**2. Conventional maize production and drawbacks**

The overuse of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides leads to soil degradation, nutrient runoff and greenhouse gas emissions. It also disrupts ecosystems, fosters resistance, and poses health and environmental risks. Unsustainable irrigation depletes water resources, causes salinization, and contributes to energy consumption. Solutions include integrated nutrient management, integrated pest management, efficient irrigation techniques, education, policy support, and research.

Tillage plays a crucial role in creating favorable conditions for seedling emergence, development, and root growth by preparing an ideal seedbed. It is considered a critical component of soil management systems. However, it is important to select appropriate tillage practices to ensure optimal crop growth and yield. Inappropriate tillage practices can have detrimental effects on crop performance. Tillage management, as well as the application of chemicals and manure, are important factors that have a significant impact on soil physical properties. Tillage is a practice used to loosen the soil and create a suitable seedbed for plant growth. It plays a crucial role in crop production, contributing up to 20% of the overall factors influencing crop performance [9].

The choice of tillage method has implications for the sustainable utilization of soil resources, as it directly influences soil properties. Deep tillage, in particular, has several benefits. It helps break up compacted soil layers, facilitating improved water infiltration and movement within the soil. This enhanced water penetration allows for better root growth and development, ultimately increasing the potential for crop production [10]. Studies have shown that deep tillage practices, reaching depths of up to 90 cm, have led to increased corn yield [11].

In his study case, Memon et al. [9] compared the effects of different tillage practices, Deep Tillage (DT), Conventional Tillage (CT), and Zero Tillage (ZT), on maize production at the experimental site of National Agriculture Research Center (NARC), Islamabad, Pakistan. The study revealed significant differences among the tillage treatments in terms of seedling emergence, plant height, number of leaves per plant, and grain and dry matter yields. Deep Tillage (DT) exhibited notable advantages over the other treatments. It resulted in a higher seedling emergence percentage, taller plants with more leaves, and the highest grain and dry matter yields. Conventional Tillage (CT) followed suit, demonstrating favorable outcomes in terms of seedling emergence, plant height, leaf number, and yield. Considering the specific soil (loamy soil) and weather conditions (spring season) of the experiment, the findings indicate that Deep Tillage (DT) proved to be the most effective tillage practice for maize production.

Zero Tillage (ZT), although offering potential benefits in certain contexts, was less favorable in this study. These results emphasize the importance of selecting appropriate tillage practices based on specific conditions to optimize maize production outcomes. It is important to note that balancing the benefits and potential drawbacks

of tillage management and chemical/manure applications is crucial. While tillage can improve soil conditions and crop productivity, it may also lead to increased soil erosion and loss of organic matter. Likewise, the use of chemicals should be carefully managed to minimize environmental impacts and promote sustainable agricultural practices.

In another study conducted by Orfanou et al. [12] in USA Georgia, they found that Conventional tillage had slightly better yield results but was not statistically different from conservation-tilled plots that lead to the conclusion that conservation tillage could be a good solution for farmers, not only for preserving water but also for achieving acceptable yield results.

Conventional tillage in maize production, while commonly practiced, comes with several drawbacks. It demands significant time, fuel, labor, and water resources, leading to higher production costs. These increased costs can ultimately reduce profits for farmers. Additionally, conventional tillage methods may contribute to higher greenhouse gas emissions compared to alternative options [13]. The constraints and nonsustainability issues mentioned earlier have specific implications. Maize farming often involves intensive tillage practices, which can lead to soil erosion, reduced soil organic matter content, and soil compaction, ultimately impacting the long-term productivity of the land. Additionally, the removal of crop residues and the practice of monocropping in maize cultivation further contribute to the nonsustainable aspects of conventional agricultural systems [14]. To ensure sustainable maize production, it is crucial to address these challenges and adopt alternative farming practices such as conservation tillage.

In a study conducted in South Korea under intensive conventional cultivation, [15] concluded that the carbon footprint (CF) of maize production is largely influenced by nitrogen (N) in chemical fertilizers and the use of organic fertilizers. Both types of fertilizers significantly contribute to CF and carbon efficiency. Sustainable practices that prioritize high yields and low GHG emissions are associated with greater sustainability. South Korea's maize production demonstrates relatively low CF and GHG emissions on a global scale. The study highlights the positive correlation between nitrogen use, chemical and organic fertilizers, and the carbon footprint of agriculture (CFA) and carbon footprint intensity (CFI). This emphasizes the importance of proper management and selecting suitable land management systems, especially in the context of climate change. By implementing effective strategies and informed decision-making, it is possible to reduce GHG emissions and promote sustainable development in maize farming.
