Climate Change, Crop Protection and the Environment

### **Chapter 7**

## Evaluation of Progress in Cocoa Crop Protection and Management

*Alex Asante Appiah*

### **Abstract**

Cocoa cultivation began with the Olmecs, who were the first humans to consume chocolate as a drink in equatorial Mexico between 1500 and 400 BC. Over the centuries, commercial cocoa cultivation and trade have developed from the Mayans, Aztecs, and through Meso-America under the influence of the Spanish explorers. In 1822, cocoa was first introduced to São Tomé and Príncipe in Africa from where it spread as a plantation crop, with West Africa becoming the major centre of global production. The cultivation of selected hybrid varieties particularly have led to pest and diseases becoming major production limiting factors. This chapter evaluates crop protection techniques developed over the years, and highlights their contribution to yields, production costs, impact on farmers, and the cocoa value chain and ecosystems. We discussed the need to re-evaluate the imbalance of power in the global value chain, the colonial trading systems, and the required investments for integrated disease and pest management systems. The prospects of using modern biotechnological tools to improve cocoa, and how these approaches can reduce the negative impacts of current protection measures on the ecology and production systems are highlighted. Key recommendations have been made for all stakeholders in the cocoa industry to ensure future sustainability.

**Keywords:** chocolate industry, pricing, small-scale farmers, cocoa diseases, management, biotechnology

### **1. Introduction**

Cocoa is an important crop belonging to the genus *Theobroma* in the family Malvaceae. Species of this genus are found in the wild of the Western Hemisphere rain forest from 18°N to 15°S [1]. The cultivation of cocoa, *Theobroma cacao*, L., started in equatorial Mexico between 1500 and 400 BC, and the beans were first consumed as a drink by the Mayans and Aztecs [2]. This was confirmed in earlier classical work on cocoa by van Hall [3], who emphasized that cocoa had been revered as "food for the gods," an important cultivated crop not only consumed by the native Indians as a beverage but used as a substitute for money. The revered status of cocoa was enshrined in the latinized name of "*Theobroma*" which was assigned by the botanist Linnaeus. Recent archeological records suggest that plantation-scale cultivation of

cocoa occurred in the lowlands of the Mayas in the state of Chiapas and Western Belize centuries before the arrival of the Spanish [4, 5].

### **1.1 Spread of cocoa**

Cilas and Bastide ([5], p. 2) provide a graphical timeline of the cultivation and transportation of cocoa, which began in the 1200s in Central America and then to Southern America in the sixteenth century. This was followed by cultivation in South East Asia in the first half of the 1800s and finally to the humid tropical countries of West Africa in three successive events that started in 1822. From these events, cultivation of cocoa spread through all the humid tropical lowlands and is now grown in 57 countries on three continents [6, 7]. See **Figure 1**: map of global cocoa-growing countries below [8].

### **1.2 Current production of cocoa**

Cocoa production has rapidly increased over the past 40 years to a total of 4.9 million tons in the 2021/2022 cocoa season, with 75% coming from West Africa [9]. Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana alone account for 63% of the total global production (See **Figure 2** below).

It is evident from the graph that the sustainability of global cocoa production depends on how the West and Central African countries are able to deal with the existing and future threats, particularly regarding pests, diseases and climate change.

### **1.3 History of cocoa cultivation**

Increased popularization of cocoa began in 1592, when the Spanish explorer, Hernan Cortés introduced cocoa drink in Spain. To reduce the bitter taste, he added sugar to the drink. It was here it became accepted as a beverage and was taken to

**Figure 1.** *Cocoa growing countries of the world (source: ICCO, 2023).*

**Figure 2.**

*Global cocoa bean production (in 1000 metric tons) by top eight countries from 2020/21 to 2022/23 (source: Statista, 2023).*

other European countries, including Italy, France, Belgium and England [10]. The developed taste for chocolate beverages in Europe sparked cocoa trading. It opened the way for large-scale cultivation of cocoa by European slave merchants in plantations in the West Indies in the late seventeenth century; and Central and South America (e.g., Mexico, Venezuela, Ecuador and Surinam). Cocoa was planted in Brazil much later in the 1780s. The powerful economic gains from the production and export of cocoa beans into Europe to feed the appetites of royals, aristocrats and the growing middle class fuelled the expansion of cocoa cultivation in the fertile tropical climes.

However, the cultivation of cocoa in Africa began much later. In 1822, the Portuguese transported cocoa from Brazil and established plantations in Principe and Sao Tome in West Africa. Principe and Sao Tome became the fourth largest production region exporting over 34 million kilograms in 1901 ([3], p. 34). Later in the century, seeds were taken to Ghana, Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire to form the basis for cocoa growing in West Africa [10].

Unfortunately, cocoa production in the plantations of Principe and Sao Tome by the Portuguese planters was largely achieved with the inhumane system of black slave labour, which was very different from the serviçal labour system laid by Royal decrees of the ruling Portuguese elites [11]. The slave labour policy on the cocoa plantations in Principe and Sao Tome followed the earlier transatlantic exportation of African slaves to the Portuguese Americas to plug in for the declining availability and use of Indians as slave labour on the sugar plantation, which prevailed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries [12]. The author contends that the deferential Portuguese slave labour policies amongst Indians and Africans on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean were influenced by the religious ideologies that considered

labour as God's punishment for Adam's sin. Therefore, it was justified to use unfree slave labour as "the hands and feet of the noble sugar-mill masters" ([11], p. 284). When the Jesuits became mills and farm owners, they ideologically justified the enslavement of blacks but fought against the captivity of the Amerindians on the basis that they had souls just like the whites and could be used to control the black African slaves.

Contrary to the Portuguese colonizers approach in Sao Tome and Principe, where large plantations were established using captive African slave labour from Angola, cocoa cultivation in Ghana (the Gold Coast) and the rest of Africa followed a completely different model of small peasant farmer plantations ([3], p. 8). This was because earlier attempts by colonial Dutch missionaries, who planted cocoa in the coastal areas in 1815, and by the Basel missionaries at Aburi later in 1857 had both failed. It took a local Ghanaian blacksmith named Tetteh Quashie, who brought Amelonado cocoa beans from Fernando Po (Equatorial Guinea) and successfully planted a cocoa farm at Akwapim Mampong in the Eastern Region in 1879 [13]. He later sold seed pods to other local farmers, who showed interest in cultivating the crop, which spread cocoa in the region. In 1886, the colonial British Governor seeing the potential, imported cocoa pods from Sao Tome, raised seedlings at the Aburi Botanical Garden and distributed them to farmers [13]. Cocoa was cultivated in Nigeria in 1874, Cameroon in 1876, Côte d'Ivoire in 1919 [14].

### **1.4 Conditions for growing cocoa**

Cultivated cocoa is largely divided into two subspecies Criollo and Forastero, with the latter divided into several varieties [10]. The Criollos, dominate Central America and are characterized by rounded beans, white in cross-section and a special weak flavor. On the other hand, the Forasteros have smaller and flatter beans with violet cotyledons. They have higher fat content and stronger flavor that provides the basis for plain and milk chocolate. Amelonado, a Forastero variety, was first grown in Brazil and Ecuador and later in Fernando Po in West Africa, from where it was spread to other countries in the subregion in the late nineteenth century ([10], p. 4).

Several factors influence cocoa health such as soil type and fertility, the amount of rainfall, humidity, wind and shading, crop management and pest and disease control. Wood and Lass [10] summarized the optimal growth conditions for cocoa as follows: rainfall of 1250–3000 mm per annum and preferably between 1500 and 2000 mm, a dry season of no more than 3 months; mean maximum temperature between 30 and 32°C; mean minimum of 18–21°C, and an absolute minimum of 10°C and no strong winds. Sale [15], using controlled-environment growth rooms, showed that cocoa functioned satisfactorily with high humidity (80–95% RH) at about 27°C.

Generalization about a good or suitable cocoa soil is very difficult, since soil types and conditions tend to vary significantly from one country to another. Likewise, different countries, for instance, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria emphasize on physical texture, based on analytical data, while in Ghana good cocoa soils are said to be deep, vary from loamy sands to friable clays, red or reddish-brown in color and should have a pH greater than 6.0 [16]. Contrarily, cocoa was successfully grown on heavy clay soil, yellow to red overlying a deposit of hydrated iron oxides in Democratic Republic of Congo [10]. Nevertheless, several cocoa soils analyzed from different countries tended to fall into the alfisols and ultisols classification [17].

### **2. Global economic and social impact of cocoa**

Consumption of cocoa continues to grow and impacts the world economy, particularly in the emerging middle-income countries such as Brazil, China, India, Mexico and in Eastern Europe [18]. Revenue from the sales of cocoa beans significantly influences the GDP of many producing countries, particularly Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Cameroon, and Nigeria [8, 19]. Currently, cocoa accounts for 40% of Côte d'Ivoire, the world's largest producer's GDP. Both Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire have experienced significant deforestation of their primary forests, which is of great concern for sustainable production [20]. Likewise, there are serious issues of exploitation and use of child labour in the cocoa production processes [2].

Of the total annual cocoa production processed into cocoa mass, cocoa butter, cocoa powder, chocolate or other products, over 79% takes place outside the main producing centres in Africa [9]. Over one-third (36%) of the beans are processed in Europe, followed by Asia and Oceania (23%), then Africa (21%) and the Americas (20%). A comprehensive evaluation of global cocoa production states that the chocolate industry surpassed a retail value of USD 100 billion in 2021 and is expected to grow at a compound growth annual rate of 4.5–5.7% until 2027 [21].

These figures show the enormous contribution of the cocoa industry to the global economy. Unfortunately, trade liberalization reforms undertaken by the producing countries in the 1980s and 1990s have concentrated power in the hand of a few transnational companies at the expense of the small cocoa farmers, who are the pillars of the industry [22]. Farmers and their producing countries have suffered low farmgate and producer prices respectively, due to the unjustifiable imbalance of power at the hands of the controlling buyers and grinders, and the transnational chocolate companies and retailers, who enjoy 80–90% share of margins generated from cocoa products [21]. This immoral situation, where the hardworking farmers are just reduced to "price takers," with no bargaining power have left one in three (of the estimated 6 million cocoa farmers) in poverty, without adequate financial resources to take care of their families or invest in integrated crop management practices that could ensure their farms remain healthy and contribute to the sustainable future of the industry ([21], p. 17).

### **3. Impact of pest and diseases**

Of the many challenges cocoa farmers face, diseases remain the most serious constraint to economic production. Available reports estimate that total global cocoa bean losses due to the major pest and diseases stands at 1 million tons, which is between 30 and 40% of the annual production [7]. For over a century, diseases have continued to pose a major threat to cocoa production due to lack of durable resistant cultivars. This is exacerbated by lack of well-funded technical infrastructure in terms of effective extension services support to farmers [7, 23]. According to Appiah [17], the ranking of cocoa diseases due to their severity, impact as limiting factor(s) to profitable production, and regional importance in the 12 leading producer countries are as follows:

### **3.1** *Phytophthora* **pod rot (black pod disease)**

Several *Phytophthora* species infect cocoa, causing leaf blight, bark canker and pod rot diseases [24]. Black pod disease is found in all the cocoa-growing regions of the world, and in particular, West Africa, where it is most severe. In 1985, worldwide losses were estimated at £1540 million [25]. Van der Vossen [6] reported that black pod disease causes an estimated 44% of the total global crop loss. More recently, Bowers *et al*. [26] stated that global black pod losses were \$423 million. It is evident from these figures that black pod has become increasingly a major concern to global cocoa production.

