**2. Study area**

The study area is situated in the Indian part (26°29′13.56″ to 28°7′51.6″ N and 87°59′1.32″ to 89°53′42.96″ E) of the Khangchendzonga Landscape (KL) in the eastern Himalayas, which is a significant global biodiversity hotspot. KL represents a unique blend of biodiversity, bio-cultural richness, and distinctive geo-climatic features. The Indian portion of KL covers 14,061.7 sq. km and encompasses the state of Sikkim and the northern hill region of West Bengal. It stretches across a wide altitudinal range, from 40 to 8586 m (asl).

This region is crucial for sustaining the well-being of its inhabitants, as it provides diverse ecosystems and essential ecosystem services. It boasts a rich floral diversity, with over 5500 identified species, as well as recorded fauna taxa of more than 1500 species. The presence of various socio-economic and cultural diversities further enhances the significance of the region.

The study area falls under the SECURE Himalaya project, implemented by the Forest and Environment Department of the Government of Sikkim (**Figure 1**). Specifically, the project focuses on the Khangchendzonga—Upper Teesta Landscape, covering an approximate area of 4000 sq. km. Local communities hold a deep reverence for this landscape due to the legends and traditions associated with it. The landscape is characterized by its multi-ethnic composition, including Nepalese, Lepchas, Bhutias, and Tibetan Buddhists conserving rich agricultural biodiversity.

#### **Figure 1.**

*Study area in the Khanchendzunga landscape based on the secure Himalaya project (https://securehimalaya.org/ sikkim-landscape/).*
