI, Chung K-H, Song BC, et al. Antioxidant activities of Amaranth (*Amaranthus* spp. L.) flower extracts. The Korean Journal of Food and Nutrition. 2014;**27**:175-182. DOI: 10.9799/ksfan.2014.27.2.175

[34] Howard JE, Villamil MB, Riggins CW. Amaranth as a natural food colorant source: Survey of germplasm

and optimization of extraction methods for betalain pigments. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2022;**13**:932440. DOI: 10.3389/ fpls.2022.932440

[35] Li H, Deng Z, Liu R, Zhu H, Draves J, Marcone M, et al. Characterization of Phenolics, Betacyanins and antioxidant activities of the seed, leaf, sprout, flower and stalk extracts of three *Amaranthus* species. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2015;**37**:75-81. DOI: 10.1016/j. jfca.2014.09.003

[36] Kalinova J, Dadakova E. Rutin and Total quercetin content in Amaranth (*Amaranthus* spp.). Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2009;**64**:68-74. DOI: 10.1007/s11130-008-0104-x

[37] Roriz CL, Heleno SA, Carocho M, Rodrigues P, Pinela J, Dias MI, et al. Betacyanins from Gomphrena Globosa L. flowers: Incorporation in cookies as natural Colouring agents. Food Chemistry. 2020;**329**:127178. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127178

[38] Baraniak J, Kania-Dobrowolska M. The dual nature of Amaranth— Functional food and potential medicine. Food. 2022;**11**:618. DOI: 10.3390/ foods11040618

[39] Bressani R. AMARANTH. In: Caballero B, editor. Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition). Academic Press; 2003. pp. 166-173. DOI: 10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00036-5. ISBN 9780122270550

[40] Becker R, Wheeler EL, Lorenz K, Stafford AE, Grosjean OK, Betschart AA, et al. A compositional study of Amaranth grain. Journal of Food Science. 1981;**46**:1175-1180. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365- 2621.1981.tb03018.x

[41] Abreu M, Hernández M, Castillo A, González I, González J, Brito O. Study on the complementary effect between the

*Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

proteins of wheat and Amaranth. Food/ Nahrung. 1994;**38**:82-86. DOI: 10.1002/ food.19940380114

[42] Joshi DC, Sood S, Hosahatti R, Kant L, Pattanayak A, Kumar A, et al. From zero to hero: The past, present and future of grain Amaranth breeding. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2018;**131**:1807-1823. DOI: 10.1007/ s00122-018-3138-y

[43] Achigan-Dako EG, Sogbohossou OED, Maundu P. Current knowledge on Amaranthus Spp.: Research avenues for improved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths in sub-Saharan Africa. Euphytica. 2014;**197**:303-317. DOI: 10.1007/s10681-014-1081-9

[44] Rastogi A, Shukla S. Amaranth: A new millennium crop of nutraceutical values. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2013;**53**:109-125. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.517876

[45] Tang Y, Tsao R. Phytochemicals in quinoa and Amaranth grains and their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential health beneficial effects: A review. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2017;**61**:1600767. DOI: 10.1002/ MNFR.201600767

[46] Jan N, Hussain SZ, Naseer B, Bhat TA. Amaranth and Quinoa as potential nutraceuticals: A review of anti-nutritional factors, health benefits and their applications in food, medicinal and cosmetic sectors. Food Chem X. 2023;**18**:100687. DOI: 10.1016/J. FOCHX.2023.100687

[47] Nascimento AC, Mota C, Coelho I, Gueifão S, Santos M, Matos AS, et al. Characterisation of nutrient profile of quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa*), Amaranth (*Amaranthus caudatus*), and purple corn (*Zea mays* L.) consumed in the north of Argentina: Proximates, minerals

and trace elements. Food Chemistry. 2014;**148**:420-426. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2013.09.155

[48] Barba de la Rosa AP, Fomsgaard IS, Laursen B, Mortensen AG, Olvera-Martínez L, Silva-Sánchez C, et al. Amaranth (*Amaranthus hypochondriacus*) as an alternative crop for sustainable food production: Phenolic acids and flavonoids with potential impact on its nutraceutical quality. Journal of Cereal Science. 2009;**49**:117-121. DOI: 10.1016/j. jcs.2008.07.012

[49] Repo-Carrasco-Valencia R, Hellström JK, Pihlava J-M, Mattila PH. Flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in Andean indigenous grains: Quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa*), Kañiwa (*Chenopodium pallidicaule*) and Kiwicha (*Amaranthus caudatus*). Food Chemistry. 2010;**120**:128-133. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2009.09.087

[50] Schoenlechner R, Siebenhandl S, Berghofer E. 7 - Pseudocereals. In: Arendt EK, Bello FD, editors. Food Science and Technology, Gluten-Free Cereal Products and Beverages. Academic Press; 2008. p. 149-VI. DOI: 10.1016/B978-012373739-7.50009-5. ISBN 9780123737397

[51] Escudero NL, de Arellano ML, Luco JM, Giménez MS, Mucciarelli SI. Comparison of the chemical composition and nutritional value of Amaranthus Cruentus flour and its protein concentrate. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2004;**59**:15-21. DOI: 10.1007/ s11130-004-0033-3

[52] D'Amico S, Schoenlechner R. Chapter 6 - Amaranth: Its unique nutritional and health-promoting attributes. In: Taylor JRN, Awika JM, editors. Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition, Gluten-Free Ancient Grains. Woodhead

Publishing; 2017. pp. 131-159. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100866-9.00006-6. ISBN 9780081008669

[53] Caselato-Sousa VM, Amaya-Farfán J. State of knowledge on Amaranth grain: A comprehensive review. Journal of Food Science. 2012;**77**:R93-R104. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02645.x

[54] Sarker U, Hossain MM, Oba S. Nutritional and antioxidant components and antioxidant capacity in green morph Amaranthus leafy vegetable. Scientific Reports. 2020;**10**:1336. DOI: 10.1038/ s41598-020-57687-3