Of the major species, *Phytophthora megakarya* (Brasier & Griffin) is indigenous to West Africa [14] and it is the most aggressive. *Phytophthora palmivora* (Butl.) Butl. is ubiquitous, *P. capsici* (Leonian) is found in South & Central America, West Indies and India and *P. citrophthora* (Smith & Smith) Brazil, Mexico and India [27]. The dynamics of *Phytophthora* infections in West Africa has changed dramatically over the years. For example, until the mid-1980s, only *P. palmivora* was known as the causal agent of the disease in Ghana. Crop losses attributed to this species were estimated at between 4.9 and 19%. However, in 1986, *P. megakarya*, was identified in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, which caused severe crop losses ranging between 60 and 100% [28]. Nationwide surveys showed that *P. megakarya* had spread rapidly across the country and threatened the livelihood of many cocoa farmers [29]. *P. megakarya* has become the dominant species and has spread west-wards to all West African cocoa-growing countries beginning from Cameroon, where it is predominant [30] through Nigeria, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, and southward to Gabon and Equatorial Guinea [24, 31].

### **3.2 Witches' broom disease**

Witches' Broom disease caused by *Moniliophthora perniciosa*, is the most threatening cocoa disease in Central and South America. The disease begins when fungal spores germinate and infect meristematic tissues, developing into biotrophic hyphae that slowly occupy the intercellular spaces causing hypertrophic growth of buds, which gives the characteristic witches' broom from which the name is derived [32]. It also causes pod infection, which can lead to a high percentage of pod loss. The disease causes an estimated 29% of global crop loss [33]. Witches broom is restricted to the Western Hemisphere, including Central and South America and the Caribbean. It is currently a limiting factor to cocoa production in several Latin American countries [10]. The fungus is indigenous to the Amazon Basin. A significant spread occurred in 1984, when the disease was detected in the traditional cocoa-growing State of Bahia, Brazil, which then produced over 300,000 tonnes of cocoa per annum [10]. Currently, annual pod losses due to the disease reach between 50 and 90% in many parts of the Amazon region and production declined to 185,000 tonnes in 1997 [34].

### **3.3 Cocoa swollen shoot virus disease (CSSVD)**

CSSVD is caused by a virus [35]. It has been and is still a major problem of all the cocoa-growing countries in West Africa [33], particularly in Ghana, where very virulent strains led to the removal of millions of Amelonado trees and were replaced with tolerant Upper Amazon hybrids [35]. The CSSVD outbreak was first reported in Ghana, then Liberia and Sierra Leone, followed by Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, and Togo [33]. CSSVD causes 11% of global crop loss [6]. There are many strains of the cocoa swollen shoot virus, which differ in the symptoms they produce, the vectors that transmit them and the range of their alternative hosts [10]. Virulent strains

predominate and cause various types of leaf chlorosis, root necrosis, root and stem swellings and dieback in cocoa. It is quite unfortunate that after eight decades of CSSVD control and research, there are still no resistant cultivars available for farmers, the eradication and replanting policies have not been implemented properly, and new infections continue in the Western Region, which is the most concentrated cocoa growing area of Ghana [35].

### **3.4 Vascular-streak dieback (VSD)**

VSD is caused by a basidiomycete originally named *Oncobasidium theobromae* but now *Ceratobasiduim theobromae* [36]. The pathogen causes streaking of the vascular tissue and yellowing of one or two leaves in the second or third flush from the growing tip with a characteristic pattern of green spots scattered over the yellow background. Infected leaves fall within a few days of yellowing, and the infection spreads to neighboring leaves. This leaves a distinctive situation where the youngest and oldest leaves are present, but all the middle ones are fallen. This distinguishes infection from physiological dieback due to environmental stress or insect attack [36]. VSD causes 9% of the total global loss and is important, particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea [6].

### **3.5 Moniliophthora pod rot**

*Moniliophthora* pod rot, popularly known as frosty pod rot due to the frosty appearance of the white mycelial mat, is caused by *M. roreri* and infects only green pod tissues [37]. The pathogen grows between the parenchyma cells of the cortex, covering the pod with a white mycelial mat after the lesions have coalesced and produced conidia both within and on the surface of the host tissue [37]. It causes an estimated 5% of the total global cocoa losses and is an increasingly serious problem in Ecuador, Colombia and Central America. Frosty pod disease is said to be the most difficult to control because of the environmental resilience of its spores, ease of spread, profuse sporulation on affected pods and latent infection that can be transported great distances before conspicuous symptoms develop as well as great susceptibility of cocoa to the disease [27]. The threat posed by this disease to other continents, especially Africa, is becoming more apparent due to the vast numbers and persistence of its conidia, as well as its ability to be dispersed by wind.

It is evident from the above that diseases and pests pose a real threat to the sustainable production of cocoa. This is demonstrated by how Ghana lost the leading producer position to Côte d'Ivoire due to the CSSV epidemic that led to the destruction of a large population of cocoa trees. Similarly, disease and pests have drastically reduced cocoa production in Brazil and Malaysia [5] to the extent that Malaysia has become a net importer of cocoa.

### **4. Environmental and climate change impact**

According to Cilas & Bastide [5] climate change is having a significant impact on land and water availability for cocoa production, changes in wind, increase in temperatures and carbon dioxide levels are contributing to higher mortality of young trees and the spread of disease vectors. Lahive *et al*. [38] predicted that atmospheric CO2 concentration would rise to about 700 ppm by 2100. They show that such

enhanced carbon dioxide level has a positive impact in stimulating photosynthesis in both cocoa seedlings and mature cocoa trees, and it appears to ameliorate some of the negative effects of water deficit through improvements in water use and quantum efficiencies.

However, the long-term effect of increased CO2 occurred in pod biomass instead of bean dry weight per pod, which was not significantly affected. The authors suggested that an alteration in biomass allocation patterns occurs under enhanced CO2 conditions. This could be a physiological response to adverse factors, such as water stress and temperature increases. Climate change would have an impact on cocoa's response to new pests and diseases and the spread of existing ones. These areas require further research.

According to Laderach *et al*. [39]'s climate modeling, although there would be a relatively drastic decrease in the climatic suitability of the current cocoa growing areas in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire due to predicted increases in temperature up to 2.0°C, and decreases in monthly precipitation by 2050, there was no need for panic. Instead, we should focus on measures that would reduce the vulnerability of cocoa farmers. These include breeding more drought-resistant cocoa varieties, encouraging crop diversification, conduct research into management practices that would make farms more resilient to increasingly severe and frequent dry spells. We should adopt spatially differentiated communication and engagement strategies that would allow stakeholders evolve appropriate adaptation measures based on their geographical circumstances.

### **4.1 Integrated disease management strategies**

In conjunction with other agronomic and soil factors, healthy cocoa production requires effective integrated pest and disease control measures [7, 40]. These should include determining the appropriate shade regimes, regular weeding, fertilization, pruning, sanitation (removal of diseased materials), timely application of environmentally friendly and target-specific pest and disease chemicals, use of locally identified biological control agents, and importantly, planting of improved disease tolerant or resistant cultivars. The effectiveness of the management and control of cocoa diseases in different countries vary in terms of techniques as well as in level of efficacy. This is due to several factors including the variation of disease-causing pathogens, availability of extension services support, phytosanitary practices and the climatic conditions involved [17].

### **4.2 Phytosanitary control**

Cultural control strategies are environmentally friendly measures and are generally aimed at reducing humidity and the sources of inoculum for infection on the cocoa farm. A summary of cultural control practices employed in *Phytophthora* pod rot control is presented in **Table 1** [from [17]].

In general, management practices increase aeration, which help in black pod disease control. In Bahia, Brazil, shade reduction in commercial plantations lowered the incidence of *P. palmivora* black pod disease by around 40% [41]. In Ghana, a package of phytosanitary practices has been shown to adequately control black pod disease caused by *P. palmivora* [40]. These methods are less expensive and potentially affordable to small-scale farmers compared with the cost of chemical control but are time-consuming.


### **Table 1.**

*Cultural practices used in black pod disease control.*

### **4.3 Chemical control**

The spraying of protective fungicides has been practiced for over 50 years to minimize black pod loss, but this has not always been economical [40]. Black pod disease control with chemicals primarily involves spraying protective fungicides with a pneumatic knapsack sprayer to coat healthy pods. Different copper-based protective fungicides have been tested and are used in black pod disease control. These include Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide, 25.43% Cu *a.i*.), Kocide 101 (77% cupric hydroxide *a.i.*) and Copper Nordox (50% cuprous oxide *a.i.*). Protective fungicides must be sprayed frequently for effectiveness due to their mode of operation and problems associated with pod growth and the cocoa environment. This requires technical training and involves high labour and input costs, which many subsistence farmers are unable to afford. There are situations where trees are so tall that fungicide sprays are not able to reach the canopy.

Copper has been shown to be redistributed in water [42]. Peirera [43] took advantage of this phenomenon in his single application technique developed against *P. palmivora* in Brazil. The method involved spraying higher doses of fungicide, which is later washed down the trunk to effect control. On the same basis, Sreenivasan *et al.* [44], tied materials impregnated with copper fungicide about two metres from the base of cocoa trees which was redistributed slowly down the tree by rain water.

These methods work against *P. palmivora* black pod but are not effective against *P. megakarya*, due to the vast differences in the sporulation abilities and their main sources of primary inoculum (tree canopy for *P. palmivora* and soil for *P. megakarya*). Opoku [45] compared the production of sporangia and zoospores by *P. megakarya* and *P. palmivora* on different media and established that *P. megakarya* produced 4–6 times more sporangia and zoospores than *P. palmivora* under all conditions.

A semi-systemic fungicide, Ridomil 72 Plus (60% cuprous oxide, 12% metalaxyl), and a single injection of Foli-R-Fos 400 (potassium phosphonate, 40% *a.i*), which is a systemic fungicide and a foliar fertilizer has shown to be more effective than contact copper fungicides in the control of both *P. megakarya* and *P. palmivora* [46]. Studies in Ghana have also shown that extended intervals of four-weekly applications using Nordox 75 and Ridomil 72 Plus effectively and economically control black pod disease caused by *P. megakarya* [47]. The four-weekly spraying significantly reduces the number of applications per cocoa season (May to October) from the current recommendation 8–9 to 5–6 and communicated to farmers could reduce production cost

and increase adoption. Phosphonic acid is not subject to any patent, has lower toxicity compared to contact fungicides and the single injection provides lower economic cost, lower operator risk and no environmental contamination of the cocoa ecosystem.

In Central and South America, copper-based fungicides and azoles are used to control witches' broom and frosty pod diseases, albeit not very effective due to many constraints enumerated above [48]. Generally, the profitability of fungicide application depends on the level of farm management, the nature of land tenure and labour arrangements for farm operations [40]. However, due to increasing concerns about antifungal resistance and negative impacts on human health and the environment, alternative strategies are desperately needed [49].

### **4.4 Biological control**

Peirera [50], in a review of prospects for effective control of cocoa diseases, mentioned that while the textbook advantages of biological control management strategy are not in doubt, in cocoa, the promise of actual field use has not been realized, and more research is required. Antagonism *in vitro* of *P. palmivora* by biocontrol agents has been demonstrated. Galindo [51], reported that *Pseudomonas fluorescens* isolated from the surface of a healthy cocoa pod was antagonistic to *P. palmivora in vitro* and was more effective than copper oxide and chlorothalonil in the field. More recent biocontrol efforts have shown mixed results. In Peru, Kraus and Soberanis [52] showed that *Trichoderma* spp. reduced moniliasis, witches' broom and black pod. However, in Costa Rica, field application isolates of the hyper parasitic fungi *Clonostachys byssicola* and *Trichoderma asperellum* made no significant improvement to healthy yields [53]. Ferraz *et al*. [48] touted the potential of yeast species as they are safe for humans, easy to manipulate, shown to enhance plant wellbeing and being environmentally friendly biocontrol agents against witches' broom disease in Brazil.

In Africa, Deberdt *et al*. [54] found that *Trichoderma asperellum* biocontrol agent (strain PR11) was promising in Cameroon but not as effective as the fungicide treatment under high disease pressure. Therefore, integrating biocontrol agents into an IPM strategy was recommended. In Nigeria, farmers have a favorable disposition towards the use of bioagents due to high cost and safety concerns of synthetic fungicides [55]. Similarly, biological control efforts have been made in Côte d'Ivoire, Kebe *et al.* [56] reported that isolates of *Trichoderma* sp. showed fungicidal effects; and two bacteria isolates of the *Bacillus* genus significantly reduced cocoa leaf susceptibility to *P. palmivora*. In Ghana, Akrofi *et al*. [57], in a study of cocoa microbiota obtained 17 isolates, mainly *Pseudomonas* species from three notable cocoa varieties in Ghana. These demonstrated significant inhibition of mycelia growth of *P. palmivora* on plates and prevented disease establishment on pods.

