Nano-Fabrication Methods

*Saeedeh Ebad-Sichani, Paria Sharafi-Badr, Payam Hayati and Mohammad Jaafar Soltanian-Fard*

#### **Abstract**

In the field of investigating nano-fabrication, it is not possible to reach a single and separate definition compared to macro-fabrication. Nano-fabrication can be defined as an assembly process to produce a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or threedimensional structure at the nanometer scale. The importance of recognizing and examining nanofabrication techniques considering the revolution that nanofabrication compounds have in molecular adsorption, catalysis, magnetism, luminescence, nonlinear optics, and molecular sensing, have been known because they provide the possibility of reproducible mass production in this field. In this chapter, to create a general understanding of nano-fabrication and the challenge of creating nanometer size reduction, we will review new tools and techniques for the production of nanostructures, which are divided into three major parts: thin film, lithography, and engraving.

**Keywords:** nano-fabrication, micro-fabrication, lithography, thin films, etching, pharmaceutical, medical fields

#### **1. Introduction**

Nanotechnology has already found numerous applications in various fields, including electronics, medicine, energy, and environmental remediation. For example, nanoscale materials fabricate electronic devices like transistors and solar cells. In medicine, nanoparticles are used for drug delivery and imaging. Nanotechnology is being explored in energy to develop more efficient batteries and solar cells. In environmental remediation, nanoparticles are used to remove contaminants from air and water.

In conclusion, nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize many fields and improve our lives in numerous ways. However, it is essential to approach this technology cautiously and continue to study its potential risks and benefits. With responsible development and use, nanotechnology can be a powerful tool for addressing many of humanity's challenges.

Despite the many benefits of nanotechnology, there are concerns about the possible dangers of using nanomaterials. These risks include toxicity, environmental impact, and ethical considerations. As such, it is important to continue to study the advantages and disadvantages of nanotechnology and to develop appropriate regulations and guidelines for its use.

**Figure 1.** *Cartoon representation of Feynman's atom-by-atom [1].*

One way to address these concerns is through responsible research and innovation (RRI) frameworks that integrate ethical, social, and environmental considerations into developing and deploying new technologies. Additionally, transparency and communication with stakeholders, including the public, are crucial in ensuring that the benefits of nanotechnology are realized while minimizing its potential risks. By taking a proactive and collaborative approach, we can ensure that nanotechnology is used safely and responsibly, benefiting society.

Richard P. Feynman, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist, spoke about the potential of molecular-scale engineering in " There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom" on December 29, 1959, at the California Institute of Technology. Nobel laureate Richard Feynman is frequently credited with the "birth of nanotechnology." In his creative speech, Feynman described a nano world in which atoms might be ordered individually. Feynman awarded monetary incentives to individuals who could complete his nano tasks. Despite being a visionary, Feynman overlooked the significance of chemistry in developing nanotechnology. He proposed that changing and controlling individual atoms and molecules would be possible, creating novel compounds, electronics, and medical treatments. This vision has become a reality with the advent of nanotechnology, which allows scientists to work at the atomic and molecular levels.

**Figure 1** is a cartoon representation of Feynman's atom-by-atom (ABA) fabrication technique for creating objects like cars from a single atom [1, 2].

The Birth of Nanotechnology is Atom-by-Atom Manufacturing. The origin of "nano" is the Greek word *νανoζ*. The metric prefix "nano" indicates 10−9, and 1 nm (one nanometer) is 10−9 m [2].

The term "nano" derives from the Greek word o. The metric prefix "nano" is derived from the Greek o, metro, which means "unit of measurement."

#### **2. Definition of nano-fabrication**

Nano-fabrication" is a fabrication technology used in nanotechnology. Nanofabrication is employed for fabricating components more minor than the ones fabricated by microtechnology, generally smaller than 1 μm, and the definition of nano-fabrication is unclear. One of the merits of this technology is that scientists have reached the theoretical limit of accuracy, for example, the size of a molecule or an atom; another belief is that we are dealing with a "super technology" [1].

Microtechnology has been transformed into nanotechnology with slow changes, and many laboratories changed the name of their microfabrication laboratories to nano-fabrication laboratories, while there were no fundamental changes. It should

#### *Nano-Fabrication Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112429*

be remembered that politics and economics partially caused these changes. With the changes and progress in the micro-scale, we slowly reached the nanoscale, and then its name was also changed [3].

Nano-fabrication is critical in advancing several areas, including electronics, biotechnology, energy, and materials science. It has enabled the production of smaller and more efficient devices, such as nanosensors, nanoelectronics, and nanomedicines. The techniques used in nano-fabrication include lithography, self-assembly, molecular beam epitaxy, and sol-gel synthesis. Each methodology has benefits and drawbacks, and the choice of the method relies on the desired application. Nanofabrication also poses challenges, such as the need for high precision and accuracy, the control of surface properties, and the scalability of the process. However, with advancements in technology and materials science, these challenges are being addressed, and nano-fabrication is becoming more accessible and widespread. Overall, nano-fabrication is a powerful tool that has revolutionized many fields and has the potential to continue driving innovation and progress in the future.

#### **3. Special properties of nanomaterials**

The two main reasons for changing nanomaterials' chemical and physical properties are surface effects and entering the world of quantum physics. The meaning of surface effects is the increase of the surface area-to-volume ratio by decreasing the particle size and reaching dimensions below one hundred nanometers. Increasing the proportion of surface atoms in the material causes the properties of the surface atoms to affect the properties of the whole material. Among these effects, very high reactivity can be mentioned. Another reason is entering the world of quantum physics and dissociating energy bands and turning them into energy levels. Due to this factor, special optical properties are observed in quantum dots or quantum wires that exhibit ballistic electrical conductivity. In this article, these two reasons are stated and analyzed [4].

The second reason for the unique properties of some nanomaterials is entering the world of quantum physics and dissociation of energy levels. First of all, it should be stated that this phenomenon is not valid for all nanomaterials, and it only happens for quantum nanomaterials. Quantum nanomaterials are compounds whose one, two, or three dimensions are less than the critical dimensions required to enter the world of quantum physics. The critical dimensions necessary for nanomaterials are determined according to their type. The critical dimensions for semiconductors are about 10 nm, and for conductors, about 1–3 nm [5, 6].

As the particle becomes smaller and its dimensions reach below one hundred nanometers, the increase in the percentage of surface atoms becomes significant. As the size decreases, the slope of the rise in the ratio of surface atoms also increases. **Figure 2** shows the particle size reduction's effect on the surface atoms ratio (surface area-to-volume ratio). As can be seen, as the particle becomes smaller and its dimensions reach below one hundred nanometers, the increase in the percentage of surface atoms becomes significant. With the decrease in size, the slope of the rise in the proportion of surface atoms also increases [4].