[55] Ngugi CC, Oyoo-Okoth E, Manyala JO, Fitzsimmons K, Kimotho A. Characterization of the nutritional quality of Amaranth leaf protein concentrates and suitability of fish meal replacement in Nile tilapia feeds. Aquaculture Reports. 2017;**5**:62-69. DOI: 10.1016/j.aqrep.2017.01.003

[56] Funke OM. Evaluation of nutrient contents of Amaranth leaves prepared using different cooking methods. Food and Nutrition Sciences. 2011;**2**:249-252. DOI: 10.4236/fns.2011.24035

[57] Gamel TH, Linssen JP, Mesallam AS, Damir AA, Shekib LA. Effect of seed treatments on the chemical composition of two *Amaranth* species: Oil, sugars, Fibres, minerals and vitamins. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2006;**86**:82-89. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.2318

[58] Ayorinde FO, Ologunde MO, Nana EY, Bernard BN, Afolabi OA, Oke OL, et al. Determination of fatty acid composition of *Amaranthus* species. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 1989;**66**:1812-1814. DOI: 10.1007/BF02660754

[59] Jiménez-Aguilar DM, Grusak MA. Minerals, vitamin C, Phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity of Amaranthus leafy vegetables. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2017;**58**:33-39. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2017.01.005

[60] Martirosyan DM, Miroshnichenko LA, Kulakova SN, Pogojeva AV, Zoloedov VI. Amaranth oil application for coronary heart disease and hypertension. Lipids in Health and Disease. 2007;**6**:1. DOI: 10.1186/1476-511X-6-1

[61] Estivi L, Pellegrino L, Hogenboom JA, Brandolini A, Hidalgo A. Antioxidants of Amaranth, quinoa and buckwheat Wholemeals and heat-damage development in Pseudocereal-enriched einkorn water biscuits. Molecules. 2022;**27**:7541. DOI: 10.3390/MOLECULES27217541

[62] House NC, Puthenparampil D, Malayil D, Narayanankutty A. Variation in the polyphenol composition, antioxidant, and anticancer activity among different *Amaranthus* species. South African Journal of Botany. 2020;**135**:408-412. DOI: 10.1016/j.sajb.2020.09.026

[63] Gamel TH, Mesallam AS, Damir AA, Shekib LA, Linssen JP. Characterization of amaranth seed oils. Journal of Food Lipids. 2007;**14**:323-334. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4522.2007.00089.x

[64] Adegbola PI, Adetutu A, Olaniyi TD. Antioxidant activity of *Amaranthus* species from the Amaranthaceae Family – A review. South African Journal of Botany. 2020;**133**:111-117. DOI: 10.1016/j. sajb.2020.07.003

[65] Gamel TH, Linssen JP, Mesallam AS, Damir AA, Shekib LA. Seed treatments affect functional and Antinutritional properties of Amaranth flours. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2006;**86**:1095-1102. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.2463

[66] Peiretti PG, Meineri G, Gai F, Longato E, Amarowicz R. Antioxidative *Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

activities and phenolic compounds of pumpkin (*Cucurbita pepo*) seeds and Amaranth (*Amaranthus caudatus*) grain extracts. Natural Product Research. 2017;**31**:2178-2182. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2017.1278597

[67] Tikekar RV, Ludescher RD, Karwe MV. Processing stability of squalene in Amaranth and Antioxidant potential of Amaranth extract. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2008;**56**:10675- 10678. DOI: 10.1021/jf801729m

[68] Klimczak I, Małecka M, Pachołek B. Antioxidant activity of Ethanolic extracts of Amaranth seeds. Nahrung. 2002;**46**: 184-186. DOI: 10.1002/1521-3803 (20020501)46:3<184::AID-FOOD184> 3.0.CO,2-H

[69] Barku VYA, Opoku-Boahen Y, Owusu-Ansah E, Mensah EF. Antioxidant activity and the estimation of Total phenolic and flavonoid contents of the root extract of *Amaranthus spinosus*. Asian Journal of Plant Science & Research. 2013;**3**(1):69-74

[70] Ishtiaq S, Ahmad M, Hanif U, Akbar S, Mehjabeen K, S.H. Phytochemical and in vitro antioxidant evaluation of different fractions of *Amaranthus graecizans* Subsp. *silvestris* (Vill.) Brenan. Asian Pac. Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2014;**7**:S342-S347. DOI: 10.1016/ S1995-7645(14)60256-X

[71] Khanam UKS, Oba S. Bioactive substances in leaves of two *Amaranth* species, *Amaranthus tricolor* and *A. hypochondriacus*. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 2013;**93**:47-58. DOI: 10.4141/CJPS2012-117

[72] Madadi E, Mazloum-Ravasan S, Yu JS, Ha JW, Hamishehkar H, Kim KH. Therapeutic application of Betalains: A review. Plants. 2020;**9**:1-27. DOI: 10.3390/ PLANTS9091219

[73] Spórna-Kucab A, Kumorkiewicz A, Szmyr N, Szneler E, Wybraniec S. Separation of Betacyanins from flowers of *Amaranthus cruentus* L. in a polar solvent system by high-speed countercurrent chromatography. Journal of Separation Science. 2019;**42**:1676-1685. DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201801172

[74] Peter K, Gandhi P. Rediscovering the therapeutic potential of *Amaranthus* species: A review. Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences. 2017;**4**:196- 205. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejbas.2017.05.001

[75] Baral M, Chakraborty S, Chakraborty P. Evaluation of anthelmintic and anti-inflammatory activity of *Amaranthus spinosus* Linn. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research. 2010;**2**:44-47

[76] Kim HK, Kim MJ, Cho HY, Kim E-K, Shin DH. Antioxidative and anti-diabetic effects of Amaranth *(Amaranthus esculantus*) in Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Cell Biochemistry and Function. 2006;**24**:195-199. DOI: 10.1002/cbf.1210