The above results show potential and receptivity to biocontrol as a better alternative to the prevailing copper-based fungicides, which have non-target, food chain contamination and environmental effects [50]. Therefore, serious research investments and greater efforts in the producing countries are needed to find effective biocontrol agents against the endemic pathogens causing cocoa diseases in the different geographic sub-regions. The search for biocontrol agents should focus on the areas identified as the centres of origin or diversity of each cocoa disease, since the potential to find co-evolved natural control agents are high in these areas. A fully integrated pest management approach that utilizes all the available methods including endophytes and mycoparasites, development of tissue culture and tolerant cultivars, should be pursued to minimize the application of fungicides, which the chocolate

industry is tightening control of their use on health grounds, as residues contaminate the food chain and their unintended impact on the cocoa ecosystem.

### **4.5 Development of resistant varieties**

Developing genetic resistance against the five major diseases of cocoa have a long history beginning from the Pound collections in 1938, aimed at selecting and accumulating desirable characteristics including high-yielding and disease resistance or tolerance varieties [58]. It is undeniable that genetically resistant varieties are the most cost-effective and reliable method of disease control [59]. Over the years, different breeding and screening techniques have been developed with significant success and challenges (for details see [58]).

In 1978, Lawrence [60] stated that no major genes for resistance to *P. palmivora* had been identified in *T. cacao*. Ten years later, Phillip-Mora and Galindo [61] reported 19 resistant cocoa cultivars to *P. palmivora* in Costa Rica. In Ghana, field evaluation of individual cocoa trees for resistance to *P. megakarya* began in 1990 in two endemic areas: Bechem and Akomadan in the Ashanti Region. From 25 trees that were selected as "resistant" parents, nine showed promise against *P. megakarya* after the challenge inoculation of attached pods. The high level of susceptibility obtained was attributed to the narrow genetic base of the parents [62]. However, in 1997, Van der Vossen [6] noted that no genotype had been found with complete resistance to black pod diseases caused by either *P. palmivora* or *P. megakarya*.

There are many challenges in cocoa breeding work. These include narrow genetic base of available germplasm, annual nature of cocoa production, differences in the diseases caused by the same species, the presence of multiple diseases in the same sub-region and the geographic separation in the areas of influence of each major disease. For example, each of the five *Phytophthora* species involved in black pod disease differs in structure, geographic distribution, ecology and pathogenicity. These challenges necessitate that prospective new cultivars have to be tested for resistance to each of the disease pathogens present. This had not been possible until recently, due to lack of international collaborative projects between producing countries and the danger of introducing new diseases due to poor and inadequate quarantine facilities.

The CFC/ICCO/IPGRI1 project [63], which involved 10 major cocoa-growing countries and international centres for cocoa germplasm conservation and improvement, addressed these barriers. The objectives were to select better cocoa varieties, reinforce population breeding activities, characterize, evaluate, and enhance cocoa germplasms with emphasis on disease and pest resistance. Twenty-five locally selected clones were tested against local isolates of pathogen and "ring tests" involving isolates from participating countries against the selected germplasm in a non-cocoa growing country. According to Eskes [64], the follow-up project evaluated 1500 trees selected by farmers for yield or low disease or pest incidence that are high-yielding and pest- and disease-resistant candidates, which have been released to cocoa farmers. This demonstrates the power of global collaborative research and the practical results from large investments in research.

The challenges of standardized protocols in accessing levels of resistance expressed in different tissues used in screening work were addressed by the development of the leaf disc inoculation technique [65]. Subsequently, Iwaro *et al*. [66]

<sup>1</sup> CFC/ICCO/IPGRI – Common Fund for Commodities/International Cocoa Organization/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

demonstrated a strong correlation between detached and attached leaf lesions. They also assessed the resistance to *P. palmivora* in leaves and pods of different genotypes at the penetration and post-penetration stages of infection. A significant correlation between the resistance of leaves and pods at the post-penetration stage was established, showing that internal resistance is common between leaves and pods and that leaf resistance at this stage could be used to predict pod resistance. A high positive correlation between attached leaves and pods with their detached counterparts was confirmed. These screening techniques are now accepted standard tools for early screening. Different mechanisms may be involved in penetration and post-penetration resistance [17, 66]. Depth of inoculation and stages of pod maturity influenced the level of resistance; hence there is a need to standardize these factors in the screening of cocoa germplasm for resistance to *Phytophthora*.

Expression of defense gene response to *P. palmivora* in different genotypes of cocoa has been found to occur in blocks. These are constitutively expressed at different levels and are potential sources for the many quantitative trait loci (QTLs) contributing to resistance in cocoa [67]. Selecting host resistance is needed for all the major diseases of cocoa. However, the lack of resistance in the international cocoa germplasm collection (ICGC) is a major challenge [68]. It is also interesting to note that some clones in the ICGC have been designated as "resistant" and also susceptible to isolates of the same pathogen. This illustrates the variability in pathogens and the lack of durability, as a clone could be resistant to one isolate and susceptible to another. Both CSSVD and VSD are systemic diseases, and a better understanding of the mechanism of resistance is needed. According to Dzahini-Obiatey *et al*. [35], the ultimate strategy to overcome viral diseases will be to produce genetically engineered cocoa plants by introducing resistant genes using non-conventional biotechnological techniques.

### **4.6 Modern biotechnological tools: Hope or hoax?**

Recent technological advances in biotechnology offer hope for achieving long-term durable resistance in cultivated crops. The increasing legislative constraints on the use of agrochemicals and climate change challenges [49] make biotechnological solutions more imperative for agricultural crops-dependent countries. This is particularly important in the tropics, where the challenges to crop production are most severe. Governments in these countries should consider investing heavily in modern biotechnological tools and the associated capacity building to accelerate improvements in yields and, in particular, resilience to biotic (pest and diseases) and abiotic (climate change) stresses.

Considerable achievements have been made in cocoa breeding and selection, including sequencing of two cocoa genomes [69], which has allowed the identification of genes and proteins that code for specific traits [70], gene discovery and markerassisted breeding using single-nucleotide polymorphism identifications [71], QTLs mapping of resistance [71] and genome-wide characterization [72]. These developments show great prospects towards targeted gene transfer and guided selective breeding for durable resistance in cocoa against these challenging diseases.

Currently, there are many new powerful plant biotechnological techniques, for example, genome editing, which involves precise modification of specific DNA sequences using three protein-dependent DNA cleavage systems, namely the zincfinger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases, and RNA-dependent DNA cleavage systems (i.e., CRISP-associated proteins) [73]; RNA interference, and

### *Evaluation of Progress in Cocoa Crop Protection and Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112642*

cisgenesis - the single gene transfer from sexually compatible crosses [74]. Amongst these modern gene editing technologies, CRISPR/Cas9 is reported to be faster, cheaper, precise, and highly efficient in editing genomes, even at the multiplex level [75]. It has been successfully used in cocoa leaves and cotyledon cells to delete the *TcNPR3* gene, which suppresses the plant defense response using *Agrobacterium*mediated transient transformation, elevated expression of downstream defense genes and increased resistance to infection caused by *Phytophthora tropicalis* [76].

Now we have valuable genome datasets and functional tools for rapid and targetspecific genetic changes that could confer vigor, resistance to diseases, pests and resilience to abiotic stresses in cocoa. These new tools for characterization of cocoa genes and genetic manipulation of disease resistance in other important tropical crops overcome problems associated with traditional breeding techniques. However, whether these biotechnological improvements would be seen as genetically modified organisms, which are not widely accepted in the northern hemisphere, remains unclear [77]. Also, these cutting-edge approaches require specialist training and expensive equipment and supplies, which many producer countries are not equipped with.

### **5. Conclusions**

The cocoa industry, particularly chocolate manufacturers, has enjoyed a steady supply of cocoa beans that have allowed uninterrupted manufacturing of consumable products and the holding of good buffer stocks. Conversely, cocoa producers continue to struggle due to low prices, diseases, pests and a rapidly changing climate. Cocoa has been described as a crop "produced in the south and consumed in the north" [9]. The story of cocoa production requires rebalancing the colonial power dynamics in the value chain to bring equitable benefit to all involved.

Currently, cocoa production faces significant but not existential challenges. These include threats posed by pests and diseases, low cocoa prices paid to farmers, as well as climate change and its potential adverse impacts on food production in cocoa growing areas. The economic benefits, enjoyment and health value of cocoa products to the masses, producing countries, the large transnational businesses and the smallscale farmer (who is at the heart of everything) should serve as strong incentives for all stakeholders to come together to address the critical issues ([21], p. 6). It behooves on the chocolate industry, the largest beneficiaries to keep the goose that is laying the golden eggs healthy and productive. There is a need for investment in critical research and development, adoption of fair and ethical trading policies. An introspective look and re-examination of the power imbalances in the existing cocoa value chain are urgently needed for a sustainable cocoa future.

### **5.1 Recommendations**

The quest for sustainable cocoa production that adopts environmentally friendly farm management practices, avoids child labour and embraces the voluntary standards would happen if farmers are given their deserving living income from their work [21, 77]. To address the perennial threat of pest and diseases, increased efforts and heavy investments are required to develop cocoa varieties that are truly resistant. We propose several interrelated political and technical recommendations to key stakeholders. These are:

### **5.2 Governments of coca producing countries**

The governments of producer countries should:


### 1.**Scientists and Cocoa Boards**


### 2.**Chocolate Industry and Scientists**


### 3.**Farmers**

• It must be recognized that farmers hold the key to long-term, sustainable cocoa production; therefore, improving their conditions should be the primary concern of key stakeholders in the cocoa value chain. In this regard:


### **Acknowledgements**

The author is very grateful to Miss Iris Xiang, Information Specialist at Avenues Shenzhen, for her assistance with finding key research manuscripts used in this study. The constant encouragement and support of Mrs. Juliana Asante Appiah (nee Sackey) is also gratefully acknowledged.

### **Conflict of interest**

The author declares no conflict of interests.

### **Author details**

Alex Asante Appiah1,2

1 STEAM Expert, Avenues Shenzhen, China

2 Founder and CEO, Centre for African Leadership and Excellence, United Kingdom

\*Address all correspondence to: alex.appiah@calecentre.org

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### **Chapter 8**

## The Integrated Pest Management Implementation of the Cocoa Pod Borer in Indonesia

*Araz Meilin, Nurmili Yuliani, Nurhayati, Hermawati Cahyaningrum, Rein E. Senewe, Saidah, Herlina N. Salamba, Delima Napitupulu, Ismon Lenin, Risma Fira Suneth, Nur Imdah Minsyah, Handoko, Suparwoto, Endrizal, Busyra B. Saidi, Jumakir, Waluyo, Yardha, Muh. Asaad, Syafri Edi, Yustisia, Sigid Handoko, Nila Wardani and Julistia Bobihoe*

### **Abstract**

Indonesia is among the largest cocoa producers in the world and it makes an important contribution to the nation's economy. In Indonesia, the cocoa pod borer (CPB) outbreaks have caused a decline in cocoa yield and quality, impacting the livelihoods of cocoa farmers. Application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is promoted by the Indonesian government, in collaboration with various organizations. IPM is an approach that focuses on using a combination of biological, cultural, and chemical control methods to manage pests and reduce their impact on crops. The adoption of IPM practices in cocoa farming has shown promising results in Indonesia. Farmers have reported improved yields and quality of cocoa beans, reduced pesticide use, and improved environmental sustainability. In addition, the application of IPM has equipped farmers with knowledge and skills that can help them overcome other challenges in cocoa farming, such as a healthy environment.

