**4. Practices and engineering technologies for sustainable maize production**

Sustainable maize production is of utmost importance in ensuring food security, environmental preservation, and the well-being of farming communities. To achieve sustainability, it is crucial to adopt the best practices and technologies that optimize resource utilization, reduce environmental impact, and enhance the resilience of maize farming systems. During the last decades, several farming innovations have been tested on cereal crops to improve water and energy use efficiencies and increase yields of biomass and grains. Dokyi et al. [17] stated that the adoption of Improved Seed and Management Technologies (ISMT) has a significant positive

impact on technical efficiency. The ISMT adoption resulted in a notable increase of the efficiency to show an actual improvement of 16%. Consequently, the maize productivity showed a substantial boost, rising by 33.8% as a result of ISMT adoption. This study recommends the widespread dissemination of improved maize seeds to farmers. The transformation of corn farming over the past two decades has been fueled by the rapid adoption of new technologies and advancements in seed breeding. A comprehensive analysis (ARMS survey conducted from 1996 to 2016) reveals the significant impact of these innovations on yield changes in intensive corn production.

Otherwise, the advancements in genetically engineered seeds allowed farmers to optimize their practices and achieve higher yields. With the ability to plant corn seeds more densely and at an earlier stage in the growing season, farmers maximized the crop's growth potential. Additionally, the improved pest resistance and drought tolerance provided by genetically engineered seeds opened up profitable production opportunities in different pedo-climatic contexts. These changes were not limited to planting practices alone, as the increased adoption of droughttolerant and insect-resistant seeds prompted adjustments in irrigation and chemical applications. Over the course of two decades, the percentage of corn acres planted with single-pest-resistant varieties containing proteins from *Bacillus thuringiensis* (Bt) increased from 2% in 1996 to 78% by 2016. Similarly, herbicide-tolerant varieties, enabling efficient weed management, saw a remarkable area increase from 3% in 1996 to 84% in 2016 [18]. However, adoption of genetically engineered seed varieties improved substantially productivity of conventional farming but the sustainability of this production system cannot maintained as different problems of soil health, soil physic, pest resistance; herbicide tolerance and chemical pollution kept unsolved in a sustainable way.

### **4.1 Practices for better maize crop establishment under no-till**

Several practices were proved to improve maize crop establishment for more sustainability under no-till cropping system. For a successful introduction of no-till farming method, farmers cannot sense an initial benefit without starting by fixing problem of soil compaction as a common issue of intensive agriculture. Compaction can be attributed to various field operations related to soil-machine interactions due to use of heavy machinery and equipment and to animal trampling. These activities can result in damage to the soil structure, which is crucial for the soil's ability to retain and drain water, nutrients, and air necessary for plant root functions. Compacted soil restricts root growth and can lead to reduced water infiltration, poor nutrient availability, and inadequate oxygen levels for plant roots. Several researches showed that compaction constitutes a systematic problem of irrigated cropping systems due to difficulty of traffic management with reference to soil practicability and soil plasticity. Olubanjo et al. [12] conducted a study in Nigeria to show the response of maize crop to compacted soil under relatively stable environmental conditions. They find that high soil strength resulting from compaction lead to reduced yield production. However, the negative impact of compaction on yield seems to be mitigated when there is an abundant water supply, although certain treatments with lower soil strengths experienced further reduction in yield due to water stress. Additionally, increased soil compaction was found to have a negative influence on plant nutrient uptake. According to this study, maize plants should not be cultivated in soils with a penetration resistance more than 2.0 MPa.

#### *Sustainable Maize Production and Carbon Footprint in Arid Land Context: Challenges… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112965*

Methods of chiseling and tillage of deep soil layers are of great importance to break hardpans and to alleviate soil compaction prior to cultivation of maize under conventional tillage. Such methods are also primordial for a successful start of producing maize under conservation tillage. In fact, it is essential to address soil compaction through proper management practices such as chiseling before no-tillage and use of adapted no-till seeders for a better maize crop establishment. The conservative best practices help farmers to guarantee a sustainable maize production when the maize crop establishment is good to show consistent biomass and grains yields during the start years of the conservative practices (**Figure 1**).

To enhance maize crop productivity and improve farmers' profitability, there is a significant focus on implementing alternative methods and technologies to promote conservative practices. These efforts aim to mitigate the negative impact of traditional cropping systems and have resulted in the development of various resource conservation technologies. Considering the importance of conserving natural resources, it is crucial to prioritize the widespread adoption of cost-effective and environmentally friendly crop management practices. These include techniques such as ridge and furrow, conventional flatbed, and raised-bed planting [20].

The ridge and furrow planting method involves creation of raised ridges and sunken furrows for a better crop establishment. This method offers several benefits for crop growth. The ridges provide better drainage and aeration for the plants, reducing the risk of waterlogging. The furrows help to channel water and prevent excessive runoff, improving water distribution and conservation.

The conventional flatbed planting method can be prepared by leveling the soil surface to create a flat and even bed for planting. In this method, the entire field is tilled and smoothed to achieve a uniform surface for easier planting, cultivation, and harvesting operations.

#### **Figure 1.** *Factors affecting no-till production system sustainability [19].*

The zero tillage raised-bed planting method involves creation of elevated planting beds above the ground level. The raised beds are typically formed by mounding soil or using specialized equipment to shape them.