[77] Valenzuela Zamudio F, Hidalgo-Figueroa SN, Ortíz Andrade RR, Hernández Álvarez AJ, Segura Campos MR. Identification of antidiabetic peptides derived from in Silico hydrolysis of three ancient grains: Amaranth, quinoa and chia. Food Chemistry. 2022;**394**:133479. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133479

[78] Giuseppe Rizzello C, Coda R, De Angelis M, Di Cagno R, Carnevali P, Gobbetti M. Long-term fungal inhibitory activity of water-soluble extract from Amaranthus spp. seeds during storage of gluten-free and wheat flour breads. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2009;**131**:(2-3):189-196. DOI: 10.1016/j. ijfoodmicro.2009.02.025. ISSN: 0168-1605

[79] Añón MC. Health benefits of Amaranth. In: Reference Module in Food Science. Elsevier; 2023

[80] Ontiveros N, López-Teros V, de Vergara-Jiménez MJ, Islas-Rubio AR, Cárdenas-Torres FI, Cuevas-Rodríguez EO, et al. Amaranth-Hydrolyzate enriched cookies reduce the systolic blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Journal of Functional Foods. 2020;**64**:103613. DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2019.103613

[81] Paswan SK, Srivastava S, Rao CV. Wound healing, antimicrobial and antioxidant efficacy of *Amaranthus spinosus* Ethanolic extract on rats. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology. 2020;**26**:101624. DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2020.101624

[82] Kongdang P, Dukaew N, Pruksakorn D, Koonrungsesomboon N. Biochemistry of Amaranthus polyphenols and their potential benefits on gut ecosystem: A comprehensive review of the literature. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2021;**281**:114547. DOI: 10.1016/J.JEP.2021.114547

[83] Paśko P, Bartoń H, Zagrodzki P, Gorinstein S, Fołta M, Zachwieja Z. Anthocyanins, Total polyphenols and antioxidant activity in Amaranth and Quinoa seeds and sprouts during their growth. Food Chemistry. 2009;**115**:994-998. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2009.01.037

[84] Tironi VA, Añón MC. Amaranth proteins as a source of antioxidant peptides: Effect of proteolysis. Food Research International. 2010;**43**:315-322. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2009.10.001

[85] Zhu F. Dietary fiber polysaccharides of Amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa grains: A review of chemical structure, biological functions and food uses. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2020;**248**:116819. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116819

[86] Berger A, Gremaud G, Baumgartner M, Rein D, Monnard I, Kratky E, et al. Cholesterol-lowering properties of Amaranth grain and oil in hamsters. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research. 2003;**73**:39-47. DOI: 10.1024/0300-9831.73.1.39

[87] Wekesa FS. Socio-Economic Analysis of Production and Response of Grain Amaranth (*Amarantlius Caudatus* L.) to Fertilizer Application and Inter-Cropping with Maize or Beans in Kisumu West District, Kenya. Kenya: University of Nairobi; 2010

[88] Chaudhary MA, Imran I, Bashir S, Mehmood MH, Rehman N, Gilani A-H. Evaluation of gut modulatory and bronchodilator activities of *Amaranthus spinosus* Linn. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012;**12**:166. DOI: 10.1186/1472-6882-12-166

[89] Zeashan H, Amresh G, Rao CV, Singh S. Antinociceptive activity of *Amaranthus spinosus* in experimental animals. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009;**122**:492-496. DOI: 10.1016/j. jep.2009.01.031

[90] Baskar A-A, Al. Numair K-S, Alsaif M-A, Ignacimuthu S. In vitro antioxidant and Antiproliferative potential of medicinal plants used in traditional Indian medicine to treat cancer. Redox Report. 2012;**17**:145-156. DOI: 10.1179/1351000212Y.0000000017

[91] Das S. Amaranthus: A Promising Crop of Future. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2016. DOI: 10.1007/978-981- 10-1469-7. ISBN: 978-981-10-1468-0

[92] Borneo R, Aguirre A. Chemical composition, cooking quality, and consumer acceptance of pasta made with dried Amaranth leaves flour. LWT. 2008;**41**:1748-1751. DOI: 10.1016/j. lwt.2008.02.011

*Current Production Scenario and Functional Potential of the Whole Amaranth Plant: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111881*

[93] Antonio T-G, Javier L-RF. Functional Value of Amaranth as Applied to Sports Nutrition. London, UK: InTechOpen; 2020

[94] Bender D, Schönlechner R. Recent developments and knowledge in pseudocereals including technological aspects. Acta Alimentaria. 2021;**50**(4):583- 609. DOI: 10.1556/066.2021.00136

[95] Bjarklev A, Kjaer T, Kjaergård B. Amaranth farming rural sustainable livelihood of the future? In: Poster Session Presented at IFOAM Organic World Congress. Modena, Italy; 2008

[96] Malaba K, Otuya R, Saina E. Social factors influencing adoption of grain amaranth/maize intercrop among small holder farmers in Kiminini, Kenya. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology. 2018;**4**(4):48-57. DOI: 10.2022/ajest.v4i4.312

[97] Akoth B. Potential of Amaranthus in Improving Urban Farmers' Livelihoods in Kampala [Thesis]. Stellenbosch, South Africa: Stellenbosch University

[98] EU Research and innovation framework programme, H. PROTEIN2FOOD Aims & Objectives. Available from: https://www. protein2food.eu/about-protein2food/ aims-objectives/ [Accessed: May 1, 2023]

[99] Protein Ingredients Market Share and Analysis-2028. [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://www.marketsandmarkets. com/Market-Reports/proteiningredients-market-114688236.html [Accessed: May 11, 2023]

[100] Escobar-García JD, García-Segovia P, Martínez-Monzó J, Igual M. Effect of enrichment with quinoa and amaranth on properties of extruded corn snacks