**Keywords:** cocoa pod borer, *Conopomorpha cramerella*, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), cocoa, Indonesia

### **1. Introduction**

Cocoa is one of the plantation commodities that support economic activities and earners of foreign exchange in Indonesia, in addition to oil and gas. In 2021, cocoa plantations in Indonesia cultivated by smallholder plantations are estimated at 1.45 million hectares (99.39%), while large private plantations cultivate 8.21

thousand hectares (0.56%) and large state plantations only cultivate 0.67 thousand hectares (0.05%). The area of cocoa plantations in Indonesia before 2021 over the last four years tends to show a decline, decreasing by around 2.55–3.33% per year. This decrease in planting area also has an impact on decreasing cocoa production [1]. Furthermore, the decline in cocoa production in Indonesia in recent years has been attributed to factors such as minimal garden maintenance, lack of technological application, and pest damage, especially the cocoa pod borer (CPB) caused by *Conopomorpha cramerella* Snellen [2].

CPB is a pest of cocoa in Indonesia for more than three decades since it was discovered in 1980 [3]. CPB infestation has been a persistent problem in Indonesian cocoa for over three decades, causing significant yield losses and economic impact for cocoa farmers. CPB infestation in Indonesian cocoa was confirmed in 1997 by Matlick [4], and the industry estimates that infestation in Sulawesi adversely affects up to 80% of cocoa farms [5]. If infestation occurs when the cocoa pod is ripe, near harvest, most of the beans in the pod remain unaffected. However, if infestation occurs when the pod is immature, its entire contents can be lost. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to detect the presence or severity of infestation. Poor harvests are experienced in Southeast Sulawesi where cocoa plantations tend to produce low-quality cocoa beans and their productivity is less than 650 kg ha−1 due to an inadequate cultivation system and attack by the cocoa pod borer (CPB) [6, 7]. In the Lima Puluh Kota regency of West Sumatera Province, the CPB was identified as the primary insect pest infesting cocoa pods. The percentage of cocoa plants affected by CPB was recorded at 21.18%, while the percentage of cocoa pods attacked by CPB was found to be 10.82%. The intensity of the attack by CPB was measured at 8.52% [8]. The attack of the cocoa pod borer (CPB) is a significant threat to annual cocoa production, causing yield losses ranging from 18.25% to 73.04%, as reported by [9–11]. Control measures such as good technical cultural practices during cocoa plantation management can help control CPB pests, as suggested by Silalahi [9]. In addition, Agung and Shahabuddin [12] found that polyculture was effective in reducing the percentage of cocoa beans damaged by CPB in Palopo District's Rahmat Village, while Mulyani and Iswahyudi [13] reported that farms treated with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) had lower CPB attack intensity in Aceh Tamiang District, Aceh Province. At the location of the efficacy study conducted in the cocoa plantations of the people of Central Maluku Regency, it was found that pest CPB attacks reached 80.7% [14].

The damage caused by the cocoa pod borer can result in significant yield losses and economic impact on cocoa farmers. Therefore, it is important to implement effective pest management strategies to control and prevent infestations by this pest. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, such as the use of biological control agents and the implementation of cultural practices, can help to reduce the impact of CPB on cocoa production. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) emerged in Indonesia in the late 1980s in response to the environmental and social impacts of the Green Revolution. As a result, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Indonesian Government developed a cooperative program centered on Farmer Field Schools [15]. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, such as the use of biological control agents and the implementation of cultural practices, have been effective in reducing the impact of CPB on cocoa production. Global market demand for cocoa will require higher standards of sustainability and other requirements of global environmental governance. Efforts made by the Indonesian government to increase cocoa production began in 2009 in Sulawesi to increase the competitiveness of the cocoa industry in the future with global market standards,

*The Integrated Pest Management Implementation of the Cocoa Pod Borer in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112380*

through developing cocoa seeds tissue culture, increasing farmer capacity, and improving the quality of cocoa beans [16]. This chapter is a review that aims to present the implementation of IPM that has been carried out to control CPB in Indonesia and the role of other organizations as well as farmers' perceptions in the implementation of IPM in Indonesia. As the demand for cocoa is expected to increase in the coming years, it is essential to implement effective pest management strategies that are environmentally friendly and safe for farmers.

### **2. IPM implementation to CPB in Indonesia**

### **2.1 Farmer Field School-IPM**

The Farmer Field School-IPM (FFS-IPM) is one of the programs initiated by the Indonesian government to assist farmers in controlling pests in cocoa plants. This program is part of the Indonesian government's efforts to reduce the use of chemical pesticides that are harmful to human health and the environment.

Farmer Field Schools (FFS) were originally designed to improve the expertise and knowledge of farmers in various farming techniques (good cultivation techniques, the use of biological control agents, and the application of mechanical pest control), including the proper handling of pesticides (education to farmers on the dangers of using chemical pesticides and teaches them how to reduce their dependence on these pesticides). However, over time, the focus of the program shifted towards community organization, community planning, and Integrated Pest Management (IPM), leading to the development of Community IPM (CIPM). The principles of FFS have since been extended beyond rice to other crops, from IPM to plant breeding, and from technical domains to broader engagement with policy issues, advocacy, and local governance [15]. The Field School for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was chosen as one of the methods to increase the knowledge and abilities of cocoa farmers in understanding cocoa pests.

The FFS-IPM aims to introduce IPM to a wider audience beyond the local level. This activity provides an opportunity for individual farmers or farming groups to develop their knowledge and skills through a 16-meeting training process at a location determined by the cocoa FFS-IPM participants. The cocoa FFS-IPM group participants will learn to analyze agroecosystems in their land and collaborate in creating plans to combat cocoa plant pests and disease infestations [17].

In the context of pest control in cocoa plants, FFS-IPM plays an important role in helping farmers increase their productivity and the quality of their harvest. By implementing Integrated Pest Management techniques, farmers can reduce losses caused by CPB, which can cause a decrease in cocoa production and quality. In the long term, FFS-IPM is expected to help reduce the use of chemical pesticides in the Indonesian agricultural sector and improve the welfare of farmers. This program can also help preserve the environment and strengthen sustainable agricultural systems in Indonesia.

### **2.2 The techniques of IPM implementation in Indonesia**

The implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technology for controlling cocoa pod borer (CPB) in Indonesia involves several activities.

The training and education of farmers on the principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which emphasizes the use of multiple methods to control pests, including cultural, biological, and chemical controls, is an active step taken. Farmers are actively being trained on the identification of cocoa pod borer (CPB) and the damage it causes to cocoa pods to determine the appropriate control measures to be applied. To monitor the population of CPB and prevent their spreading, farmers are being actively taught how to use pheromone traps. Pheromone traps are actively being used as devices that use synthetic sex pheromones to attract male CPB. By monitoring the number of trapped CPB, farmers can actively determine the severity of the infestation and the need for further control measures.

Cultural control methods, such as good agricultural practices (GAP), pruning, and sanitation, including removing infected pods plant parts, and debris from the field to prevent the pest's spread and minimize its habitat, are actively being implemented by farmers. GAP, which includes maintaining proper plant spacing, appropriate fertilizer application, and soil management, is actively being utilized to further reduce the population of CPB. Farmers are actively being instructed to intercrop with legumes such as soybeans or peanuts to improve soil fertility and reduce the incidence of CPB.

The farmers can use biological control agents, such as parasitic wasps, for controlling CPB. The natural enemies attack and kill the CPB larvae, thereby reducing their population in the field. Farmers are encouraged to release natural enemies, including parasitoids and predators, to use biological control methods. Parasitoids can be introduced to attack the CPB eggs and larvae, while predators like ants and spiders can help to control the adult CPB population. Farmers are also taught to use *Trichogramma* wasps to parasitize CPB eggs, leading to a reduction in the pest's population.

The use of pesticides is only recommended when other control measures have failed or when CPB populations exceed economic thresholds. Farmers are educated on the importance of following label instructions, wearing protective clothing, and using the correct application rates to reduce the risk of pesticide exposure and environmental damage. if the pest population is still high, farmers can apply chemical control measures as a last resort. However, the use of pesticides should be reduced to a minimum, and farmers should always follow the recommended dosage and safety procedures. Farmers have been trained on the proper use and handling of pesticides to minimize environmental contamination and the risk to human health.

The use of pesticides is only recommended when other control measures have failed or when CPB populations exceed economic thresholds. Farmers are educated on the importance of reducing the risk of pesticide exposure and environmental damage by following label instructions, wearing protective clothing, and using the correct application rates. If the pest population is still high, farmers can use chemical control measures as a last resort, but they are advised to reduce the use of pesticides to a minimum and always follow the recommended dosage and safety procedures, so to minimize environmental contamination and the risk to human health.

According to recent research conducted in East Aceh Regency, Indonesia, farms that have implemented Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices have shown significantly lower levels of infestation by the cocoa pod borer (CPB) pests, as compared to farms that did not use any treatment [18]. In fact, the percentage and intensity of CPB attacks were found to be the lowest in farms that had implemented IPM practices. On the other hand, untreated farms showed the highest levels of infestation by CPB pests [13]. The use of IPM practices, along with cocoa pruning techniques and the use of black ants (*Dolichoderus thoracicus*) as natural enemies, can significantly reduce the incidence of CPB attacks in cocoa farms [18].

### *2.2.1 Monitoring and sex feromon*

Monitoring the population of CPBs is also important in CPB control in Indonesia. Population monitoring can be done by installing pheromone traps in cocoa fields, especially in areas that have been infected with CPBs. When male CPBs smell the sex pheromones, they will be trapped in the trap. This can help farmers to monitor CPB density regularly, reduce the level of damage to cocoa pods and assess the efficacy of their control measures. Farmers need to monitor their cocoa trees regularly to detect CPB infestations early. They should also be able to identify the signs of CPB infestation, such as entry holes, frass, and damaged pods.

Pheromone traps are designed to attract and capture male CPB moths, thereby reducing the number of male moths available for mating and ultimately reducing the population of CPB. The pheromone traps contain synthetic chemicals that mimic the sex pheromones of female CPB, which attract male moths to the trap. This method can be effective in reducing CPB populations, but it must be used in conjunction with other control methods to achieve optimal results. The use of sex pheromones can be part of the strategy for controlling cocoa pod borer (CPB) in Indonesia. In CPB control, synthetic sex pheromones can be used to lure male CPBs into traps, thereby reducing the population of CPBs and reducing damage to cocoa pods. The use of sex pheromones to attract CPB at a density of 4 traps/ha can reduce yield losses by 67.7%. Use of sex pheromones for monitoring or mass trapping of CPB, as a component in IPM of CPB is promising, due to its nature for specific targets, environmentally friendly, effective, and economic values [19].

In using sex pheromones for CPB control, it is important to monitor the traps regularly and replace the pheromones every few weeks. This is important to ensure that the traps remain effective and do not attract other insects that are not related to CPBs. By combining monitoring techniques and the use of sex pheromones, farmers can optimize CPB control in their cocoa fields and reduce the economic losses caused by CPB infestations. Using sex pheromones obtained a total catch of insects in all blocks was 282 heads, the CPB attack category ranged from 4.38 to 16.398 with an attack intensity of 69% before application. After the application of sex pheromones, the average intensity of attacks dropped to 0.08% [20]. The pheromone trap was more useful for monitoring tools rather than for controlling CPB infestation [21]. Pheromone traps with a height of 1 m are the most effective CPB traps with a catch of 85 heads and the average population of trapped imago is 10.63 heads/month [22].

### *2.2.2 Cacao resistant clones to CPB infestation in Indonesia*

It is important to develop cocoa varieties that are resistant to cocoa pod borer (CPB) in order to increase cocoa production in Indonesia. Several research studies have been conducted in Indonesia to produce cocoa varieties that are resistant to CPB. Some cocoa varieties are resistant or moderately resistant to CPB and have been successfully developed in Indonesia. Some come from breeding results and some come from local clones. ICCRI 07 and ICCRI 03 are clon cacao breeding results by Puslitkoka. Other clones come from Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi 02, MCC 01, MCC 02), South East Sulawesi (PT Ladongi, ARDACIAR 24, ARDACIAR 25, ARDACIAR 26), South Sulawesi (ARDACIAR 10), and North Sumatra (PABA/I/ Pbrk, PABA/V/81 L/2, PABA/VIII/78B/3, PABA/VIII/78F/2, PABA/V/81 L/1, PABA/ VIII/78B/1 (**Table 1**).

