*2.1.4.5 Legal risks*

Legal risks can arise due to various factors such as delays in resolving contractual disputes, poorly developed or unclear contract documents, changes in codes and regulations, conflicts in contract documents, and inappropriate distribution of responsibilities [52, 57]. Inadequate claim administration, rigorous competition at the tender stage, excessive contract variation, third-party liabilities, immature laws, and complexity in the legal environment can also contribute to legal risks. It is important to note that legal risks may vary depending on the project and country. For instance, negotiations and strategic decisions may be made to address risky site conditions in some countries, where risk allocation is done through contract clauses [66, 67].

### *2.1.4.6 Environmental risks*

The construction industry faces a range of risks due to its dynamic and complex nature [68]. These risks include inadequate information about the site, inappropriate construction scheduling, client demands for changes, excessive noise pollution, and a lack of skilled staff to handle unexpected environmental conditions [69]. El-Sayegh and Mansour [52] identified additional environmental risks, such as uncertainty about underground conditions, the presence of archaeological artefacts, site accessibility, the unavailability of necessary infrastructure, security, and traffic conditions. Environmental issues such as failure to comply with environmental regulations and impact assessments can also lead to project suspensions and disruption of project goals [70]. Managing environmental risks is crucial for maintaining productivity and achieving project objectives in construction projects.

### **2.2 Unsafe site practices on construction sites**

Construction projects are exposed to various risks that can both be anticipated and unexpected. These risks arise may be due to unsafe practices on construction sites. Such practices include unfavourable social and environmental conditions, physical hazards, congested workspaces, improper workstation layout, and movement of heavy equipment. Workers may also fail to take necessary precautions, such as wearing safety helmets and personal protective equipment (PPE) or maintaining proper working positions and conditions. Othman et al. [71] found that accidents on construction sites are often caused by a combination of the above issues. Meanwhile, Hon et al. [72] argue that accidents are not always due to construction operations failure, but to human error and unsafe site practices. Unsafe site practices refer to actions,

intentional or unintentional, that may lead to accidents, injuries, or even fatalities among workers or materials [73]. Despite the existence of laws and regulations to ensure site safety, employers and employees do not always comply with them rigorously [43]. The consequences of these behaviours can be dire, and the lack of learning opportunities means that these practices tend to be repeated, unchecked.

Unsafe practices is consider a physical conditions or circumstances that could potentially cause accidents [73]. These practices are prevalent in construction sites and are responsible for many accidents. Researchers in various countries have studied the factors and causes of unsafe site practices. In Kuwait, inadequate safety procedures, improper materials, low maintenance, supervisory faults, and misplaced equipment were identified as key factors [74]. In the USA, Abdelhamid [75] classified unsafe site practices into human and physical factors. Human factors include incorrect working posture, failure to wear protective equipment, unauthorised use of equipment, unsafe operating speeds, poor mental health, removal of safety devices, and unsafe positions when operating equipment. Physical factors include the unsafe acts of others, disregard for prescribed procedures, accidents due to defects, unsuitable attire, unsafe environmental conditions, fire hazards, poor housekeeping, inadequate personnel assignment, and poorly guarded machinery. Toole [76] found that lack of training, inadequate enforcement of safety regulations, lack of safety equipment, unsafe construction methods, unsafe site conditions, failure to use provided safety equipment, poor safety attitudes, forgetfulness, and deviation from prescribed behaviours were responsible for unsafe site practices in the USA.

Additionally, construction site accidents have been attributed to unsafe practices in various studies conducted in China, Hong Kong, Australia, Turkey, Korea, and Greece [77–82]. These practices include inadequate training, inappropriate worker behaviour, poor safety awareness, reluctance to invest in safety measures, loss of control of tools or equipment, physical strain, reckless machine operation, lack of safety regulation enforcement, insufficient personal protective equipment, lack of innovative technology, collisions with objects, and poor information flow. Unsafe work processes, environmental conditions, and machinery/crane positioning and movement have also been identified as causes of accidents by some researchers [73, 80]. Thus, accidents on construction sites are largely caused by unsafe site practices. The construction project is a complicated and time-consuming process that involves many different specialised tasks typically carried out by humans. Studies have shown that construction risks and unsafe practices are caused by various factors, with human behaviours being the most significant contributing factor. However, four categories of unsafe practices are identified in this study: human factors, non-human factors, unsafe worker acts and actions, and unsafe environmental and site conditions.