Materials can be divided into semiconductors, insulators, and metals or conductors. The qualities of a material may be changed at nanoscale length scales, which affects how its electrons behave (delocalized, localized, or somewhere in between). For instance, when a metal gets smaller, its electrons are confined to specific energy levels rather than being free to travel through energy bands. The characteristics of

**Figure 2.** *The particle size reduction's effect on the surface atoms ratio [4].*

a material are ultimately determined by this quantization of energy, also known as quantum confinement. In insulating materials like transition metal oxides, imperfections govern a material's behavior; this impact is accentuated in nanoscale structures due to their large surface and interfacial areas [7].

Producing items with nanometer-sized dimensions is known as nano-fabrication, and nano-fabrication techniques are crucial for developing innovative nanoscale structures, electronics, and materials with distinctive features [8].

#### **4. Application of nano-fabrication in medicine and industry**

Nanotechnology has numerous industrial applications, including electronics, energy, medicine, and materials science. Some of the vital industrial applications of nanotechnology are:

Electronics: Smaller and more effective electrical devices, such as transistors, sensors, and memory components, are being created with the help of nanotechnology. Nanoscale materials with specialized electrical properties, such as carbon nanotubes and graphene, are well suited for use in electronic devices.

Energy: Batteries, fuel cells, and solar cells are among the energy storage and conversion technologies being improved with nanotechnology. Nanomaterials like quantum dots and nanowires are being used to enhance the performance of these devices.

Medicine: Nanotechnology is creating new medicine delivery systems and diagnostic devices. Diseases can be treated more precisely and successfully with nanoparticles since they can be designed to target particular cells or tissues in the body.

Materials Science: Nanotechnology is used to develop stronger, lighter, and more durable materials. Nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes and graphene have exceptional mechanical properties that make them ideal for aerospace and automotive applications. Overall, the industrial applications of nanotechnology are vast and varied, and they can potentially revolutionize many industries in the coming years**.**

The topic of "soft nanotechnology," based on the self-assembly of giant organic molecules like polymers and proteins, has a wide range of practical uses.

In the context of a circular economy, employing affordable and environmentally friendly bio-based materials to create organic nanostructures is particularly

**Figure 3.** *Nanofabrication: Techniques and industrial applications [9].*

appealing. Targeted medicine delivery, quick testing, high-throughput gene sequencing, and recent vaccinations utilize nanoscale bio-molecular (**Figure 3**) [9].

Richard Zsigmondy, an Austro-Hungarian colloid chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1925, pioneered tiny nanoparticle research. He developed the word 'nanometer' to describe particles such as gold colloids that he observed under a microscope [9].

Nanotechnology is the manufacture of objects atom by atom. The introduction of nanotechnology into production has been likened to the introduction of prior technologies that have significantly impacted modern society, such as plastics, semiconductors, and even electricity. Nanotechnology applications offer extreme material performance and lifespan increases for electronics, medicine, energy, building, machine tools, agriculture, transportation, and apparel.

Nanofabricated products are constantly being developed. The industrial sectors that target these products are electronics and semiconductors, computing and information technology, communications, defense, automotive, chemical, and medical industries.

Some of the most common products obtained from nano-fabrication include [7]:


Chemists continue to explore the potential of nanotechnology and work toward developing new applications and materials that can further improve our lives.

#### **5. Nano-fabrication Laboratory**

The Nano-fabrication Laboratory (Nanofab) offers a range of state-of-the-art equipment and expertise in micro- and nano-fabrication, including photolithography, electron beam lithography, thin film deposition, etching, and characterization. The facility is equipped with cleanroom facilities essential for producing high-quality nanoscale structures. The Nanofab also provides training and support to researchers and students from various academic disciplines, including physics, chemistry, materials science, engineering, and biology. The facility is dedicated to fostering interdisciplinary research collaborations and promoting innovation in nanotechnology. The Nanofab is an essential resource for researchers who require access to advanced nanofabrication and characterization tools. By providing access to cutting-edge equipment and expertise, the facility enables researchers to explore new scientific frontiers and develop innovative technologies that have the potential to impact a wide range of fields, from medicine and electronics to energy and environmental science [10].

#### **6. The difference between nano-fabrication and microfabrication**

Nano-fabrication and microfabrication are two closely related fields of technology that involve manufacturing small-scale structures and devices. There is no one recognized definition of nano-fabrication or one that distinguishes it from microfabrication. As a result, what was formerly known as microfabrication has been renamed nano-fabrication, while the underlying concepts have remained substantially the same. Nano-fabrication refers to creating structures and devices on a nanoscale level, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers in size. This involves using specialized tools and techniques, such as electron beam lithography, atomic layer deposition, and nanoimprint lithography, to manipulate materials at the atomic and molecular levels. Microfabrication, on the other hand, involves the creation of structures and devices on a larger scale, typically ranging from a few micrometers to a few millimeters in size. This field uses photolithography, etching, and deposition processes to create complex patterns and structures on various materials, including silicon, glass, and polymers. Both nano-fabrication and microfabrication have a wide range of applications in electronics, medicine, energy, and materials science. These technologies have enabled the development of smaller, faster, and more efficient devices and new materials with unique properties and functions [11].

Nano-fabrication is a rapidly advancing field with great promise for creating new and innovative materials and technologies that can revolutionize many industries. The most sophisticated manufacturing technique today is nano-fabrication, the future technology. This technology is sometimes known as "extreme technology" since it allows scientists to approach virtually the theoretical limit of precision, i.e., the size of a molecule or atom. Indeed, the manipulation of matter at the nanoscale

**Figure 4.** *SEM image of micro-nanoparticle [Ag(p-OH-C6H4CO2)2(NO3)]n [14].*

may yield a wide range of materials and technologies that are significantly superior in performance, efficiency, and durability than those produced by traditional procedures. This nanoscale modification changes the material properties without impacting the substrate's fundamental qualities, making them fundamentally distinct and significantly superior to their bulk equivalents [12, 13] (**Figure 4**).

#### **7. Classification of nano-fabrication**

Nano-fabrication is a multidisciplinary science loosely defined as lithography, thin films, pattern transfer, and metrology. Another important subfield of "metrology" is inspection and characterization. We frequently create parts that are too small to be precisely examined with an optical microscope. There are various methods employed, including atomic force microscopy and electron microscopy. It may also be necessary to measure and keep track of additional characteristics, including film thickness, tension, and refractive index. Each of them calls for special equipment and methods [3].

#### **8. Nanofabrication techniques**

Nano-fabrication is a natural step toward further reducing the physical size of components and functional parts, and it frequently employs the same technology as microfabrication.