[101] Union for ethical bio trade Ethical Biotrade Standard Available from: https://uebt.org/resource-pages/standard [Accessed: May 1, 2023]

#### **Chapter 5**

## Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds

*Nisha Singh, Megha Ujinwal and Debasish Paikray*

#### **Abstract**

A diverse category of underutilized grains known as pseudocereals includes a wide range of species with varying nutritious and nutritional contents such as phytochemicals (saponins, polyphenols, phytosterols, phytosteroids, Protein, vitamins and essential micronutrients. Global dietary changes, rapid urbanization, and increased sedentary behavior pseudocereal is considered as "super food" as it helps in reduction of several diseases such as inflammatory-related diseases, cancer, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, and obesity. Here, we discuss about the nutritional composition and the content of bioactive compounds present in pseudocereals for potential health benefit and application for breeding purposes, to enhance agronomic traits and improve the product development in the food and pharmacological industries. This chapter provides a concise overview on the potential of diverse nutritional and nutraceutical compounds present across different pseudocereals and its impact on human health.

**Keywords:** bioactives, nutraceutical, nutritional, pseudocereals, phytochemicals

#### **1. Introduction**

Major cereal crops including wheat, rice, and maize is essential for feeding the world's expanding population. Even though they are a good source of energy, the population as a whole is suffering from malnutrition and "hidden hunger" as a result of their lack of vital micronutrients. The development of underutilized but nutritious grains over the past few decades is related to their usefulness and functioning [1]. Grains functionality is determined mainly by their genetic make-up and the impact of environmental conditions on their primary components, which include carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and phenolic phytochemicals [2]. For the human diet, several trends have evolved, such as wholegrain, gluten-free, high in dietary fiber or resistant starch, reduced carbohydrate, or digestibility. In this context, pseudocereals are well-known grains that are prized for their nutritional characteristics. Aside from such health-related objectives, consumers are concerned about environmental issues; the continuous climate change is another motivation for people to reconsider their nutritional activities [3]. As a result, the development of food products with a variety of health benefits derived from such plant species might provide a

tremendous chance to improve public health. Such foods are gaining favor among the scientific community, consumers, and food manufacturers [4].

In this context, Pseudocereals are more prominent among other major crops. Pseudocereals (also known as Andean grains) are edible seeds from dicotyledonous plants that resemble cereals (monocotyledonous *Poaceae* family) in physical appearance and starch content [5, 6]. Whole pseudocereal grains like buckwheat (*Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tataricum*), amaranth (*Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus cruentus*, and *Amaranthus hypochondriacus*), chia (*Salvia hispanica*), quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa*), Wattleseed (*Acacia victoriae*), Kaniwa (*Chenopodium pallidicaule*), acron (Quercus), breadnut (Artocarpus camansi) and Pitseed goosefoot (*Chenopodium berlandieri*) are also high in compounds with known health benefits like prevention and reduction of many degenerative diseases [2]. They give nutritious properties in food items, hence meeting various goals of the United Nations (UN) Agenda 2030 (https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-developme nt-goals), also demonstrate their potential in attaining United nation Sustainable Goal-2 (SDG-2) for Zero hunger [7] Pseudocereals are high in protein and have a strong nutritional, phytochemical, and phenolic profile. The amino acid profile and nutritional qualities of pseudocereals are superior to wheat, rice, and maize in terms of essential amino acid index, biological value, protein efficiency ratio, and nutritional index. Furthermore, pseudocereal grains have a significant amount of lysine, threonine, valine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, and tryptophan, an important amino acid that may not be present in other cereals [8, 9]. Quinoa has more protein concentration than cereals, ranging from 14 to 18% of the seed, compared to maize (10%), rice (8%), and wheat (14%). Amaranth contains more protein (14.0– 15.5%) than maize, wheat, and sorghum, as well as less fat (7.5%), more carbohydrate (60–68%), and less ash (2.5–3.1%) [3]. Buckwheat has a high protein content ranging from 8.5 to 18.8% depending on cultivar, supply, and climate conditions [10]. As per Osbourne classification, Janssen et al. reported that 18–44% albumins, 5–70% globulins, 4–37% glutelin and 0–11% prolamins can be found in buckwheat [11]. Pseudocereals are becoming more widespread in human diets because they are glutenfree (GF) grains with high nutritional and nutraceutical value, as well as saponins, which have various agro-pharmacological and industrial applications [9, 12].

Because of the starch content in the seeds, pseudocereals have been used as a nutritious component in a range of bread products, beverages, and gluten-free products [6]. Pseudocereals have a high viscosity, high water binding capacity, swelling, and good freeze-thaw stability. Cooking, popping, roasting, and fermenting are typical pseudocereal culinary techniques used to make porridges, soups, stews, and sweet desserts. Pseudocereal-derived products do not necessitate significant adjustments to cereal-derived manufacturing procedures [11]. Bakery items and pasta are created with flour blends of pseudocereals and cereals to improve nutritional characteristics, or with 100% pseudocereal flour for the gluten-free foods industry, which has been one of the key drivers of rising pseudocereal use [13]. Pseudocereals are being exploited to develop new food products, especially ones with higher nutrient and mineral content. As a result, it contributes to the growing popularity of grains among consumers [14–17].