### *Shifting Frontiers of* Theobroma cacao *– Opportunities and Challenges for Production*


### **Table 1.**

*Cocoa clones of resistant or moderate resistant to CPB in Indonesia.*

Furthermore, several universities in Indonesia such as Jember University, Lampung University, and Bogor Agricultural Institute (IPB) have also conducted research to develop CPB-resistant varieties. Breeding for CPB resistance on cocoa in Indonesia was initiated by selecting resistant clones of the collected genotypes [31]. The process of selecting CPB-resistant genotypes takes time as the resistance has to be confirmed during several periods of harvest time to make sure the resistant expression would not be escaped the mechanism [24]. The collection performed their various resistance which were classified into five groups of resistance namely resistant, moderately resistant, moderately susceptible, susceptible, and highly susceptible to indicate the variability of CPB resistance [31]. Furthermore, breeding for CPB resistance will be designed by inter-crossing between selected-parental clones which perform differences in CPB resistance, yield potency, and genetic background [31].

Efforts have been made to explore the resistance of cocoa genotypes against CPB in various endemic areas in Indonesia, resulting in several promising resistant clones that have been used for breeding purposes [28]. The resistance of clones to CPB is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Using local resistant clones can effectively control CPB, promote efficiency and eco-friendliness, and improve productivity [27]. The selection of local resistant genotypes is an important strategy to control pests and diseases, enabling farmers to choose resistant clones without

*The Integrated Pest Management Implementation of the Cocoa Pod Borer in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112380*

compromising productivity. Resistant clones that survive pest and disease outbreaks are selected, tested, and used to replace cocoa trees that have succumbed to the diseases [26, 32].

Understanding the resistance characteristics of cocoa pod borer (CPB) is crucial to identify selection criteria for choosing CPB-resistant clones. Different cocoa clones exhibit diverse responses to CPB attacks, indicating the complexity of the resistance mechanism [28, 29]. Morphological and anatomical characteristics of cocoa pods are important selection criteria for CPB resistance, such as fruit shape, skin thickness, and the presence of proteinase inhibitors [30]. However, factors other than pod hardness might be involved in resistance as suggested by the positive correlation of CPB incidence in ripe and immature pods, and the lower CPB incidence observed in some clones could be explained by pest non-preference. Several local selections, such as Aryadi 2 and Darwis 2, showed partial resistance to CPB, and two resistant clones, PT. Ladongi and Sulawesi 2, were identified with light levels of attack on beans [26, 32]. Selecting and planting resistant clones can effectively control CPB while maintaining optimal productivity.

However, the development of CPB-resistant varieties needs to be sustained. There are several challenges that need to be overcome in the development of CPB-resistant varieties, such as the sustainability and stability of resistance traits in the developed varieties. Therefore, research and development of CPB-resistant varieties need to continue in Indonesia to improve the quality and sustainability of cocoa production.

### *2.2.3 Cultural and mechanic control to CPB in Indonesia*

There are several cultural methods that can be used to control cocoa pod borer (CPB) in Indonesia.

### *2.2.3.1 Sanitation*

This method involves removing infected cocoa pods and debris from the field to eliminate the habitat of the CPB and reduce its spread. This is an important cultural control method for CPB management, as the pest can overwinter in fallen cocoa pods and debris. Farmers should remove and destroy any infected pods and plant parts as soon as they are observed. Good sanitation practices, such as removing fallen leaves and debris from the ground, can help to reduce the habitat of CPB and other pests. Fallen cocoa leaves and other plant debris can serve as a breeding ground for CPB, so removing them can help to prevent infestations.

### *2.2.3.2 Intercropping*

Intercropping cocoa trees with other crops, such as legumes, can help to improve soil fertility and reduce the occurrence of CPB infestation. CPB may have difficulty adapting to new host plants, which can help to reduce their population. Additionally, intercropping can provide alternative sources of income for farmers and help to diversify their crops.

### *2.2.3.3 Crop rotation*

Alternating cocoa crops with other crops can help to prevent the buildup of CPB populations in the soil, as the pest may have difficulty surviving in the absence of

its preferred host. This method can be particularly effective when combined with other cultural control methods, such as sanitation and intercropping. Crop rotation can help to reduce the population of CPB by breaking the pest's life cycle. By rotating cocoa with other crops, such as legumes or vegetables, farmers can disrupt the pest's habitat and reduce the risk of infestation.

### *2.2.3.4 Trimming and pruning*

Trimming and pruning cocoa trees can help to reduce the population of CPB by removing their hiding places. The pests often hide in the branches and crevices of cocoa trees, making it difficult to detect and control them. Regular pruning can also help to promote healthy tree growth and increase cocoa production. Pruning can help to manage CPB populations by removing branches or twigs that are infested with CPB. Pruning can also help to promote healthy tree growth and improve light penetration, which can reduce the risk of infestation.

### *2.2.3.5 Good agricultural practices (GAP)*

Proper plant spacing, fertilization, and soil management can help to maintain healthy cocoa trees that are more resistant to CPB infestation. GAP includes maintaining proper plant spacing, appropriate fertilizer application, and soil management. Additionally, farmers should prune their cocoa trees to remove any infected or dead plant parts. The timing of fertilizer application can also play a role in CPB management. Overuse of nitrogen fertilizers can lead to the development of succulent growth on cocoa trees, which can attract CPB. By applying fertilizers at the right time and in the right amounts, farmers can promote healthy tree growth and reduce the risk of infestation.

### *2.2.3.6 Use of physical barriers*

Physical barriers, such as nylon netting, can be used to prevent adult CPB moths from laying eggs on cocoa pods. This method can be particularly effective in smallscale cocoa farms, where the use of chemical pesticides may not be feasible. Wrapping protecting cocoa fruit from pest attacks, has been commonly practiced on various types of fruit. The effectiveness of packing cocoa pods with plastic bags to prevent pest attacks has been proven. If the cocoa pods are fired continuously for 30 months, the yield of dry beans increases. How to pack cocoa pods with plastic bags as follows. Choose young fruit that will be barked, 8–10 cm long, about 70–100 days old). The plastic bag used measures 30 × 15 cm with a thickness of 0.02 mm and both ends are open. The plastic bag is sheathed over the fruit and the mouth of the plastic bag is tied with a rubber band to the fruit stalk, the fruit is left covered until harvest. This method can prevent the laying of CPB pest eggs [33].

Application of cooling to cocoa plants can reduce PBK attack, *Promecotheca palmivora*, and the incidence of pencil wilt, thus potentially increasing the productivity of cocoa plants. In this study, it can be proven that bio kaolin sprayed on test trees can cover the surface of the fruit well. The closure of this layer is a physical obstacle for PBK pest insects to perch, puncture, and lay eggs on the surface of the fruit. From these results, it can be concluded that spraying bio kaolin increases the number of fruits free from PBK (13.79%). In addition, spraying with bio-kaolin either every one week or every two weeks also produces more PBK-free fruit compared to cloaking [34]. *The Integrated Pest Management Implementation of the Cocoa Pod Borer in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112380*

### *2.2.4 Biological control*

The cocoa pod borer (CPB) is a major pest of cocoa crops in Indonesia and can cause significant economic losses. Biological control is a method of managing pests using natural enemies such as predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Here are some of the kinds of biological control that can be used to control cocoa pod borer in Indonesia.

### *2.2.4.1 Parasitoids*

Parasitoids are insects that lay their eggs inside the body of the host and eventually kill it. There are several species of parasitoids that attack the cocoa pod borer, including the parasitoid wasp, *Trichogrammatoidea bactrae*. This wasp is known to parasitize CPB eggs, which can reduce the population of the pest. Parasitoids are insects that are natural enemies of other insects, including pests like the cocoa pod Borer (CPB). They are a type of parasitic insect that lay their eggs inside the body of the host insect, and the parasitoid larvae develop inside the host, eventually killing it. Parasitoids are a type of biological control agent that can be used to manage pests like CPB in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner. One of the advantages of using parasitoids for biological control is that they can be very effective at reducing pest populations. For example, studies have shown that parasitoid wasps like *T. bactrae* can parasitize up to 70–90% of CPB eggs in cocoa farms, leading to significant reductions in CPB populations. In addition, parasitoids are generally safe for the environment, as they do not leave behind any harmful residues or cause any collateral damage to non-target organisms.

However, there are some challenges associated with using parasitoids for biological control. One challenge is that parasitoids can be sensitive to environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and pesticide use, which can affect their effectiveness. In addition, it can be difficult to ensure that the parasitoids are released at the right time and in the right quantities to have the desired impact on the pest population. Nonetheless, parasitoids are a promising option for controlling cocoa pod borer and other pests, and ongoing research is exploring ways to improve their efficacy and use in Integrated Pest Management programs.

### *2.2.4.2 Predators*

Predators are insects that feed on other insects. There are several predator species that feed on the cocoa pod borer, such as ants, spiders, and certain beetles. One example of a predator that has been successfully used to control CPB is the ground beetle, *Lebia grandis*. Predators are natural enemies of pests like the cocoa pod borer (CPB) and can help to keep their populations under control. Insects that are predators feed on other insects, and there are several predator species that have been found to feed on the cocoa pod borer, including ants, spiders, and beetles. One example of a predator that has been successfully used to control CPB is the ground beetle, *Lebia grandis*. *Lebia grandis* is a small, black ground beetle that is commonly found in cocoa farms. The beetle is known to feed on CPB eggs, larvae, and pupae, making it an effective natural enemy of the pest. Studies have shown that *Lebia grandis* can significantly reduce CPB populations in cocoa farms when introduced at the right time and in sufficient numbers. One study conducted in Indonesia found that introducing *Lebia grandis* into a cocoa farm led to a significant reduction in CPB populations. The

study involved releasing adult beetles into the cocoa farm at a rate of 3–4 beetles per cocoa tree. The researchers found that the beetles were able to establish populations in the cocoa farm and significantly reduce the number of CPB larvae and pupae.

Another study conducted in Indonesia found that certain species of ants can also be effective predators of the cocoa pod borer. The study found that the ant species, *Pheidole megacephala*, and *Oecophylla smaragdina*, were able to significantly reduce CPB populations when released into a cocoa farm. The ants were able to find and feed on CPB eggs and larvae, which led to a reduction in the number of adult CPB on the farm. These studies demonstrate that predators like ground beetles and ants can be effective natural enemies of the cocoa pod borer and can help to keep their populations under control. However, it's important to note that the effectiveness of predators can vary depending on the specific conditions in the cocoa farm and the surrounding environment. In addition, predators can be sensitive to environmental factors like temperature and humidity, which can affect their effectiveness. Nonetheless, predators are a promising option for controlling cocoa pod borer and other pests in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner.

According to Robika et al. [35] that by increasing the number and colonies of black ants (*Dolichoderus thoracicus*) has a very real effect on reducing the intensity of PBK attacks (*Conopomorpha cramerella*) by increasing the number of PBK larvae. The results showed that the application of black ants on PBK larvae with 35 predators for 20 larvae.

### *2.2.4.3 Pathogens*

Pathogens are microorganisms that cause disease in the pest. One of the most effective biological control agents for CPB is a fungus called *Beauveria bassiana*. This fungus infects and kills the CPB larvae. *B. bassiana* is a type of entomopathogenic fungus, which means that it is a fungus that can infect and kill insects. The fungus works by infecting the CPB larvae through contact with its spores. Once the spores penetrate the larvae's exoskeleton, the fungus grows inside the insect's body, eventually causing it to die. Studies have shown that *B. bassiana* can be an effective biological control agent for CPB when used correctly. In Indonesia, several studies have been conducted on the use of *B. bassiana* for the biological control of CPB.