In summary, nano-fabrication is a critical aspect of nanotechnology research that involves the creation of structures and devices at the nanoscale. It requires a combination of "top-down" and "bottom-up" strategies and interdisciplinary collaboration between scientists from various fields. Some standard techniques include electron beam lithography, focused ion beam milling, nanoimprint lithography, and self-assembly. These techniques require specialized equipment and expertise, so many

#### **Figure 5.** *Etching techniques [2].*

researchers rely on nanoscience user facilities to conduct their experiments. Nanofabrication techniques create structures such as nanowires, nanotubes, nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and devices such as sensors, actuators, and electronic components.

On the one hand, top-down procedures are used to create nanomaterials from a bulk substrate by eliminating material until the required nanomaterial is obtained; this category includes printing methods. Bottom-up methods, however, are precisely the reverse; the nanomaterial is generated starting at the atomic or molecular level and progressively assembling it until the required structure is formed [15]. As mentioned in previous discussions, nano-fabrication, on the other hand, deals with creating systems and devices at the nanoscale, typically defined as dimensions between 1 and 100 nm. At this scale, materials exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties that can be harnessed for various applications. Nano-fabrication techniques create structures such as nanowires, nanotubes, nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and devices such as sensors, actuators, and electronic components. The methods used in nanofabrication are similar to those used in microfabrication but with much higher precision and control. Some standard methods include electron beam lithography, focused ion beam milling, nanoimprint lithography, and self-assembly. These techniques require specialized equipment and expertise, so many researchers rely on nanoscience user facilities to conduct their experiments. In summary, nano-fabrication is a critical aspect of nanotechnology research that involves the creation of structures and devices at the nanoscale. It requires a combination of "top-down" and "bottom-up" strategies and interdisciplinary collaboration between scientists from various fields. We can unlock new possibilities for energy generation, electronics, medicine, and more by advancing our understanding of nano-fabrication [7, 16–18] (**Figure 5**).

#### **9. Fabrication conditions**

The conditions under which nano-fabrication occurs are crucial to the success of the process. Factors such as temperature, pressure, and impurities affect the final product. Additionally, the tools and equipment used in nano-fabrication must be carefully designed and maintained to ensure accuracy and precision. Cleanroom environments, where the air is filtered to remove particles and contaminants, are often used for nano-fabrication to minimize the risk of contamination.

#### *Nano-Fabrication Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112429*

The "nano-fabrication" requires dedicated facilities or laboratories, specialized equipment, fundamental skills, and, perhaps most crucially, a fascinating and multidisciplinary cultural environment to lead him or her through the everyday obstacles of discovering the "room at the bottom." A specialized climate is required to control each parameter during the various phases of nano-fabrication procedures. Given that materials' chemical and physical properties can vary greatly and that tools' thermal expansion might threaten the nanoscale scale's stability (and hence resolution), the temperature should be kept constant. Uncontrolled humidity may lead to the same issues. The same problems might arise from unchecked moisture. Regarding the proportions of manufactured items, dust particles may resemble a gigantic mountain.

When the nanoscale scientific research centers are merged, they serve as a gateway to additional major x-ray, neutron, and electron scattering user facilities. Each nanoscience user facility has clean rooms, nano-fabrication laboratories, one-of-a-kind signature equipment, and other tools (such as nanopatterning devices and researchgrade probe microscopes). These facilities provide free access to cutting-edge instrumentation, computational methods, and expert scientific staff to researchers worldwide—a novel and standalone setting designed to encourage collaboration among scientists from various disciplines such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, engineering, and computer science [19, 20].

#### **10. Nanoparticle types**

Nanoparticles' size, shape, physical, and chemical features may be used to classify them. The categorization of nanoparticles is frequently determined by their function.


in applications like Imaging, Solar cells, semiconductors, Lighting, Biomedical applications, and Environmental monitoring. Semiconductor nanoparticles can be used as fluorescent tags to label cells or tissues for imaging purposes. They emit light of a specific wavelength when excited by an external light source, allowing researchers to track their movement and behavior.

• **Hybrid nanoparticles** are particles made of two or more different materials, such as semiconductors and metal combinations. These nanoparticles have unique properties that differ from their components and can be tailored for specific applications. Some examples of hybrid nanoparticles and their applications are plasmonic, magnetic, and carbon-based nanoparticles. Overall, hybrid nanoparticles offer many possibilities for developing new materials with unique application properties.

Hybrid nanoparticles can be created through chemical processes such as hydrothermal, sol-gel, co-precipitation, photochemical, sonochemical, and seeding growth. In hydrothermal synthesis, the nanoparticles are formed in a high-pressure and high-temperature aqueous solution. Sol-gel synthesis involves the conversion of a sol into a gel by adding a cross-linking agent. Co-precipitation involves the simultaneous precipitation of two or more metal ions to form nanoparticles. In photochemical synthesis, nanoparticles are synthesized using light as an energy source. Sonochemical synthesis involves the use of ultrasound to create cavitation bubbles that lead to the formation of nanoparticles. Seeding growth consists of the use of pre-formed nanoparticles as seeds for the development of larger nanoparticles.

Physical approaches for creating hybrid nanoparticles include laser-induced heating, atom beam co-sputtering, and ion implantation. Laser-induced heating involves using a laser to heat a target material, causing it to vaporize and form nanoparticles. Atom beam co-sputtering involves simultaneously depositing two or more materials onto a substrate to form hybrid nanoparticles. Ion implantation consists of introducing ions into a solid material to create defects that can be used as nucleation sites for the formation of nanoparticles.

In addition to these methods, there are biological approaches for creating hybrid nanoparticles, such as using genetically modified organisms or biomolecules to synthesize nanoparticles. These methods are still in the early stages of development but can potentially be highly selective and environmentally friendly. The choice of fabrication method will depend on the desired properties and applications of the hybrid nanoparticles [22].

In the topic of examining nano-fabrication methods, we will get to know more about nano-fabrication techniques.

• **Thin film:** A thin film is a layer of material that has a thickness of a few nanometers to a few micrometers. Thin films can be made from various materials, including metals, semiconductors, and polymers. They have unique properties that differ from their bulk counterparts, such as higher surface area and improved optical, electrical, and mechanical properties. Thin films are commonly used in various applications, including electronics, optics, and energy storage. In electronics, thin films create transistors, sensors, and displays. In optics, thin films are used to develop anti-reflection coatings and filters. In energy storage, thin films make batteries and solar cells. The properties of thin films can be controlled by adjusting the deposition process, such as the material's temperature, pressure, and composition. With thicknesses on the order of a few nanometers, nanoscale thin films have unique characteristics that set them apart from bulk materials [23].