As a result, including any of these pseudocereals in the diet has a high nutritional potential, resulting in the implementation of a sustainable diet in marginalized rural areas (**Figure 1**). The objective of this chapter is to assess the nutritional composition and bioactive chemical content of pseudocereals for potential health benefits. Furthermore, it will help breeding initiatives improve agronomic traits and product development in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

*Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

**Figure 1.** *Different pseudocereals which governs important nutritional and bioactive compounds.*

#### **2. Nutritional value and bioactive components in pseudocereals**

Pseudocereals are non-grassy, wild plants that belong to the dicotyledonous family, Amaranth (*Amaranthus* sp.), buckwheat *(Fagopyrum esculentum Moench*), and quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa Willd*.) are the major pseudocereals [18, 19]. Pseudocereals are so marked because they resemble cereals in terms of carbohydrate, mineral, protein content, and other nutritional components (**Table 1**) [1]. Furthermore, pseudocereal seeds are digested in the same way as cereal seeds but are underutilized due to cereals' relative dominance and pseudocereals' limitations in practise [18]. Considering their higher nutritious value and presence of micro and macronutrients, pseudocereals are termed as "future superfoods and rich food" [21]. Because of its great nutritional potential and genetic diversity, the FAO designated quinoa, a pseudocereal, as one of humanity's promising crops destined to contribute to food security in the twenty-first century [Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Office for Latin America and PROINPA]. Quinoa and amaranth have soft leaves that can be used in cooking, but their grains are the most popular because of their high nutritional value. They contain a high concentration of proteins with a well-balanced essential amino acid composition that includes a sulfur-rich amino acids (**Table 2**) [24].

Despite the potential benefits of these underutilized grain crops, various constraints prevent their general acceptance into food systems and breeding programs. These factors could be agronomical (yield potential), technological (trait

#### *Pseudocereals – Recent Advances and New Perspectives*


*IU = International unit.*

*Dashed line (—) indicates the unavailability of the information in the literature.*

#### **Table 1.**

*Nutrition value in pseudocereals (per 100 g grain or grain flour) [20].*


*Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*


**Table 2.**

*Amino acid profile in pseudocereals (g per 100 g protein) [22, 23].*


*FDC ID = Food Data Central identification number.*

*Dashed line (—) indicates the unavailability of the information in the literature.*

#### **Table 3.**

*List of eight underutilized pseudocereal.*

improvement), social (knowledge diffusion) and economical [20, 25, 26]. Some of analyzed grain crop were listed in **Table 3**.

The production of novel foods with functional components is one of the main research lines in Food Science and Technology. Bioactive chemicals must be collected and identified before being added to foods, where they may give both biological activity and nutritional benefits [27]. Several scientific studies have determined that the antioxidant activity shown in pseudocereals, particularly quinoa, could support their intake in our daily diet [28]. As a result, recent research has discovered diverse domestic and agro-industrial uses of pseudocereals, allowing for the preservation of nutritional characteristics and boosting the appeal of these products to various populations. More research is needed, however, to support these findings, which reveal fresh scientific information about the bioactivities of pseudocereals.

#### **3. Suitability and application of nutraceutical compounds**

Pseudocereals include a wide range of bioactive substances, such as dietary fiber, unsaturated fatty acids, lignans, antioxidants, flavonoids, polyphenols, minerals, and

**Figure 2.** *Health benefit of different pseudocereals.*

vitamins [29]. Plant proteins are becoming increasingly popular as a reliable and longterm source of protein for the global population due to their decreased environmental effect. Protein sources with an optimal amino acid (AA) composition, such as buckwheat, quinoa, and amaranth, have gained attract as staple meals due to their health benefits (**Figure 2**) [30]. Pseudocereals prevent the occurrence of several noncommunicable infections by supplying the recommended daily allotment of all nutrients as well as a variety of bioactive substances (**Table 4**) [31]. Researchers have developed an interest in the bioactive components contained in pseudocereals and have investigated its preventative properties against several infectious diseases such as cardio-vascular disease, obesity, cancer, and diabetes. Significant amounts of fiber, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids were revealed when the key features of pseudocereals were studied. It also contains more calcium and magnesium than milk [32]. Some pseudocereals contain high levels of both the 11S and 7S globulin proteins, which are antihypertensive [33]. Several studies have shown that buckwheat has anti-diabetic, anti-tumor, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities [34]. Quinoa has been shown to improve blood serum lipid profiles as well as lessen the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes [35]. Amaranth possesses antibacterial and antifungal properties, and amaranth protein-based diets have been proven to enhance glucose tolerance, increase plasma insulin, and reduce food consumption [5]. Hydrolysates of pseudocereals protein exhibit antioxidant action when exposed to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in an optimum environment, lowering lipid oxidation and increasing yeast viability [36].

By inhibiting enzymes such as amylase, glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase-IV, pseudocereal proteins have been demonstrated to have powerful antidiabetic activities. The same set of researchers showed that pseudocereals have antiproliferative and antioxidant properties against colon cancer cells [37, 38]. Carotenoids, fatty acids, and other lipophilic antioxidants, such as tocopherols, are found in pseudocereals and contribute to their antioxidant activity. In terms of 2,2-diphenyl-1 picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), and ferric

#### *Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

*Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

#### **Major bioactive components References** • Alpha- pinene • Beta- phellandrene • Linalool • Limonene • p-cymene • Pyrogallol • Gentisic acid • Chlorogenic acid • Protocatechuic acid • Campesterol • stigmasterol • Clerosterol • Hexacosanol • Octacosanol • Docosanol

#### *Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

**Pseudo-cereal**

#### *Pseudocereals – Recent Advances and New Perspectives*

#### *Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

*Major bioactive components in different pseudocereals with their 2D protein structure.*