One study conducted in Sulawesi, Indonesia, evaluated the efficacy of *B. bassiana* in controlling CPB in a cocoa farm. The study involved spraying the fungus on the cocoa trees at a rate of 1.5 g/l of water. The researchers found that the application of *B. bassiana* led to a significant reduction in the number of CPB larvae and pupae on the farm. The fungus was able to infect and kill the larvae, which led to a decrease in the number of adult CPB on the farm.

Another study conducted in South Sumatra, Indonesia, evaluated the effectiveness of *B. bassiana* combined with other biological control agents in controlling CPB. The study involved combining the use of *B. bassiana* with *Trichogramma* wasps and the parasitoid wasp, *Habrobracon hebetor*. The researchers found that the combination of biological control agents was effective in reducing CPB populations in the cocoa farm.

A study conducted in North Maluku, Indonesia, evaluated Bio-K, biopesticides with the active ingredient of *B. bassiana* to control CPB. The results show that biopesticides treatment significantly reduced pod damage by CPB with a decrease in the average number of cocoas in the amount of 7.69% and light intensity on CPB attacks was less than 20% [36].

*The Integrated Pest Management Implementation of the Cocoa Pod Borer in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112380*

### *2.2.5 Chemical control*

Cocoa pod borer (CPB) is a major pest of cocoa in Indonesia, causing significant economic losses for farmers. Chemical control is one of the most commonly used methods to control CPB infestations. Here are the types of chemical control used in Indonesia:

### *2.2.5.1 Synthetic insecticides*

Synthetic insecticides such as chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and fenpropathrin are commonly used to control CPB. These insecticides can be applied as a foliar spray or soil drench. However, the repeated use of synthetic insecticides can lead to the development of resistance in CPB populations, which reduces their effectiveness over time. Synthetic insecticides such as chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and fenpropathrin are commonly used to control CPB. These insecticides can be applied as a foliar spray or soil drench. However, the repeated use of synthetic insecticides can lead to the development of resistance in CPB populations, which reduces their effectiveness over time.

### *2.2.5.2 Botanical insecticides*

Botanical insecticides such as neem oil and pyrethrum are derived from plants and are considered safer alternatives to synthetic insecticides. These insecticides have lower toxicity to non-target organisms and can be effective against CPB when applied at the right concentration and timing.

Botanical insecticides such as neem oil and pyrethrum have gained popularity as safer alternatives to synthetic insecticides for controlling cocoa pod borer (CPB) in Indonesia. Here are some additional details about these botanical insecticides: Neem oil: Neem oil is derived from the neem tree, and it contains several compounds that have insecticidal properties. Neem oil works by disrupting the growth and development of insect pests, including CPB. It is considered safe for humans and the environment, and it has low toxicity to non-target organisms. Neem oil can be applied as a foliar spray or soil drench, and it has been shown to be effective against CPB when applied at the right concentration and timing. Pyrethrum: Pyrethrum is derived from the flowers of certain species of chrysanthemum, and it contains compounds known as pyrethrins, which have insecticidal properties. Pyrethrum works by attacking the nervous system of insects, including CPB. It is considered safe for humans and the environment, and it has low toxicity to non-target organisms. Pyrethrum can be applied as a foliar spray or dust, and it has been shown to be effective against CPB when applied at the right concentration and timing.

It is important to note that while botanical insecticides are generally considered safer than synthetic insecticides, they can still have negative effects on non-target organisms if not used properly. Additionally, the effectiveness of botanical insecticides can vary depending on factors such as the concentration, timing, and application method. Therefore, it is important to use these insecticides in combination with other control methods as part of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach to control CPB infestations.

### *2.2.5.3 Biopesticides*

Biopesticides, such as *Bacillus thuringiensis* (Bt), are naturally occurring bacteria that can be used to control CPB. These bacteria produce a toxin that is toxic to CPB larvae, but harmless to humans and other animals. Bt can be applied to cocoa trees and pods as a preventive measure or as a treatment after an infestation has been detected. Study in West Sumatra, Indonesia: A study conducted in West Sumatra, Indonesia, controlled cocoa pod borer using a vegetable insecticide made from soursop leaves. The application of soursop leaf extract (*Anona muricata* L.) is able to control the best cocoa pod driving pest (*C. cramerella* Snellen) at a concentration of 100 g l−1 water which reduces the percentage of infected fruit to 10% with the lowest fruit damage intensity of 12.48%. The diameter of the largest fruit produced reached 18.15 cm with the smallest larval population of 0.75 tails, and the maximum seed dry weight reached 150.75 g [37].

### **3. Other organizations supported implementation of IPM in Indonesia**

Upon analyzing the given text, it can be seen that various organizations are working to support the implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices in cocoa plants in Indonesia. For instance, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) funded a project to develop a locally applicable, farmer-participatory methodology for selecting and testing promising cocoa genotypes on farms in Southeast Sulawesi. In this trial, cocoa selections were propagated clonally and evaluated for two years for pod value, quality, and resistance to pests and diseases [32]. This demonstrates the efforts made to improve the resistance of cocoa plants to pests and diseases, which is crucial for sustainable cocoa production.

In addition to the ACIAR project, various NGOs and government agencies are also providing guidance and support for the implementation of IPM practices. The NGO of SWISS Contact, NGO Keumang, the Plantation Department, and the Counseling Agency at each sub-district in East Aceh Regency are some examples of organizations that provide guidance for implementing IPM practices [18]. These agencies not only provide guidance but also carry out regular monitoring to ensure that the IPM practices are being implemented effectively.

### **4. Perception of IPM implementation by cocoa farmers**

Two separate studies conducted in Indonesia revealed the positive impact of adopting Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and the SL-PHT program on cocoa farming. In Sukoharjo 1 Village, Sukoharjo district, Pringsewu Regency, Lampung Province, cocoa farmers showed a positive perception towards the SL-PHT program, and the program's implementation led to an increase in cocoa plant productivity, income, and pest control [17]. The study also found a correlation between the farmers' level of experience, knowledge, social interaction, and their perception of the program's effectiveness. In the Ataku village, Andoolo Sub District, South Konawe District, Southeast Sulawesi Province, the implementation of IPM by cocoa farmers resulted in higher average income and greater production compared to those who did not adopt IPM. These studies suggest that IPM and the SL-PHT program can significantly improve cocoa farming outcomes, benefiting both the farmers and the industry as a whole.

*The Integrated Pest Management Implementation of the Cocoa Pod Borer in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112380*

The adoption of IPM practices among cocoa farmers can help to reduce the harmful effects of chemical pesticides on the environment and human health while promoting sustainable agriculture. Through the use of IPM techniques, farmers can improve crop yields and reduce the cost of pest management, which in turn can lead to increased incomes and improved livelihoods.

### **5. Conclusions**

Cocoa pod borer (CPB) can cause significant damage to cocoa crops, resulting in economic losses for farmers. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, such as biological control agents and cultural practices, can help reduce the impact of CPB on cocoa production. Preventive measures, including regular monitoring of cocoa pods, the use of resistant clones, and proper sanitation of farms, can also help. Implementing IPM practices can reduce the use of harmful chemical pesticides and promote sustainable agriculture. Organizations that support the implementation of IPM practices in Indonesia can help farmers improve their resistance to pests and reduce their reliance on pesticides. The adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, including IPM, can improve cocoa farming outcomes, and education and community engagement are essential for promoting their adoption and long-term sustainability. Research and development are needed to improve IPM strategies, including the development of new biological control agents and the optimization of cultural practices.

### **Author details**

Araz Meilin\*, Nurmili Yuliani, Nurhayati, Hermawati Cahyaningrum, Rein E. Senewe, Saidah, Herlina N. Salamba, Delima Napitupulu, Ismon Lenin, Risma Fira Suneth, Nur Imdah Minsyah, Handoko, Suparwoto, Endrizal, Busyra B. Saidi, Jumakir, Waluyo, Yardha, Muh. Asaad, Syafri Edi, Yustisia, Sigid Handoko, Nila Wardani and Julistia Bobihoe National Research and Innovation Agency, Bogor, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to: araz002@brin.go.id

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[21] Rahmawati D, Wagiman FX, Harjaka T, Putra NS. Detection of cocoa pod borer infestation using sex pheromone trap and its control by pos wrapping. Jurnal Perlindungan Tanaman Indonesia. 2017;**21**(1):30. DOI: 10.22146/ jpti.22659

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[25] Martono B. Morphological Characteristics and Germplasm Activities in Cacao. Jakarta: IAARD Press; 2014

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[27] Syatrawati, Asmawati. The pest rate of cocoa pod borrer (*Conopomorpha cramerella* Snellen) on five local cocoa clones. AgroPlantae. 2015;**4**(1):25-29

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[29] Susilo AW, Mangoendidjojo W, Witjaksono, Mawardi S. The effect of pod age development of some cocoa clones to the expression of pod characteristics related to cocoa pod borer (CPB) resistance. Pelita Perkebunan. 2009;**25**(1):1-11

[30] Limbongan J. Karakteristik Morfologis dan Anatomis Klon Harapan Tahan Penggerek Buah Kakao Sebagai Sumber Bahan Tanam. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian. 2012;**31**(1):14-20

[31] Susilo AW, Zhang D,

Motilal L. Assessing genetic diversity cocoa (*Theobroma cacao* L.) collection resistant to cocoa pod borer using simple sequence repeat markers. Pelita Perkebunan. 2013;**29**(1):1-9

[32] McMahon P, Iswanto A, Susilo AW, Sulistyowati E, Wahab A, Imron M, et al. On-farm selection for quality and resistance to Pest/diseases of cocoa in Sulawesi: (i) performance of selections against cocoa pod borer, *Conopomorpha cramerella*. International Journal of Pest Management. 2009;**55**(4):325-337

[33] Senewe RE, Wagiman FX. The position and wrapping of cocoa fruits to prevent Pest attack of Conopomorpha cramerella. Jurnal Budidaya Pertanian. 2010;**6**(1):21-24

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### **Chapter 9**

## Impact of Illegal Mining Activities on Cocoa Pollinator Abundance in Ghana

*Sampson Addae, Sarah Acquah and Samuel Nyarko Essuman*

### **Abstract**

Cacao (*Theobroma cacao* L.) is mainly pollinated by Ceratopogonid midges (Forcipomyia spp.). Wild pollinators are important to both cocoa production and natural ecosystems, and are threatened by land-use change, intensive agricultural management, fragmentation from mining activities, and climate change. Despite the massive expansion of cocoa production in Ghana, it may now be of secondary economic importance to gold due to its increased environmental impact and the economic importance exercised by cocoa communities. However, very little attention has been paid to pollination management as a factor of production, as pollination is often not considered an important process for crop yield. The Ghana Cocoa Board takes a closer look at the impact of illegal mining on cocoa productivity and trusts farmers to destroy their farmland for illegal gold mining. In this chapter we briefly describe the cocoa sector, cocoa flower and pollinator biology and phenology as presented. What follows is an overview of the current environmental threats and social issues posed by unregulated mining affecting pollinator abundance and diversity in the context of Ghana. Finally, we examine ways to improve pollination and deforestation in Ghana's small cocoa sector.

**Keywords:** pollinators, illegal mining, habitat fragmentation, deforestation, cocoa, Ghana

### **1. Introduction**

Pollination services are an essential element to maximize production in sustainable agriculture [1–3]. They are critical to food production and human livelihood, directly connecting wild ecosystems to agricultural production systems [4]. Wild pollinators are important in both agricultural and natural ecosystems and are threatened by landuse change [5], intensive agricultural management and pesticide use [6], pathogens [7] and climate change. The most important cocoa pollinators are midges. In cocoa, pollination occurs almost exclusively by ceratopogonid midges (order Diptera) of the genus Forcipomyia [8, 9]. The midges species that pollinate cocoa belong to the genus Forcipomyia. Most researchers studying cocoa pollination assume that Forcipomyia, which is common in cocoa plantations in Ghana, is Forcipomyia squamipennis I.