This conformal nature of thin films makes them ideal for coating complex threedimensional objects, as they can fully cover all surfaces and maintain their properties uniformly. This property is advantageous in the electronics industry, where thin films create microelectronic devices on various substrates. The ability of thin films to conform to any surface also makes them useful in biomedical applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Another critical aspect of thin film science is the ability to precisely control the thickness of the film. This is achieved through various deposition techniques, such as physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and atomic layer deposition (ALD). Precise control over the thickness of a film is crucial for achieving desired properties, such as optical transparency or electrical conductivity. Thin film science has also played a significant role in the development of nanotechnology. These properties are exploited in various applications, such as nanoelectronics, nanophotonics, and nanobiotechnology. Thin film science has made it possible to precisely control the thickness and composition of these nanoscale layers. It allows the creation of new materials with desired functional properties, such as the nature of layer compliance, film thickness, dielectric constant, stress, chemical composition, and electrical conductivity [3].

In conclusion, thin film science is a multidisciplinary field with numerous applications in various industries. The conformal nature and precise thickness control of thin films make them ideal for coating complex objects and creating novel materials with tailored properties. With the continued advancement of thin film science, we can expect to see even more innovative applications.

Physical methods include techniques such as PVD and sputtering, where atoms or molecules are ejected from a solid source and deposited onto a substrate. Chemical processes include techniques such as CVD and ALD, where a chemical reaction occurs between precursor gases and the substrate surface, resulting in the deposition of a thin film.

Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on factors such as the desired properties of the film, the substrate material, and the scale of production. For example, PVD is a widely used technique for depositing thin metallic films with high purity and uniformity, while CVD is often used for depositing thin films of oxides and nitrides with precise stoichiometry [24].

In recent years, hybrid methods that combine physical and chemical processes have also emerged, such as plasma-enhanced CVD and atomic layer etching. These methods offer greater control over the deposition process and can result in thin films with unique properties [22].

Overall, thin film science continues evolving and offers new possibilities for creating advanced materials with tailored properties. As technology advances, we can expect to see even more innovative applications of thin films in fields such as electronics, optics, energy, and biomedicine.

With the advance of nano-fabrication methods, manufacturing and functional synthesis of nanoparticles for medicinal, energy generation, and chemical engineering sectors will continue.

### **11. Classification of nano-fabrication methods**

#### **11.1 Chemical and physical nano-fabrication methods**

#### *11.1.1 Chemical methods*

Chemical methods are an essential subset of nano-fabrication techniques that involve chemical reactions to create or modify nanoscale structures. Some standard chemical methods used in nano-fabrication include:


Chemical methods are beneficial for creating complex, three-dimensional structures with precise control over their composition and properties. They are also crucial for creating functional materials with unique properties, such as catalytic nanoparticles or biomimetic materials. The most prevalent chemical approach is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). In this process, gas precursors are delivered into a chamber, and the substrate is heated to a sufficient enough temperature to initiate a reaction and form the film of interest. There are several forms of CVD, such as low-pressure CVD (LPCVD), microwaves CVD(MWCVD), radio frequency (RFCVD), metal-organic precursors CVD (MOCVD), realized in fluidized bed (fluidized bed CVD), UV beam CVD (photo CVD), atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD) plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), Chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) and atomic layer deposition (ALD) [25].

Each of these processes has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of operation depends on the specific application and desired properties of the resulting material. For example, MOCVD is commonly used in the semiconductor industry to deposit thin films of materials such as gallium arsenide, while LPCVD is often used for depositing high-quality silicon nitride films. CVD processes are widely used to fabricate various nanostructures, including nanowires, nanotubes, and thin films. These structures have electronics, photonics, catalysis, and energy storage applications. For example, due to their unique electrical and mechanical properties, carbon nanotubes are being investigated for their potential use in next-generation electronics. Overall, CVD processes offer a versatile and scalable method for synthesizing

nanostructures with precise control over their size, shape, and composition. As research in nanotechnology advances, we can expect to see even more innovative CVD processes and applications [26].

#### *11.1.2 Physical methods*

Physical methods are also widely used in nano-fabrication to create or modify nanoscale structures. Some of the most commonly used physical methods in nanofabrication include lithography, etching, deposition, and imaging.


Epitaxy is widely used in semiconductors to produce high-quality, single-crystal films for electronic devices such as transistors and solar cells. It is also used in materials science research to study the properties of thin films and their interfaces. Advanced epitaxy techniques have enabled the growth of complex multilayer structures and heterostructures with tailored properties for specific applications. Ongoing research in epitaxy is focused on developing new materials and optimizing growth conditions to improve the performance of electronic and optoelectronic devices [3, 27, 28].

There are two main types of epitaxy: chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). In CVD, the material is deposited onto the substrate in a gas phase, while in MBE, the material is deposited in a vacuum using a beam of atoms or molecules. Epitaxy is widely used in semiconductors to create high-quality thin films for electronic devices such as transistors and solar cells. It also produces LEDs, lasers, and other optoelectronic devices. Overall, epitaxy is an important technique in nano-fabrication that enables the precise control of crystal orientation and thickness, allowing for the creation of high-performance electronic and optoelectronic devices.

Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is another commonly used method for depositing thin films onto substrates. Unlike CVD, PVD involves the physical evaporation of

#### *Nano-Fabrication Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112429*

a solid material, which then condenses onto the substrate to form a thin film. This can be achieved through various techniques, such as sputtering or thermal evaporation. One advantage of PVD is that it can produce high-quality films with excellent adhesion and uniformity. It also allows for precise control over the thickness and composition of the deposited film. Additionally, PVD can deposit various materials, including metals, alloys, and ceramics [25, 28].

However, PVD has some limitations. For example, it may not be suitable for depositing certain materials, such as polymers or organic compounds. It also requires high vacuum conditions, limiting its scalability for large-scale production. Despite these limitations, PVD is widely used in various industries, including electronics, optics, and aerospace. It is beneficial for producing coatings with specific properties, such as corrosion or wear resistance. As with CVD, ongoing research is focused on developing new PVD techniques and applications for nanotechnology. Overall, physical methods are important tools in nano-fabrication, enabling the creation of precise patterns and structures with high resolution and accuracy [2]**.**

There are several methods for nano-fabrication, including:


Nano-fabrication methods are critical for developing nanotechnology and creating new materials and devices with unique properties and applications [3].

#### **11.2 Top-down and bottom-up nano-fabrication methods**

Bottom-up methods offer greater control over the resulting nanostructures' shape, size, and composition but are often limited in scalability and reproducibility. Top-down approaches, on the other hand, can be used to create large numbers of identical structures with high precision but may suffer from issues such as surface roughness and damage. Nano-fabrication—the design and production of structures at nanoscale dimensions—requires advances in material synthesis, physical patterning, structural characterization, and theory, including fields like biology, chemistry, physics, and engineering. As a result, researchers from all around the world are working to develop "top-down" and "bottom-up" methods for designing surface nanostructures [16].