#### *Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), the antioxidant activities of the lipophilic extracts from the quinoa seed were higher than those of the amaranth seed; however, total carotenoid index (TCI), unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs), and total tocopherol index (TTI) measurements were highly correlated. The balance between the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defense is off, resulting in oxidative stress [39, 40]. Furthermore, pseudocereal seeds have recently been revealed to have significant levels of phytosterols, which have been shown to have antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer characteristics as well as cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention effects [40]. Pseudocereal proteins are rich in bioactive peptides. A study using simulated gastrointestinal digestion produced Pseudocereals protein hydrolysate. According to the findings of the study, pseudocereal protein hydrolysates have an exceptional potential to manage hypertension, and quinoa protein can be used to create foods with functional qualities that lower blood pressure [41]. It has been discovered that *A. mantegazzianus* hydrolytically releases antihypertensive encrypted peptides [42]. The study found that tartary buckwheat extract (TBE) supplemented with D-ChiroInositol (DCI) could prevent rats from liver damage and hyperglycemia caused by high fructose diet supplementation. TBE ingestion, according to these data, may be a good prophylactic or therapeutic strategy for hepatic steatosis, oxidative damage, and high-fat diet-induced hyperglycemia [43]. In cultured colonic epithelial Caco-2 cells, quinoa polyphenols have been found to reduce inflammation and improve gastrointestinal health in experimental mice by downregulating the cytokines interleukin-8 (IL-8), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) [44]. Furthermore, quinoa seed saponins have been demonstrated to lower IL-6, TNF, and nitric oxide (NO) overproduction, suggesting that they could be used as a functional dietary element for inflammation control and prevention [45]. Cooked quinoa polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and phenolics significantly lowered pro-inflammatory factor IL-8 synthesis, expression of IL-8, IL-6, TNF, COX-2, and IL-1, and expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 [46]. Burlacu et al. [47] present results on phytoconstituents obtained from oak extracts (*Quercus*) and their biological value as antioxidants, antimicrobials, and anticancer agents. The phenolic chemicals flavonoids, stilbenoids, and arylbenzofurons are said to be abundant in breadnut (*Artocarpus*) plants [48]. The usage of pseudocereals in food has grown significantly, and research has even spread into the non-food sector. Buckwheat, for example, has been used to make yoghurt, vinegar, black sauce, tea, and alcoholic beverages [49]. Fiber-rich quinoa milling fractions have been used as binders in the production of bologna-style sausages. In the sausage, the fiber-rich quinoa fraction increased emulsion stability while lowering lipid oxidation and water activity. Because the quinoa fractions already contributed enough color to the product, it was determined that nitrite addition was unnecessary [50]. Buckwheat has been the most studied pseudocereal in the non-food domain. Buckwheat protein derived from distillers dried grains has been utilized to create composite edible films for food packaging, and buckwheat peptides could be employed as a functional ingredient in the development of nutraceuticals [51, 52].

#### **4. Conclusion and way to forward**

All pseudocereals are plants that can be easily adapted to and cultivated in a variety of environments. They are particularly resistant to drought and high temperatures, making them important food security plants. Pseudocereals are popular due to their

great commercial worth as well as their unique functional and nutritional properties. Non-phenolic compounds such as ascorbic acid, phytic acid, tocopherols, sterols, carotenoids, and saponins, among others, may be the most likely antioxidant donors despite the high fraction of total phenols. Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, wound healing, antimitotic (antitumor), antiviral, anti-microbial activity and skin depigmentation, antidiabetic, antinociceptive effect, and antibacterial activities have been reported in various parts of the plant extracts. As a result, understanding the qualities of pseudocereals is critical. This will help people with gluten-related disorders improve their quality of life. However, there is a tremendous possibility for further scientific research into pseudocereals to demonstrate therapeutic efficacy and commercial application. Pseudocereals are gaining popularity among consumers and small enterprises worldwide, particularly in poor countries. A recent study clearly shows that non-essential components such phytochemicals found in pseudocereals may be advantageous to health. This characteristic has prompted the development of a number of processing methods that may improve the biological value of pseudocereals. Despite their nutritional and physiological value, these grains are currently underutilized in the market. Exploiting pseudocereals' bioactive potential by hydrolyzing anti-nutrient components and boosting the number of healthbeneficial chemicals has emerged as a critical technique. High cost (imported grain as quinoa), and the majority of people are unaware of its benefits. Pseudocereals also have functional properties such a high nutritional profile, bioactive compounds, and are gluten-free. Food Science and Technology plays a vital role in investigating and sharing information on these grains in this situation. Pseudocereals are popular because they have a high commercial value as well as unique functional and nutritional features. As a result, it is necessary to have a complete understanding of the properties of pseudocereals, as well as their benefits and drawbacks. This will help to improve the quality of life for persons suffering from gluten-related disorders. Pseudo-cereals have limitless possibilities; the only task is to see them.

#### **Acknowledgements**

NS acknowledges the Department of Science and Technology; Government of India for the DST INSPIRE Faculty Award (DST/INSPIRE/04/2018/003674).

#### **Author contributions**

NS: conceived the study, edit the manuscript. M: contributed to the writing and editing of the DP: contributed to the writing manuscript and table preparation. All authors contributed to the writing, editing, and approved the manuscript.

#### **Conflicts of interest**

We have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

*Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

### **Author details**

Nisha Singh\*, Megha Ujinwal and Debasish Paikray Gujarat Biotechnology University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

\*Address all correspondence to: singh.nisha88@gmail.com; nisha.singh@gbu.edu.in

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Perez-Rea D, Antezana-Gomez R. The functionality of pseudocereal starches. In: Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition. Starch in Food. Woodhead Publishing; 2018. pp. 509-542

[2] Mir NA, Riar CS, Singh S. Nutritional constituents of pseudo cereals and their potential use in food systems: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2018;**75**:170-180

[3] Jan N, Hussain SZ, Naseer B, Bhat TA. Amaranth and quinoa as potential nutraceuticals: A review of antinutritional factors, health benefits and their applications in food, medicinal and cosmetic sectors. Food Chemistry. 2023; **X**:100687

[4] Gul K, Singh AK, Jabeen R. Nutraceuticals and functional foods: The foods for the future world. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2016;**56**(16):2617-2627

[5] Martínez-Villaluenga C, Peñas E, Hernández-Ledesma B. Pseudocereal grains: Nutritional value, health benefits and current applications for the development of gluten-free foods. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2020;**137**: 111178