Demand for cocoa, the third largest trade commodity globally [10], is increasing in China, Russia, India, and Brazil by 2.5% per year [11], while production has declined by an average 1.5% annually for the past decade [12]. The three major cocoa producing countries are Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Indonesia. In West Africa, it is predicted that 89.5% of current cocoa growing areas will experience a decline in cocoa suitability by 2050 [13]. Businesses and governments are advocating sustainable cocoa initiatives to prevent deforestation and promote ecosystem services, biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods [14]. Cocoa production in Ghana is exclusively concentrated in the country's Ashanti, Brong, Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Western and Volta agroecological forest areas where the climatic conditions are ideal for cocoa production. The first cocoa farm was mostly established in south-east Ghana. Since then, the epicenter of production has gradually shifted west. In the early 1980s, the Ashanti and Brong Ahafo regions accounted for 35.5 and 18.5% of total production, respectively. Today, the western region alone supplies 56.5% of the total annual cocoa harvest. The cocoa industry generates about US\$2 billion in foreign exchange annually and plays an important role in the national economy. The sector employs around 800,000 farming families in six of the country's ten regions [15]. Ghana is the second highest cocoa producing country in the world after Ivory Coast, with the sector producing approximately 970,000 tonnes of cocoa in 2017 [16].

Ghana's cocoa sector continues to make a significant contribution to the country's economy. In 2014 it accounted for 21.5% of the country's GDP and between 2009 and 2014 it averaged 25.6% [17], representing a large share (16.9%) of the agricultural sector's contribution to GDP. The environmental impacts of gold mining are wideranging and severe. A recent USAID study found that despite the massive expansion of cocoa production in the country, cocoa production may now be of secondary economic importance to gold due to its increased environmental impact and economic importance, even if mining is not practiced by all [15]. While Ghana has developed action plans to end deforestation in the cocoa sector and restore forest lands, actions to address the rapid expansion of artisanal and small-scale gold mining have so far been quite limited, jeopardizing potential gains in reducing deforestation in the cocoa sector.

In this chapter, we examine how habitat loss, fragmentation, deforestation, and climate effects affect the abundance and diversity of cocoa pollinators. We will first introduce the global cocoa sector and then focus on Ghana, the second largest cocoa producing country in the world. Next, we provide background on the biology and phenology of cocoa flowers and pollinating midges (Forcipomyia spp.), followed by a discussion of the impact of illegal mining on pollinator abundance and diversity (environmental and management) in Ghana. Finally, we discuss some options for easing restrictions on cocoa pollination.

### **2. The cocoa crop sector**

### **2.1 Global cocoa production and economic value**

Cocoa is a cash crop for many West African smallholder farmers. Although global annual cocoa production quantities are below those of other tropical crops such as sugar cane, rice, soybeans, oil palm, cassava or bananas, it is a unique crop as more than 90% of its production comes from smallholder farmers [18]. Cocoa production is estimated to be around 10 million hectares, which accounts for only 0.7% of the total global arable land but 7% of the global permanent land [19]. Therefore, cocoa

### *Impact of Illegal Mining Activities on Cocoa Pollinator Abundance in Ghana DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112204*

cultivation and especially cocoa agroforestry systems play an important role in carbon sequestration and therefore have a significant mitigation potential [20]. Climate change, deforestation, diseases and low world market prices threaten global cocoa production. Global annual cocoa production has doubled in recent decades, reaching 3.6 million tonnes in 2009–2010, increasingly being concentrated in a handful of countries. Africa has established itself as a leading cocoa supplier over the past 10 years. According to the International Cocoa Organization, Africa's production has increased at an average annual rate of 2.7% since 2000. Farmers throughout the cocoa belt of West and Central Africa account for more than two-thirds of the world's cocoa production. World annual production reached 4.5 million tons in 2013 and growth came mainly from West Africa [18].

### **2.2 The cocoa sector in Ghana**

Cacao is an important source of income for the provision of various public infrastructures and a profession mostly loved by farmers in Ghana and other countries. Cocoa dominates the agricultural sector and is an important source of income for approximately 800,000 farmers and many others involved in the trade, transport and processing of cocoa [21]. Ghana's cocoa sector has seen an impressive recovery in recent years. Ghana can boast of over 1,000,000 tons of cocoa in the 2010/2011 harvest year. Ghana is the second largest cocoa producer in the world [22, 23]. Together with Ivory Coast, it produced almost 52% of the world's total cocoa production in 2016. About 800,000 cocoa households produce 75 percent of all cocoa in Ghana [24]. The Ghanaian government generates most of its income from the export of cocoa [19]. Cocoa provides resources for poverty alleviation as well as food, money, employment and industrial raw materials [25]. The small size of farms in Ghana may be due to cocoa farm agreements where the farm is sometimes shared between the landowner and the caretaker [26]. The inheritance system in Ghana often leads to fragmentation of farmland when a farmer share his farm to several sons. Smaller farms result in decreased yields as small farms are a disincentive to invest, leading to reduced use of fertilizers and fungicides/pesticides [27]. The average cocoa acreage fell from 9.6 to 7.5 ha between 2008 and 2014 [28].

Ghana faces the problem of poor farm maintenance in terms of pest and disease control and low soil fertility. This is due to the low adoption of improved agricultural practices. For example, farmers only weed their farms twice a year on average, instead of the recommended four times. In addition, control of capsids and black pod disease occurs only twice a year instead of the recommended four or nine times a year [29]. Ghana has implemented the Hi-Tech program (fertilizer distribution via COCOBOD) to increase fertilizer use as fertilizer use in Ghana is low compared to Ivory Coast [30]. Timing of pesticide application is critical to maximize effectiveness in controlling mirids. The mirid population in West Africa begins to build up in July and peaks between August and September, while black pod occurrence increases from June and peaks in August and October. Therefore, it is recommended that cocoa plantations in Ghana are sprayed between July and September. Tetteh Quershie is the oldest variety still used in Ghana. It was named after the Ghanaian farmer who introduced cocoa to Ghana. The pods introduced by Tetteh Quarshie are of the Amelonado variety, which is a Forastero subspecies [31]. New introductions were made in 1944 from Forastero materials collected by F. J. Pound from the upper Amazon at the West African Cocoa Research Institute headquarters in Tafo, Ghana and Ibadan in Nigeria. Due to the earliness of these materials, they were widely used for replanting deforested plantations

and by the late 1950s about 11 select species of the upper Amazon were being used to produce second and third generation Amazons, known as F3 Amazons or mixed Amazons, which were distributed to farmers. Several hybrid varieties have also been developed from these materials in Ghana, involving crosses with local Amelonado, Trinitario and some Criollo materials [32].

### **3. Cocoa pollination**

The intensity of pollination and fruit set largely determine the cocoa yield [33]. However, very little attention has been paid to pollination management as a factor of production, as pollination is often not considered an important process for crop yield. Even when pollination is acknowledged, its management is often not considered. This is because most people believe that there are enough pollinators in the wild to carry out pollination without active human intervention.

### **3.1 Biology and phenology of cocoa fruit set**

### *3.1.1 Biology*

Cocoa flowers are hermaphrodite (male and female parts). Group of flowers (inflorescence) and pods are produced by the mature tree on the main stem and branches. This type of flowering is called cauliflory. The flowers are produced at the same defined areas on the tree and these swell with time to form flower cushions. Every cushion bears up to 50 flowers per flowering season. There are two flowering seasons per year, which thus yields 100 flowers per year. The pentamerous flower is about 15 mm in diameter. Flowers that are well pollinated develop to form fruits called pods. The main pod development stage is the cherelle or immature pod. A mature cocoa tree can produce over 10,000 flowers every year of which 1–50% are pollinated with 10–50 pods reaching maturity. The flowers first appear as small green or white buds at the flower cushion. The buds reach maturity and open within 28 days. The flower is small (0.5–1 cm), white, non-scented and borne on long pedicel or stalk. The female part consists of stigma, style and ovary which contains ovules (female sex cells) and the whole structure is surrounded by staminodes. The male part is made up of long stalk (filament) and anther with pollen grains (male sex cells) at the tip. The anther is hidden in a pocket- like structure called the petal sac or porch. Unlike most flowers where only the stigma is receptive to pollen, both the stigma and style are receptive to pollen. Most of the pollens are deposited on the style during pollination. Open flowers may remain on the tree for 48 to over 72 hours depending on the season, after which the unpollinated ones drop.

The sepals and petals of pollinated flowers start drying up giving it a brownish appearance. Greenish cherelles then emerges from the swollen ovary at the base of the female part. The presence of staminodes and petal porch prevent most insects from effectively pollinating the cocoa flower. Unlike most insect pollinated flowers, the color of the flower does not appear to attract its main pollinator, midges. However, there are purple colored lines called guide lines on the inner surface of the staminodes which guide them after landing on the flower. The midges upon landing on the staminode, move towards the base of the staminode as they feed along the guide lines and finally enters the porch which contains the pollen. There are hairs on the upper part of midges' thorax which are designed to pick pollen as they move within the porch.

*Impact of Illegal Mining Activities on Cocoa Pollinator Abundance in Ghana DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112204*

**Figure 1.** *Stem of cocoa tree showing developed flower cushions with buds and flowers.*

The insect then fly to another flower where the pollens are dropped on the stigma and style. This is made possible by brushing the thorax against the style as it moves to the base of the staminode (**Figure 1**).

### *3.1.2 Bud development*

Flower bud development from meristem to receptive flower takes at least 20 to 30 days [34]. Prolonged dry (<125 mm per month) or cold (temperature < 23°C) periods inhibit flowering [35]. Flowering is optimal during rainy days with high relative humidity and moderate temperatures (100 mm per month, 70% RH, and 27°C). High solar radiation incidence is linked with increased flower abscission [34]. Pollen grains are only able to germinate on a receptive stigma [36]. The receptive period is at about 2–3 days after anthesis. Unsuccessful pollination leads to flower abscission. Reported flower abscission rates vary from 63% on the main trunk and 81% on the fan branches to over 90% for all flowers [34].

Anthesis starts around 2–4 pm. The process of sepal splitting continues overnight and finishes at around 4–6 am. Complete anthesis (flower fully open) is quickly followed by pollen release from the anthers (also between 4 and 6 am). Higher air temperature, as well as low air humidity, facilitates anther dehiscence [37]. However, pollen release is maximum between 8 am and 2 pm [38]. Styles and stigmas mature later than anthers, and have maximum receptivity around 12 am–2 pm. Maximum stigma and style receptivity does not concur with maximum anther dehiscence, thus limiting the possibility of self-pollination (**Figure 2**).

### *3.1.3 Cherelle wilt and pod maturation*

Not all young fruits (cherelles) will grow to mature cocoa fruits, even after cocoa flowers are successfully pollinated and led to fruit set. Up to 80% of cherelles will shrivel, turn black, and become rapidly colonized by pathogens, while the pod remains on the tree. This so-called cherelle wilt is a physiological mechanism whereby

**Figure 2.** *Flower buds about to open and fully open flowers.*

the fruits are naturally thinned to balance nutrient allocation in the tree. Cherelles can wilt up to day 100 after fruit set [39]. Poor soils and impeded photosynthesis result in increased cherelle wilting [35]. Leguminous shade trees, which supply nitrogen to the soil, can therefore lower cherelle wilt [40]. Wilting in an early stage saves energy that can be invested in the development of the remaining fruits [37].

It takes 5–6 months for pollinated flowers to become ripe pods. Different sizes or growth stages of flowers and pods can be found on the tree at any given time. Mature pods grow up to 30 cm long and 10 cm wide, and contain 20–60 beans (seeds) [37]. The cocoa fruit is an indehiscent drupe. During the first 40 days after fertilization, pod growth is slow. Afterward, growth accelerates. The first division of the zygote only takes place between day 40 and 50. Pod and ovule growth decrease from day 85 onwards, when embryos start to develop. On day 140, the embryo has completed its development and pod ripening starts [40].

