**2.1 Project risk factors**

Past studies have identified construction project risk factors; for instance, according to Al-Hazim et al. [11], cost/budget overruns are prevalent risk factors in building projects worldwide. Likewise, inconsistencies, incorrect amounts, and difficulties accessing the site were considered high-risk factors. Project risk factors include cost, scheduling, and performance [12]. Risk factors in projects must be identified and evaluated to avoid performance problems. Rezakhani [13] divided the external risk variables into unexpected and predictable uncontrolled categories. According to Abd El-Karim [14], cash flow issues, equipment shortages, late deliveries of goods, a lack of materials, and poor craftsmanship are the most significant risk-contributing variables. It is vital to note that these critical aspects may be divided into building and financing. According to Abd El-Karim [14], key risk variables should be adequately controlled to minimise the risks of failure during building projects to achieve project success. As a result, risk considerations must be evaluated to avoid causing damage resulting from decision-making errors [9]. According to Kuang [9], construction projects contain a variety of characteristics, such as unique objectives, time limits, financial needs, specific organisational and legal contractual requirements, complexity, and systematic elements. Any investment project is complex, but construction projects are considerably more due to the numerous risk factors and intricate relationships affecting the project. Therefore, incorporating risk management into building project timelines should be a crucial step [9]. The primary goals of construction project management are quality, time, cost, health and safety, and environmental sustainability. A building project's time target and cost objective are intimately and inextricably linked. South African construction is fraught with dangers. Chihuri and Pretorius [15] list some of the significant hazards connected to construction projects in South Africa: the absence of power (electricity crisis), a lack of skilled labour, and rising costs for building supplies. Similar to this, forty-four (44) risk factors for building construction were found by Kishan [8] and split into ten (10) categories, including physical, logistical, design, environmental, legal, financial, managerial, cultural, construction, and political. According to the concerns examined, design changes, poor communication, and delayed contract payments are the primary causes of project delays.

Lack of efficient planning, execution constraints, external constraints, clientinduced constraints, project constraints, partner experience and a lack of project management knowledge, organisational culture and a claims redressal mechanism has been identified as major risk factors for construction projects [16]. Asumadu et al. [17] note that construction projects in wetland experience critical risk factors, including cost overruns, destruction of biological resources, water pollution, destruction of aquatic lives, lack of flood control capability and deterioration of water quality. Thus, governments should enforce effective enactment and enforcing environmental protection laws globally. Likewise, Jahan et al.'s [18] study find the rising cost of building materials, supply chain process, payment issues, planning and scheduling problems, financial difficulties, and ineffective control of manpower and equipment resources as the most critical factors affecting construction. In modelling critical risk factors in integrated construction projects, Ibrahim et al. [19] mentioned stakeholder and supply chain risks, design and capabilities risks, financing risks, and regulatory risks. In Jordan, Hiyassat et al. [20] identified the top risk factors in construction projects as client's payments delays, poorly contract forms, competition, delays in approval of permits, default by subcontractors, unclear specifications, material prices fluctuations, different construction standards, change in design, and poor design.