"Top-down" methods directly imprint a design into a substrate using sophisticated lithography, electron-beam writing, and nanoimprinting methods. Due to their historical roots, these methods are particularly successful in creating nanostructures based on metal and semiconductors. "Bottom-up" techniques use atoms and molecules that spontaneously coalesce into well-organized structures. Nature frequently uses self-assembly.

We may combine nanosystems and create materials specifically suited for a specific purpose by combining "bottom-up" and "top-down" approaches. To understand a material's size-dependent qualities in a particular application while improving molecule and material design, extra care must be given when a material's dimensions decrease [17].

For instance, the bandgap of a nanoscale material determines optical characteristics, whereas exchange interactions between spin states control magnetic properties [7]. It is expected that both "top-down" and "bottom-up" approaches will need to collaborate with larger-scale elements in functional devices to successfully manufacture nanostructures with resolutions below 10 nm [2]. To uncover structure-property correlations, this calls for an atomic-scaled examination of nanomaterials.

The development of atomic-scale imaging methods like scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy, as well as developments in classical electron microscopy, has substantially benefited attempts to visualize nanoscale structures and their alteration under external disruption [18].

Top-down nano-fabrication methods involve using larger structures or materials to create smaller designs or devices. These methods are typically used in the semiconductor industry, including photolithography, electron beam lithography, and focused ion beam milling. Photolithography is a process that uses light to transfer a pattern onto a substrate coated with a photosensitive material. This method is commonly used to create patterns on silicon wafers to produce microprocessors and other electronic devices. Overall, top-down nano-fabrication methods are essential for building electronic devices and other nanotechnology applications, as they enable the creation of precise patterns and structures at the nanoscale.

#### *11.2.1 Top-down methods*

#### *11.2.1.1 Lithography*

Several major nano-fabrication methods are coming from laboratories or are currently available on the market, including electron. Soft lithography, micro or nanostencil-guided deposition, dip-pen or fountain-pen lithography, nano-xerography, scanning nanolithography, and nanoimprint lithography are all examples of lithography techniques [3].

Lithography is a physical method that can be the main idea of top-down methods derived from the nano-fabrication methods for creating hybrid nanoparticles, which involves using a patterned mask to selectively deposit or remove material from a substrate. This method can be used to create complex patterns and structures at the nanoscale and is commonly used in the semiconductor industry to fabricate microchips. There are several types of lithography, including photolithography, electron beam lithography, and nanoimprint lithography. Photolithography uses light to transfer a pattern from a mask onto a photosensitive material, while electron beam lithography uses a focused beam of electrons to directly write patterns onto a substrate. Nanoimprint lithography involves pressing a patterned stamp onto a substrate

#### **Figure 6.**

*Basic lithography process. (ET 1039—Nanotechnology, Alejandro Soliva Beser. Nanotechnology Fabrication Methods).*

to transfer the pattern. Lithography is an exact and versatile method for creating hybrid nanoparticles, but it can also be time-consuming and expensive. It is typically used for small-scale production or research purposes rather than large-scale industrial applications. In the following, we examine examples of this method. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages [8] (**Figure 6**).

#### *11.2.1.2 Conventional lithography*

Conventional lithography is a top-down nano-fabrication method that uses a mask and a light source to pattern a substrate. The act contains a pattern transferred onto the substrate using a photoresist material. The mask exposes the photoresist to light, causing a chemical reaction allowing the pattern to be etched onto the substrate. Conventional lithography has been widely used in the semiconductor industry to create integrated circuits and other electronic devices. However, it has limitations regarding resolution and scalability, as the size of the features that can be patterned is limited by the wavelength of the light used. To overcome these limitations, alternative lithography techniques have been developed, such as electron beam lithography, which uses a focused beam of electrons to pattern the substrate, and nanoimprint lithography, which uses a stamp to transfer a pattern onto the substrate.

A traditional lithography process for producing integrated circuits (ICs) exposes a resist to a powerful particle beam, such as electrons, photons, or ions, by passing a flood beam through a mask or scanning a focused beam. The particle beam changes the chemical structure of the exposed portion of the resist layer. In the subsequent etching, the exposed or unexposed area of the resist will be erased to reproduce the patterns [29].

#### *11.2.1.3 Photolithography*

Photolithography is a type of lithography that uses light to transfer a pattern from a mask onto photosensitive material. The process involves several steps:


#### *11.2.1.4 Advanced lithography*

Advanced lithography technologies have been created to circumvent traditional lithography limits. Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography, which employs a 13.5 nm wavelength light source, and multiple patterning, which requires repeated exposures and etching operations to make tiny features, are two technologies. EUV lithography is now employed to produce modern microprocessors, while multiple patterning creates memory devices and other advanced integrated circuits. Nanoimprint lithography, which utilizes a stamp to generate patterns on a resist, and electron beam lithography, which employs a focused electron beam to make high-resolution patterns, are two further advanced lithography approaches. These improved lithography processes allow for the fabrication of smaller and more complex structures, which is critical for developing modern electrical devices.

**Figure 7.** *Photolithography process [2].*

#### *Nano-Fabrication Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112429*

Another important area of research in advanced lithography is the development of new resists, which are materials used to transfer a pattern from a mask or template onto a substrate. Resists are critical in lithography, determining the resolution, contrast, and sensitivity. New resist materials are being developed to withstand higher temperatures and exposure doses, providing better pattern fidelity and lower line-edge roughness.

Overall, advanced lithography methods are essential for the continued progress of the semiconductor industry. As device dimensions continue to shrink and new materials and structures are developed, lithography will play an increasingly important role in enabling these advances [29].

#### *11.2.1.5 Soft lithography*

Soft lithography is a type of lithography that uses flexible materials, such as elastomers, to create patterns on substrates. This technique has many potential applications in the biotechnology, microfluidics, and optoelectronics fields. It is crucial to weigh soft lithography's potential benefits and risks and ensure it is used responsibly and sustainably. The lithographic process consists of coating a substrate with a resist, exposing the resist to light or electron beams, and developing the resist image with a chemical substance. The pattern is then transferred from the resist to the substrate through various techniques, such as chemical etching or dry plasma etching.

There are two main types of lithography: mask lithography, which uses a physical mask to irradiate the resist, and scanning lithography, which uses a scanning beam to irradiate the resist sequentially. Mask lithography is faster but has a lower resolution while scanning lithography is slower but has better resolution. Contact mode photolithography replicates the image on the mask as it is, while projection mode photolithography reduces the image using an optical system. Extreme UV or X-ray lithography can achieve higher resolution but requires expensive equipment. One of the significant motives for inventing soft lithography, for example, was to reduce the feature size and cost of microelectronic devices [31] (**Figure 8**).