[6] Srichuwong S, Curti D, Austin S, et al. Physicochemical properties and starch digestibility of whole grain sorghums, millet, quinoa and amaranth flours, as affected by starch and non-starch constituents. Food Chemistry. 2017;**233**: 1-10

[7] Singh RK, Sreenivasulu N, Prasad M. Potential of underutilized crops to introduce the nutritional diversity and achieve zero hunger. Functional & Integrative Genomics. 2022;**22**(6): 1459-1465

[8] Bochetto A, Merino N, Kaplan M, Guiñez M, Cerutti S. Design of a combined microextraction and backextraction technique for the analysis of mycotoxins in amaranth seeds. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2021; **98**:103818

[9] Bhinder S, Kaur A, Singh B, Yadav MP, Singh N. Proximate composition, amino acid profile, pasting and process characteristics of flour from different Tartary buckwheat varieties. Food Research International. 2020;**130**: 108946

[10] Sofi SA, Ahmed N, Farooq A, Rafiq S, Zargar SM, Kamran F, et al. Nutritional and bioactive characteristics of buckwheat, and its potential for developing gluten-free products: An updated overview. Food Science & Nutrition. 2023;**11**(5):2256-2276

[11] Janssen F, Pauly A, Rombouts I, Jansens KJA, Deleu LJ, Delcour JA. Proteins of amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.), and quinoa (Chenopodium spp.): A food science and technology perspective. Comprehensive Reviews in the Food Science and Food Safety. 2017;**16**(1): 39-58

[12] Saturni L, Ferretti G, Bacchetti T. The gluten-free diet: Safety and nutritional quality. Nutrients. 2010;**2**(1): 00016-00034

[13] Schoenlechner R, Bender D. Pseudocereals for global food production. Cereal Foods World. 2020; **65**(2)

[14] Kahlon TS, Avena-Bustillos RJ, Chiu MM. Sensory evaluation of glutenfree quinoa whole grain snacks. Heliyon. 2017;**3**:1-12

*Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

[15] Peksa A, Kita A, Carbonell-Barrachina AA, et al. Sensory attributes and physicochemical features of corn snacks as affected by different flour types and extrusion conditions. LWT-Food Science Technology. 2016;**72**:26-36

[16] Lorusso A, Verni M, Montemurro M, et al. Use of fermented quinoa flour for pasta making and evaluation of the technological and nutritional features. LWT – Food. Science and Technology. 2017;**78**:215-221

[17] Kerpes R, Fischer S, Becker T. The production of gluten-free beer: Degradation of hordeins during malting and brewing and the application of modern process technology focusing on endogenous malt peptidases. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2017;**67**: 129-138

[18] Nagar P, Engineer R, Rajput K. Review on Pseudo-cereals of India. IntechOpen. 2022. DOI: 10.5772/ intechopen.101834

[19] Fletcher RJ. Pseudocereals: Overview; 2015. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0- 08-100596-5.00039-1

[20] Bekkering CS, Tian L. Thinking outside of the cereal box: Breeding underutilized (pseudo) cereals for improved human nutrition. Frontiers in Genetics. 2019;**10**:1289

[21] Ram A, Thattantavide A, Kumar A. Re-emergence of pseudocereals as superfoods for food security and human health: Current Progress and future prospects. Wild Food Plants for Zero Hunger and Resilient Agriculture. 2023; **2023**:207-236

[22] Rodríguez JP, Rahman H, Thushar S, Singh RK. Healthy and resilient cereals and pseudo-cereals for marginal agriculture: Molecular advances for

improving nutrient bioavailability. Frontiers in Genetics. 2020;**11**:49

[23] Agarwal A, Rizwana T, AD, Kumar T, Sharma KP, Patel SKS. Nutritional and functional new perspectives and potential health benefits of quinoa and chia seeds. Antioxidants. 2023;**12**(7): 1413

[24] Rollán GC, Gerez CL, LeBlanc JG. Lactic fermentation as a strategy to improve the nutritional and functional values of pseudocereals. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2019;**6**:98

[25] Drzewiecki J, Martinez-Ayala AL, Lozano-Grande MA, Leontowicz H, Leontowicz M, Jastrzebski Z, et al. In vitro screening of bioactive compounds in some gluten-free plants. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 2018; **186**:847-860

[26] Inglett GE, Chen D, Liu SX. Antioxidant activities of selective gluten free ancient grains. Food and Nutrition Sciences. 2015;**6**:612-621

[27] Rocchetti G, Chiodelli G, Giuberti G, Masoero F, Trevisan M, Lucini L. Evaluation of phenolic profile and antioxidant capacity in gluten-free flours. Food Chemistry. 2017;**228**: 367-373

[28] Ciudad-Mulero M, Fernandez-Ruiz V, Matallana-Gonzalez MC, Morales P. Dietary fiber sources and human benefits: The case study of cereal and pseudocereals. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. 2019;**90**:83-134. In Press, Corrected Proof

[29] Pirzadah TB, Malik B, Tahir I, Hakeem KR, Alharby HF, Rehman RU. Lead toxicity alters the antioxidant defense machinery and modulate the biomarkers in Tartary buckwheat plants. International Biodetergent and Biodegradation. 2020;**151**:104992

[30] Usman M, Patil PJ, Mehmood A, Rehman A, Shah H, Haider J, et al. Comparative evaluation of pseudocereal peptides: A review of their nutritional contribution. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2022;**122**:287-313

[31] Shahbaz M, Raza N, Islam M, Imran M, Ahmad I, Meyyazhagan A, et al. The nutraceutical properties and health benefits of pseudocereals: A comprehensive treatise. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2022:1-13

[32] Jeelani PG, Sinclair BJ, Perinbarajan GK, Ganesan H, Ojha N, Ramalingam C, et al. The therapeutic potential of chia seeds as medicinal food: A review. Nutrire. 2023;**48**(2):39