Saad et al. [21] conducted a study in India to find that energy use in tillage is influenced by different tillage and crop establishment methods, as well as residue management practices. The zero tillage with raised-bed establishment (ZTB) consumed approximately 8% less energy compared to conventional tillage based on flatbed planting (CTF) in a maize-wheat cropping system. This reduction in energy consumption in ZTB was due to energy savings in land preparation, sowing, and irrigation activities.

Pooja et al. [20] also examined the impact of different planting methods on weed population, yield improvement, water management, and weed control in maize production. The results indicate that raised beds have lower weed populations and offer advantages such as better water management and higher yields compared to flat beds. Stale seedbed practices also prove effective in reducing weed density. Bed planting methods, particularly raised beds, demonstrate higher soil microbial biomass carbon and have a significant positive effect on crop growth and yields. Studies conducted by Jat et al. and Singh et al. show that raised-bed systems outperform conventional and zero tillage systems in terms of maize yield. Overall, the research suggests that raised-bed planting is the most effective method for minimizing weed population and enhancing crop performance [20].

#### **4.2 Digital monitoring of crop performance for sustainable maize production**

There are several technologies that contribute to sustainable maize production. For example, Soil–Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) meter technology. It has emerged as a valuable tool in the field of agriculture. This technology has gained significant attention, particularly in the context of optimizing nitrogen fertilizer applications in corn (*Zea mays* L.) production. The SPAD meter is a handheld device that measures the chlorophyll content of plant leaves, providing an indication of their nitrogen status. The use of SPAD meter technology offers several advantages for corn producers. By providing a quick and nondestructive assessment of leaf chlorophyll levels, it enables farmers to monitor the nitrogen status of their crops in real-time. This information is crucial for making informed decisions about nitrogen fertilizer applications, ensuring that the crops receive adequate nutrients for optimal growth and yield.

Farmers often opt for high nitrogen (N) rates to maximize corn yield, highlighting the need to determine optimal N quantities for promoting efficient farming practices that increase yield and crop profitability while minimizing resource wastage. Striking the right balance is crucial, as excessive N application poses a challenge for both farmers and environmentalists in safeguarding groundwater against nitrate contamination. By adopting appropriate N management strategies, farmers can mitigate the potential negative impacts of excessive N use, reduce environmental risks, and contribute to sustainable maize production.

Rhezali et al. [22] conducted a study in 2014 and 2015 to show that it is possible to explore the relationship between absolute SPAD values and leaf nitrogen concentration, focusing on early corn growth stages such as V6, V8, V10, and V12. Three experiments were conducted to examine the effects of six nitrogen (N) treatments applied at early growth stages of corn. The results indicated a significant linear relationship between corn leaf N concentrations and absolute SPAD values, with an

#### *Sustainable Maize Production and Carbon Footprint in Arid Land Context: Challenges… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112965*

R2 value of 0.80 (p < 0.05). Interestingly, the average optimal corn leaf N concentration decreased as the corn progressed through its growth stages.

Ensuring accessibility of the absolute SPAD method is crucial for its practical application by farmers. The absolute SPAD method, which has shown a significant linear relationship between corn leaf nitrogen concentrations and SPAD values, holds promise for aiding farmers in making informed decisions about nitrogen applications.

Otherwise, satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques have revolutionized the monitoring of maize crops, providing indispensable tools for farmers. Through the development of innovative algorithms and models, researchers have harnessed satellite data to extract valuable information for crop management. These insights include crop yield prediction, disease detection, and analysis of nutrient deficiencies [15, 23]. By leveraging satellite-based monitoring systems, farmers can make datadriven decisions to enhance their crop management practices. Furthermore, satellite and drone technologies have also facilitated the implementation of variable rate application of inputs in maize production. By mapping field variability, these technologies optimize the application of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, resulting in reduced costs and environmental impacts while maximizing yields. The implementation of variable rate application ensures efficient resource utilization and promotes sustainable maize production [24, 25].

Satellite and drone have also been used for crop imaging to provide farmers with detailed information on the health and vigor of their maize crops. By employing multispectral and thermal sensors, farmers can assess crop stress, monitor water use efficiency, detect nutrient deficiencies, and quantify vegetation indices such as NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index). These assessments enable farmers to take proactive measures to mitigate potential risks and optimize maize production [26, 27].

In addition to satellites, drones equipped with sensors and cameras have emerged as valuable tools for precise data collection in maize fields. Drones capture high-resolution images that enable the measurement of plant height, identification of nutrient deficiencies, and detection of pests and diseases. These images also contribute to the creation of yield maps, providing farmers with detailed information for optimizing fertilization, irrigation, and pest control strategies [28, 29]. The integration of these data-driven insights empowers farmers to make informed decisions, resulting in improved maize production.

The combination of satellite and drone data with crop modeling and decision support systems has further enhanced the accuracy of maize growth prediction and management. Researchers are actively developing models that incorporate climatic data, satellite imagery, soil characteristics, and management practices. These integrated systems optimize irrigation scheduling, planting dates, and fertilizer application, ultimately enabling farmers to achieve better yields [30–32]. By leveraging these tools, farmers can confidently make decisions based on accurate predictions and optimize their maize production.

Sharifi [33] implemented a model using Near-Infrared Reflectance (NIR) and Red-edge bands in vegetation indices to precisely predict maize nitrogen uptake in three different sites and various conditions. He stated that maize growers can have a good opportunity to map nitrogen uptake for improving nitrogen use efficiency in their field. Use of spectral information of Sentinel-2 satellite data for estimating maize nitrogen uptake served as an efficient tool to optimize fertilizer management in irrigation-based intensive cropping systems.