#### *11.2.1.6 Nanosphere lithography*

Nanosphere lithography is a bottom-up nano-fabrication method that uses self-assembled nanospheres monolayers as a template to pattern a substrate. The nanospheres are deposited onto the substrate, forming a close-packed array, then coated with a thin layer of thin material. The nanospheres are then removed, leaving behind a patterned substrate. Nanosphere lithography has advantages in terms of scalability and resolution, as the size of the nanospheres can be controlled, and the pattern can be transferred onto a large substrate area. It is also a relatively simple and cost-effective method compared to conventional lithography.

Nanosphere lithography has been used in various applications, such as plasmonics, biosensors, and solar cells. It has also been combined with other techniques, such as chemical vapor and electrochemical deposition, to create more complex structures. Overall, nanosphere lithography is a promising technique for nano-fabrication and offers an alternative to conventional lithography for specific applications [33] (**Figure 9**).

#### *11.2.1.7 Colloidal lithography*

Colloidal lithography is another method used in nano-fabrication to achieve atom-by-atom precision. It involves using a monolayer of colloidal particles as a mask

#### **Figure 8.**

*Soft lithography (PDMS poly(dimethyl siloxane)) [32].*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Nanosphere lithography. (ET 1039—Nanotechnology, Alejandro Soliva Beser. Nanotechnology Fabrication Methods).*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Colloidal lithography. (ET 1039—Nanotechnology, Alejandro Soliva Beser. Nanotechnology Fabrication Methods).*

to pattern a substrate. The substrate is then etched or coated with a material, and the colloidal particles are removed to reveal the desired pattern. This technique allows for the creation of complex patterns with high resolution and can be used to fabricate various nanostructures, including nanowires, nanodots, and nanorings. Colloidal lithography is similar to nanosphere lithography.

Colloidal lithography is a versatile and cost-effective method for achieving atomby-atom precision in nano-fabrication. It is widely used in research and industry to fabricate electronic devices, sensors, and other nanoscale structures [34] (**Figure 10**).

#### *11.2.1.8 Scanning probe lithography*

Scanning probe lithography is a top-down method in nano-fabrication that uses a scanning probe microscope to manipulate and remove material from a surface at the

**Figure 11.**

*Scanning probe lithography. (ET 1039—Nanotechnology Alejandro Soliva Beser. Nanotechnology Fabrication Methods).*

nanoscale. This method allows for creating patterns and structures with high precision and resolution.

Scanning probe lithography has several advantages over traditional lithography methods, including creating structures on non-planar surfaces and working with a wide range of materials. However, it can be time-consuming, expensive, and unsuitable for large-scale production. This method creates structures mechanically moving a small or nanoscopic stylus across a surface to develop nanometer-scale patterns. SPL (Scanning Probe Lithography), which uses the tip of an AFM to selectively remove specific portions of the surface, and DPN (Dip-Pen Nanolithography), which uses an AFM tip to deposit materials on a surface with nanometer resolution, are popular. The primary benefits of these methods are their high resolution and capacity to make complex patterns with variable geometries, but their main restriction is their slow pace (**Figure 11**).

#### *11.2.1.9 Writing "atom-by-atom"*

Atom-by-atom precision is a key feature of nano-fabrication, as it allows for the creation of structures with minimal dimensions and high accuracy. By manipulating individual atoms and molecules, researchers can create materials with unique properties not found in bulk materials. One technique used to achieve atom-byatom precision is scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), which allows researchers to image and manipulate individual atoms on a surface. By using a sharp tip to scan across the surface, STM can create patterns and structures with atomic-scale resolution (**Figure 12**).

Another technique is molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), which involves depositing atoms or molecules onto a substrate one layer at a time. Researchers can create thin films with precise thickness and composition by controlling the deposition rate and temperature [36, 37].

**Figure 12.** *The scanning tunneling microscope as a tool for nano-fabrication [35].*

#### *11.2.2 Bottom-up nano-fabrication methods*

In contrast to top-down methods, bottom-up nano-fabrication methods involve the assembly of individual atoms or molecules to create larger structures or devices. Natural processes such as self-assembly and molecular recognition often inspire these methods. Self-assembly involves the spontaneous organization of molecules into a desired structure without external guidance. This method often creates nanoscale systems such as nanoparticles and nanowires. Molecular recognition involves the selective binding of molecules to each other based on their chemical properties. This method is often used to create functionalized surfaces and molecular sensors. Different bottom-up approaches include DNA nanotechnology, which uses DNA molecules as building blocks to create complex structures, and peptide-based nano-fabrication, which uses peptides to create functional materials and devices. Bottom-up nano-fabrication methods have the potential to enable the creation of new materials and devices with unique properties and functionalities and are an active area of research in the field of nanotechnology; in general, bottomup methods offer a promising approach for the fabrication of nanomaterials, as they allow precise control over the size, shape, and composition of the resulting nanoparticles. As technology advances, bottom-up methods will likely become even more sophisticated, opening up new opportunities for nanotechnology applications. Bottom-up approaches are classified into two categories: gas-phase methods and liquid-phase methods.

In both situations, nanomaterials are created by a controlled manufacturing process that starts with a single atom or molecule and consists of small building blocks or molecules and atoms to create larger structures or substances. These methods rely on self-assembly, where building blocks are designed to interact with each other in a specific way to form the desired structure. Bottom-up processes offer advantages over top-down methods, such as creating complex systems with precise control over their properties and the potential for low-cost and scalable fabrication. However, these methods also have limitations, such as the difficulty in controlling the assembly process and the possibility of defects in the final product [37].

#### *11.2.2.1 Plasma arching*

Plasma arching is another technique used in nano-fabrication to synthesize and modify nanomaterials. It involves using plasma, a partially ionized gas, to generate high-energy species that can interact with and modify the surface of materials.

In plasma arching, a high-voltage electrical discharge directs plasma toward the substrate or material to be modified. The high-energy species in the plasma can cause chemical reactions on the material's surface, leading to the formation of new chemical bonds and the modification of its properties. Plasma arching can be used for a wide range of applications in nano-fabrication, such as surface cleaning, surface modification, deposition of thin films, and etching of materials. It offers several advantages over other techniques, such as high processing speed, precise control over the process parameters, and the ability to modify a wide range of materials.

However, plasma arching also has some limitations, such as the need for highvoltage equipment and potential damage to the processed material. Therefore, careful optimization of the process parameters is necessary to ensure this technique's successful and safe use in nano-fabrication. Plasma arcing is a highly efficient and scalable method for producing large quantities of nanotubes, making it a promising

technology for future applications in electronics, energy storage, and other fields of cold plasmas; the average arc temperature is more than 104 K [38].