[33] Razzeto GS, Uñates MA, Moreno JER, Lucero López RV, Aguilar EG, Sturniolo H, et al. Evaluation and comparative study of the nutritional profile and antioxidant potential of new quinoa varieties. Asian Journal of Agricultural and Horticultural Research. 2019;**3**(3):1-11

[34] Jing R, Li HQ, Hu CL, Jiang YP, Qin LP, Zheng CJ. Phytochemical and pharmacological profiles of three Fagopyrum buckwheats. International Journal of Molecular Science. 2016;**17**(4): 589

[35] Karimian J, Abedi S, Shirinbakhshmasoleh M, Moodi F, Moodi V, Ghavami A. The effects of quinoa seed supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Phytotherapy Research. 2021;**35**(4):1688-1696

[36] Marques-Coelho M et al. Emerging opportunities in exploring the

nutritional/functional value of amaranth. Food & Function. 2018;**9**: 5499-5512

[37] Vilcacundo R, Martínez-Villaluenga C, Hernández-Ledesma B. Release of dipeptidyl peptidase IV. α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory peptides from quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa* willd.) during in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Journal of Functional Foods. 2017;**35**:531-539

[38] Vilcacundo R, Miralles B, Carrillo W, Hernández-Ledesma B. In vitro chemopreventive properties of peptides released from quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa* willd) protein under simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Food Research International. 2018;**105**:403-411

[39] Tang Y et al. Assessing the fatty acid composition, carotenoid, and tocopherol compositions of amaranth and quinoa seeds grown in Ontario and their overall contribution to nutritional quality. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2016;**64**:1103-1110

[40] Alonso-Miravalles L, Zannini E, Bez J, Arendt EK, O'Mahony JA. Physical and flow properties of pseudocerealbased protein-rich ingredient powders. Journal of Food Engineering. 2020;**281**: 109973

[41] Guo H, Hao Y, Richel A, Everaert N, Chen Y, Liu M, et al. Antihypertensive effect of quinoa protein under simulated gastrointestinal digestion and peptide characterization. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2020;**100**(15): 5569-5576

[42] Fritz M, Vecchi B, Rinaldi G, Añón MC. Amaranth seed protein hydrolysates have in vivo and in vitro antihypertensive activity. Food Chemistry. 2011;**126**(3):878-884

*Pseudocereals as Treasures of Nutritional and Nutraceutical Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113369*

[43] Hu Y, Zhao Y, Ren D, Guo J, Luo Y, Yang X. Hypoglycemic and hepatoprotective effects of dchiro-inositol-enriched tartiary buckwheat extract in high fructose-fed mice. Food & Function. 2015;**6**(12): 3760-3769

[44] Noratto G, Carrion-Rabanal R, Medina G, Mencia A. Quinoa protective effects against obesity-induced intestinal inflammation. FASEB Journal. 2015;**29** (Supplement):602

[45] Yao Y, Yang X, Shi Z, Ren G. Antiinflammatory activity of saponins from quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa* Willd.) seeds in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages cells. Journal of Food Science. 2014;**79**(5):H1018-H1023

[46] Tang Y, Li X, Chen PX, Zhang B, Hernandez M, Zhang H, et al. Characterisation of fatty acid, carotenoid, tocopherol/tocotrienol compositions and antioxi-dant activities in seeds of three *Chenopodium quinoa* willd. Food Chemistry. 2015;**174**:502-508

[47] Burlacu E, Nisca A, Tanase C. A comprehensive review of phytochemistry and biological activities of Quercus species. Forests. 2020;**11**(9):904

[48] Buddhisuharto AK, Pramastya H, Insanu M, Fidriann I. An updated review of phytochemical compounds and pharmacology activities of *Artocarpus* genus. Biointerface Research Applied Chemistry. 2021;**11**:14898-14905

[49] Cai YZ, Corke H, Wang D, Li WD. Buckwheat: Overview. In: Wrigley CW, Corke H, Seethamaran K, Faubion J, editors. Encyclopedia of Food Grains. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2015. pp. 307-315

[50] Fernández-López J, Lucas-González R, Viuda-Martos M,

Sayas-Barberá E, Ballester-Sánchez J, Haros CM, et al. Chemical and technological properties of bologna-type sausages with added black quinoa wetmilling coproducts as binder replacer. Food Chemistry. 2020;**310**:125936

[51] Liu S, Chen D, Xu J. Characterization of amaranth and bean flour blends and the impact on quality of gluten-free breads. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 2019;**13**(2): 1440-1450

[52] Wang X, Ullah N, Sun X, Guo Y, Chen L, Li Z, et al. Development and characterization of bacterial cellulose reinforced biocomposite films based on protein from buckwheat distiller's dried grains. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2017;**96**:353-360

### *Edited by Viduranga Y. Waisundara*

Although they are neither technically classified as grasses nor as actual cereal grains, pseudocereals are plants that yield fruits or seeds that are utilized and consumed like grains. Pseudocereals are complete grains that are usually high in protein and free of gluten. Supposedly many of the "ancient grains" are actually pseudocereals. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has also noted that pseudocereals greatly improve health and nutrition, as well as an individual's food supply and standard of living, all of which can contribute to future food security and sustainability. Their protein-derived peptides have been shown in previous investigations to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, anti-cancerous, and hypocholesterolemic qualities. Because pseudocereals have these intriguing qualities, more research is required to determine how best to incorporate them into the diet and what health benefits they may offer, which is exactly what this book is about. It provides essential information to scientific and non-scientific communities alike to keep interest in pseudocereals alive for the overall health and wellness of the planet.

### *W. James Grichar, Agricultural Sciences Series Editor*

Published in London, UK © 2024 IntechOpen © Irena Carpaccio / unsplash

Pseudocereals - Recent Advances and New Perspectives

IntechOpen Series

Agricultural Sciences, Volume 5

Pseudocereals

Recent Advances and New Perspectives

*Edited by Viduranga Y. Waisundara*