#### *11.2.2.2 Chemical vapor deposition*

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a widely used method for synthesizing nanomaterials in nano-fabrication. In this process, a thin film of material is deposited on a substrate by the chemical reaction of gas-phase precursors. The process involves the following steps:


CVD can deposit various materials, including metals, semiconductors, and insulators. It is a versatile technique that can produce high-quality films with precise control over thickness, composition, and crystal structure. CVD is widely used in nano-fabrication to produce microelectronics, optoelectronics, and other advanced materials [39] (**Figure 13**).

#### *11.2.2.3 Sol-gel synthesis*

Another approach for producing thin films and nanoparticles is sol-gel synthesis. A precursor solution is created in this procedure by combining metal alkoxides or other inorganic chemicals with a solvent. After that, the solution is hydrolyzed and condensed to produce a gel, which may then be annealed or calcined to make a solid substance. The gel can be further processed by calcination or sintering to obtain the desired nanomaterials with controlled size, shape, and composition.

Sol-gel synthesis may create various materials, such as ceramics, glasses, and composites. The material's characteristics may be modified by varying the precursor composition, solvent, and production conditions.

**Figure 13.** *The principle of CVD [39].*

#### **Figure 14.**

*Schematic overview of different materials obtained through a sol-gel process (image courtesy of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory).*

Sol-gel synthesis is widely used in nano-fabrication to produce catalysts, sensors, coatings, and other functional materials. Low processing temperatures, high purity, and the ability to construct diverse forms and architectures distinguish sol-gel synthesis from other nano-fabrication processes [40] (**Figure 14**).

**Figure 15.** *Molecular self-assembly [41].*

#### *11.2.2.4 Molecular self-assembly*

Molecular self-assembly is a bottom-up nano-fabrication method involving molecules' spontaneous organization into ordered structures without external manipulation. This process is driven by the inherent properties of the molecules, such as their shape, size, and interactions with each other and the substrate.

One example of molecular self-assembly is the formation of monolayers on a substrate, where molecules are adsorbed onto the surface and arranged in a specific pattern. This can create functional surfaces for various applications such as sensors, catalysis, and electronics.

Another example is the assembly of nanoparticles into larger structures through self-organization. This can create complex structures with unique properties for applications such as drug delivery, imaging, and energy conversion.

Molecular self-assembly offers several advantages over conventional top-down methods such as lithography. It is a scalable and cost-effective method that can create complex structures with high precision and control at the nanoscale. It also has the potential to develop new materials and devices with unique properties that cannot be achieved through conventional methods.

Overall, molecular self-assembly is a promising nano-fabrication method that can potentially revolutionize the field of nanotechnology [41] (**Figure 15**).

#### **12. Final considering**

When considering the industrial applications of nanotechnology, it is essential to consider the environmental impact of these technologies. Nano-fabrication methods often involve toxic chemicals and materials, negatively affecting the environment and human health if improperly handled. It is essential to implement sustainable practices in nano-fabrication to minimize the environmental impact and ensure the safety of workers and consumers. Additionally, the disposal of nanomaterials and products containing nanomaterials must be carefully managed to prevent potential environmental damage. Research on the long-term effects of nanomaterials on the environment is ongoing, and it is essential to continue to monitor and regulate the use of these materials to ensure their safe and responsible service in the industry.

Furthermore, the potential unintended consequences of nanotechnology on ecosystems and biodiversity must also be considered. Nanoparticles can accumulate in soil and water, potentially affecting plant growth and aquatic life. Conducting thorough environmental impact assessments before introducing nanotechnology into new industries or applications is essential. In conclusion, while nanotechnology offers many benefits to industry, it is crucial to consider its environmental impact [42].

#### **13. Conclusion**

In conclusion, nanofabrication methods have revolutionized various industries by enabling the precise manipulation and fabrication of materials at the nanoscale. These methods have allowed for the development of advanced technologies such as nanoelectronics, nanomedicine, and nanophotonics, which have significantly improved the efficiency, performance, and functionality of devices and systems. Nanofabrication methods, including top-down and bottom-up approaches, offer a

#### *Nano-Fabrication Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112429*

wide range of techniques such as lithography, self-assembly, and deposition methods. These techniques provide control over the size, shape, composition, and arrangement of nanomaterials, leading to enhanced properties and novel functionalities. The use of nanofabrication methods has also led to the miniaturization of devices, allowing for the integration of more components on a single chip or substrate. This has resulted in smaller and more efficient electronic devices, sensors, and energy storage systems. Furthermore, nanofabrication methods have facilitated advancements in the field of nanomedicine, enabling the precise delivery of drugs and therapeutic agents to specific targets within the body. This has opened up new possibilities for personalized medicine and targeted therapies. However, there are still challenges and limitations associated with nanofabrication methods. These include high costs, scalability issues, and the need for specialized equipment and expertise. Additionally, the potential environmental and health risks associated with nanomaterials need to be carefully considered and addressed. Overall, nanofabrication methods have had a profound impact on various industries and hold great promise for future technological advancements. Continued research and development in this field will likely lead to further breakthroughs and applications in areas such as electronics, healthcare, energy, and environmental sustainability.

## **Author details**

Saeedeh Ebad-Sichani1 , Paria Sharafi-Badr2 , Payam Hayati3 \* and Mohammad Jaafar Soltanian-Fard1

1 Department of Chemistry, Firozabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Firozabad, Fars, Iran

2 Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

3 Organic and Nano Group (ONG), Department of Chemistry, Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran

\*Address all correspondence to: payamhayati@yahoo.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

[1] Fullerines MN, editor. Chapter 1 – Atom-by-Atom Manufacturing: The birth of nanotechnology. In: Fundamentals and Applications of Nano Silicon in Plasmonics. Elsevier; 25 June 2018. pp. 1-6. DOI: 10.1016/C2016-0-00112-2. ISBN 978-0-323-48057-4

[2] Kondoh E. Micro-and Nanofabrication for Beginners. Singapore: Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.; 2022. pp. 2-3. ISBN 978-981-4877-09-1

[3] Sarangan A. Nanofabrication: Principles to Laboratory Practice. London, USA: CRC Press; 2016. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-1-78242-464-2.00005-1

[4] Cao G. Nanostructures & Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties & Applications. London: Imperial College Press; 2004. ISBN 1860944159 -1860944809

[5] Kasap SO. Electronic Materials and Devices. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education; 2006. ISBN 978-0-07-802818-2

[6] Sarkar D. Nanostructured Ceramics: Characterization and Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2018. DOI: 10.1201/9781315110790

[7] Scholes GD, Rumbles G. Excitons in nanoscale systems. Nature Materials. 2006;**5**(9):683-696

[8] Hu H, Kim HJ, Somnath S. Tipbased nanofabrication for scalable manufacturing. Micromachines. 2017;**8**(3):90

[9] Vasilev C. Nanofabrication: Techniques and industrial applications. In: AZoNano. Manchester, UK:

AZoNetwork UK Ltd; 2021. Available from: https://www.azonano.com/article. aspx?ArticleID=5876

[10] Liddle JA, Gallatin GM. Nanomanufacturing: A perspective. ACS Nano. 2016;**10**(3):2995-3014

[11] Haus JW. Fundamentals and Applications of Nanophotonics. Woodhead Publishing; 2016. p. 426. ISBN: 9781782424642

[12] Wei D. Electrochemical Nanofabrication: Principles and Applications. Boca Raton, Florida, United States: Taylor & Francis, CRC Press; 2017. ISBN 9781315364919

[13] Zarnaghash N et al. Selective ultrasonic assisted synthesis of iron oxide mesoporous structures based on sulfonated melamine formaldehyde and survey of nanorod/sphere, sphere and core/shell on their catalysts properties for the Biginelli reaction. Materials Science and Engineering: C. 2019;**104**:109975

[14] Hayati P, Mehrabadi Z, Karimi M, Janczak J, Mohammadi K, Mahmoudi G, et al. Photocatalytic activity of new nanostructures of an Ag(i) metal– organic framework (Ag-MOF) for efficiently degrading MCPA and 2,4-D herbicides under sunlight irradiation. New Journal of Chemistry. 2021;**45**(7):3408-3417. DOI: 10.1039/ d0nj02460k

[15] Yu H-D et al. Chemical routes to topdown nanofabrication. Chemical Society Reviews. 2013;**42**(14):6006-6018

[16] Barth JV, Costantini G, Kern K. Engineering atomic and molecular nanostructures at surfaces. Nature. 2005;**437**(7059):671-679

*Nano-Fabrication Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112429*

[17] Alivisatos P et al. From molecules to materials: Current trends and future directions. Advanced Materials. 1998;**10**(16):1297-1336

[18] Klabunde KJ, Richards RM. Nanoscale Materials in Chemistry. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 2009. DOI: 10.1002/9780470523674

[19] Cabrini S, Kawata S. Nanofabrication Handbook. Boca Raton, Florida, United States: CRC Press; 2012

[20] Luttge R. Nano-and Microfabrication for Industrial and Biomedical Applications. William Andrew. Norwich, NY: ChemTec Publishing; 2016

[21] Singh NA. Nanotechnology innovations, industrial applications and patents. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2017;**15**(2):185-191

[22] Tri PN et al. Methods for synthesis of hybrid nanoparticles. In: Noble Metal-Metal Oxide Hybrid Nanoparticles. Sawston, Cambridge: Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing; 2018. pp. 51-63. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814134-2.00003-6

[23] Hachem K et al. Methods of chemical synthesis in the synthesis of nanomaterial and nanoparticles by the chemical deposition method: A review. BioNanoScience. 2022;**12**(3):1032-1057

[24] Taschuk MT, Hawkeye MM, Brett M. Handbook of deposition technologies for films and coatings. Elsevier. 2010;**2010**:621-678

[25] Dobrzanski L, Staszuk D. Chemical vapor deposition in manufacturing. In: Nee A, editor. Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering and Technology. London: Springer; 2013

[26] Kern W, Schuegraf KK. 1 - deposition technologies and applications:

Introduction and overview. In: Seshan K, editor. Handbook of Thin Film Deposition Processes and Techniques. Second ed. Norwich, NY: William Andrew Publishing; 2001. pp. 11-43

[27] Shchukin V, Ledentsov NN, Bimberg D. Epitaxy of Nanostructures. Springer Series on Nanoscience and Technology Berlin. Heidelberg: Springer Berlin; 2003. p. 450. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-07066-6\_1

[28] Aliofkhazraei M, Ali N. PVD technology in fabrication of micro- and nanostructured coatings. Comprehensive Materials Processing. Amsterdam, Netherlands, USA: Elsevier; 2014. pp. 49-84. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-08-096532-1.00705-6

[29] Yang L et al. Nano-fabrication: A review. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers. 2007;**30**(3):441-446

[30] Stoykovich MP, Nealey PF. Block copolymers and conventional lithography. Materials Today. 2006;**9**(9):20-29

[31] Lipomi D et al. 7.11: Soft lithographic approaches to nanofabrication. Polymer Science Compression Reference. 2012;**10**:211-231

[32] Betancourt T, Brannon-Peppas L. Micro- and nano-fabrication methods in nanotechnological medical and pharmaceutical devices. International Journal of Nanomedicine. 2006;**1**(4):483-495. DOI: 10.2147/ nano.2006.1.4.483

[33] Haynes CL, Van Duyne RP. Nanosphere lithography: A versatile nanofabrication tool for studies of size-dependent nanoparticle optics. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2001;**105**(24):5599-5611. DOI: 10.1021/ jp010657m

[34] Ademovic Z, Kingshott P. Micro-and nanoscale surface patterning techniques for localising biomolecules and cells: The essence of nanobiotechnology. In: Vadgama P editor. Surfaces and Interfaces for Biomaterials. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing; 2005. pp. 150- 180. DOI: 10.1533/9781845690809.1.150. ISBN (Print)1-85573-930-5

[35] van Loenen EJ, Dijkkamp D, Hoeven AJ, Lenssinck JM, Dieleman J. Direct writing on Si with a scanning tunneling microscope. Applied Physics Letters. 1989;**551**:312

[36] Ehrichs E, Silver R, De Lozanne A. Direct writing with the scanning tunneling microscope. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films. 1988;**6**(2):540-543

[37] Urban J et al. The scanning tunneling microscope as a tool for nanolithography: Writing nanostructures on Si (110) in air. Microelectronic Engineering. 1995;**27**(1-4):113-116

[38] Kumar S, Bhushan P, Bhattacharya S. Fabrication of nanostructures with bottom-up approach and their utility in diagnostics, therapeutics, and others. Environmental, Chemical and Medical Sensors. 2018:167-198

[39] Carlsson J-O, Martin PM. Chemical vapor deposition. In: Handbook of Deposition Technologies for Films and Coatings. William Andrew, Elsevier; 2010. pp. 314-363. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-8155-2031-3.00007-7. ISBN 978-0-8155-2031-3

[40] Aguilar GV. Introductory chapter: A brief semblance of the sol-gel method in research. In: Sol-Gel Method-Design and Synthesis of New Materials with Interesting Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties. 2019:106

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76535. ISBN 978-1-78985-334-6

[41] Ozin GA et al. Nanofabrication by self-assembly. Materials Today. 2009;**12**(5):12-23. DOI: 10.1016/ s1369-7021(09)70156-7

[42] Ray PC, Yu H, Fu PP. Toxicity and environmental risks of nanomaterials: Challenges and future needs. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C. 2009;**27**(1):1-35. DOI: 10.1080/10590500802708267

#### **Chapter 2**