### *3.1.4 Flower phenology*

Cocoa bears fruits all year round, and the developmental stages start after pollination of the cocoa flowers occurs. However, only 1–5% of the flowers can successfully produce as a cocoa bud [39]. Some authors [41, 42] argued that the spatial arrangement of staminodes around the style of the cocoa flower affects pollination success and hence may limit fruit set. Others [43–45] also believed that cocoa flowers are nectarless and odorless. Young et al. [46] have demonstrated the presence of microscopic nectaries on the pedicels, sepals, and guide lines of the petals and staminodes that produce odor. These characteristics of the cocoa flower seem to make it unattractive to many potential pollinators, and therefore only insects that have evolved with the plant will successfully pollinate it. In most tropical countries, flowering occurs year-round. Flowering peaks are often preceded by increased temperature and rainfall, and occur at the onset of the rainy season, after which flower numbers gradually decline [47]. In West Africa, the major rainy season commences in April and climaxes in June, a period that is characterized by intense flowering (flowers on branches and trunks) [48].

In the minor rainy season (September–November), flowering intensity is lower (flowers on branches only). Few flowers are observed during the dry season (December– March) [49]. When pods are developing and this sink for assimilates is increasing, new flower production diminishes [26].

### **3.2 Biology and phenology of cocoa pollinators**

### *3.2.1 Overview of cocoa pollinating species*

Due to their viscosity, pollen grains form clumps and become too heavy to move independently [49]. Pollination of cocoa has the potential to overcome yield deficits in climate-resilient and sustainable production systems [12]. Pollination rates are generally poor for cacao and inconsistent throughout the year, so better pollination can increase yield. Experiments have been conducted in Ghana to increase the production of cocoa through hand pollination, which has been shown to increase fruit set, matured pods and the number of seeds per pod [49]. The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) in Tafo used additional (artificial) hand pollination to increase yield and also breed new cocoa varieties [16, 49]. This aims to achieve maximum pollination, which is crucial for optimal yield in crop production, allowing for a bountiful harvest and increasing the export of cocoa beans, which will encourage farmers to increase production in the country [16].

Insect pollinators play an essential functional role in supporting ecological stability as well as food security worldwide [50]. Pollinating insects are vital to the world's food supply, pollinating more than 80% of the world's wild plant species [51]. The cocoa crop requires cross-pollination, which is mainly carried out by midges of the genera Ceratopogonidae and Cecidomyiidae [42]. Ceratopogonids are biting midges with a length of 14 mm [52]. It is believed that the females visit cacao flowers to feed on the protein-rich pollen grains necessary for egg maturation. Therefore, insufficient midges population leads to insufficient pollination and this deficiency has been reported as the main cause of low fruit set in some cocoa plantations [33, 53, 54]. In addition to midges, there are also wild bees Lasioglossum sp. and Hypotrigona sp., which visit cocoa flowers that bloom at tree canopy level to collect pollen. Lasioglossum in particular has been found to be effective at pollinating cacao flowers through its characteristic movement in and out of the petal porch. The role of Hypotrigona sp., which has been regularly identified on cocoa flowers in Ghana, has yet to be fully investigated. In general, more work needs to be done to fully understand the mechanisms of cocoa pollination globally and particularly in tropical Africa. In addition, other small Dipteran insects such as Cecidomyiidae (gall midges), Chironomidae (non-biting midges), Drosophilidae (fruit flies), Psychodidae (moth flies), and Sphaeroceridae (small dung flies) have been documented to visit cocoa flowers. Other insects such as aphids, coccids and cicadellids (Hemiptera), thrips (Thysanoptera) and ants (Hymenoptera) also occasionally visit cocoa flowers. However, their contribution to pollination is most likely very small. So far, pollen grains have been collected from insects other than Forcipomyia spp. not detected by microscopic observation. In some cases, observations suggest that cecidomyiids (in Cameroon) and drosophilids (in Ghana) may contribute to pollination to some extent [8]. Only Diptera and in particular the genus Forcipomyia (Fam. Ceratopogonidae) are morphologically capable of pollinating cocoa. Forcipomyia hosts the largest number of cocoa pollinators. Within this genus, the most commonly reported pollinators belong to the subgenera Euprojoannisia, Thyridomyia, and Forcipomyia [8].

These small midges, 2–3 mm long, prove to be excellent pollinators due to their frequency of visits and the massive deposition of pollen grains on the stigma [55].

Therefore, in order to maintain their population, pollinator abundance can be synchronized through environmental manipulation by providing suitable breeding sites in the cocoa field [56]. Providing breeding media in portable breeding containers can contribute to population increase in cocoa cultivation. Choices of growth media include cocoa pod husk (CPH), banana stumps; and combining cocoa pod shells with the availability of insect-infested pods in the cocoa field. Additional substrates provided must be easy to find in the cocoa field and will increase the population of Forcipomyia sp. increase [57]. However, the substrate must be replaced regularly as the moisture content decreases over time. Declining trends in pollinator populations can occur on various spatial and temporal scales [58], including reductions in floral resources. A lack of floral diversity, particularly in monoculture ecosystems, can limit the provision of resources needed by these midges [59].

### *3.2.2 Biology and phenology of Forcipomyia spp.*

Adult midges can be found between the buttresses of large shade trees, in cracks of decayed old tree trunks, in hollow tree stumps and in piles of cocoa husks. Swarming occurs at any time of the day or in the late afternoon. Midges are present on cocoa plantations year-round, but the largest population occurs during the rainy season. Adult females lay eggs in batches of 40 to 90 on damp, rotting wood, cocoa husk, and other plant debris. The larvae hatch in 2–3 days and pupate after four molts when they are about 12 days old. The pupal stage lasts 2–3 days. Adult females require liquid plant food for survival and oviposition, although ovum maturation occurs independently of adult feeding or mating. Unfertilized eggs do not develop. The maximum life expectancy for either sex in captivity is eight days. Forcipomyia goes through at least 12 generations per year. Due to its abundance and continuous reproduction on cocoa plantations, Forcipomyia is probably the most important ceratopogonid cocoa pollinator in Ghana. According to [42], midges are attracted by the vertically aligned staminodes and use them to land. The fact that style pollination generally leads to greater fruit set than stigma pollination makes the ceratopogonid midges efficient pollination candidates [60].

The insect may then proceed into the petal hood along the purple colored guide lines where curved bristles on the thorax press against the anther, thereby picking up pollen grains. Both sexes visit cocoa flowers, but males appear to be more efficient pollinators. High numbers of Forcipomyia in the farm result in increased pod set. However, the number of pollinators depends on the availability of good breeding substrate such as cocoa pod husks, decaying plantain and/or banana stems in the farm. Ceratopogonid midge flights might cover long distances, but it is not known how far exactly [8]. Distance traveled during one foraging event, and consequently during which pollination is performed, can reach up to 50 m. It has been shown that there are 5–7 times more Forcipomyia species above the cocoa canopy than below the canopy [8]. Since wind speed above the canopy is higher than below, it can be expected that wind could play an important role in horizontal cocoa pollinator distribution over the cocoa field. Ceratopogonid pollinator populations can be abundant and exceed one million individuals per ha [9]. Moist environments favor ceratopogonid midge abundance. In fact, there is a positive correlation between soil moisture and ceratopogonid population levels [8]. Stable moist conditions are indispensable for successful development of eggs and larvae [61]. Pollinator populations thus increase with each rainy period, and decrease with the onset of a drier period [62].

### **4. Impact of illegal mining on pollinator abundance**

### **4.1 Illegal mining activities and cocoa production in Ghana**

The Ghanaian government generates most of its income from the export of cocoa [63]. Threats considered that lead to low cocoa yields include old aged trees (cocoa plantations over 30 years old), predominance of low-yielding traditional cultivars, smaller farm sizes due to fragmentation of land tenure agreements, illegal mining activities, and non-compliance with good agricultural practices [64, 65]. Artisanal and small-scale mining is understood to mean mining operations by individuals, groups, families or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanization, often carried out in the informal sector. The Ghanaian government recognized the potential of the sector for job creation and legalized artisanal mining in 1989 [66]. The Minerals and Mining Act 2006 (Act 703) further defines artisanal and small-scale mining as mining operations in an area corresponding to the prescribed number of blocks. In addition, small-scale mining was legalized as the exclusive domain of Ghanaians [66].

However, foreigners with sophisticated machinery found their way into the sector, accelerating the rate of extraction in the mining communities [66]. As a result, illegal small-scale mining activities increased after legalization aimed at regulating mining activities to protect the environment [66]. Small-scale illegal gold mining is referred to as Galamsey, which derives from the jumbling Ghanaian local jargon "gather-amand-sell" [67]. Although illegal small-scale mining has drawn criticism from several quarters, the Ghana Cocoa Board takes a closer look at its impact on cocoa productivity and trusts farmers are destroying their farmland for illegal gold mining activities [68, 69]. In fact, the Ghana Cocoa Board has been one of the major complainers about the Galamsey threat [69–72], as Galamsey creates factors that discourage or adversely affect cocoa cultivation. First, Galamsey presents pull factors as a more attractive investment. Some people are drawn to informal mining because they believe mining offers them a get-rich-quick opportunity [73]. The farmers who have their cocoa farms close to the mining areas observe early dropping of immature pods, wilting and yellowing of leaves because the galamsey activities deplete the topsoil which supports the healthy growth of plants [74, 75]. The damaging environmental impacts associated with the unregulated mining activities include effluent damping, unrehabilitated excavations, improperly stored waste, dust emissions, deforestation, acid mine, river siltation and the release of chemicals such as cyanide and mercury [76, 77] asserted that between 1 and 20 hectares of cocoa lands are been taken over by galamsey activities in numerous Ghanaian cocoa-producing districts annually. According to GSS (Ghana Statistical Service) (2018), the GDP contribution of cocoa decreased from 3.6% in 2011 to 1.8% in 2017. The rife mining activities in the nation have been partly blamed for the reduction in cocoa production and economic contribution.

### *4.1.1 Landscape degradation*

Habitat destruction from land-use changes such as habitat loss, fragmentation, deforestation and conversion of natural habitats to cropland is the most important driver of biodiversity loss in terrestrial ecosystems [78]. From an ecological perspective, changes in land cover involve shifts in land cover composition and variations in their spatial arrangement [79], which directly affect the composition of biological communities and pollinator-flowering plant relationships [80, 81]. Species that survive in such environments need to adapt to changing habitats and periodic

disturbances. The integration of shade trees into cocoa agroforests can bring numerous economic and environmental benefits [82, 83], such as Increased Diptera visitation rates with increased canopy closure found in Indonesia [84].

Therefore, the long-term conversion of forests to mining sites in Ghana could result in agroecological disadvantages such as forest degradation, biodiversity loss, soil quality disruption associated with low yields and food insecurity [83–85]. A recent report estimates that the annual cost to the global economy of habitat loss will reach \$10 trillion by 2050, making ongoing biodiversity loss as much an economic crisis as an environmental crisis. For more sustainable agriculture, three complementary strategies are envisaged that address several key drivers of pollinator decline: ecological intensification, strengthening existing diverse farming systems, and investing in ecological infrastructure [83]. These three strategies simultaneously address several key drivers of pollinator decline by mitigating the impacts of land-use change from illegal mining, pesticide use and climate change. Protecting large areas of semi-natural or natural habitat (tens of hectares or more) helps conserve pollinator habitats at a regional or national scale [84].

### *4.1.2 Habitat fragmentation*

Habitat destruction, fragmentation and degradation, combined with conventional intensive farming practices, often result in reduced or altered pollinator food and nesting resources. It is well known that habitat destruction can reduce the population size, composition and species richness of pollinator communities [85, 86], and thereby affecting evolutionary processes at the species level. Significant declines have already been observed for some pollinator groups (e.g. Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera), which may be due in part to a history of habitat conversion [87] as well as the loss of certain habitat elements such as nesting or foraging sites [81, 88]. Differences in ecological and morphological traits (feeding adaptation, mobility, body size, behavior) can affect the response of pollinator species to changing environments and their ability to survive in poor quality environments [86]. Pollinator species that are more specialized for habitat or food requirements tend to be more vulnerable to land cover changes that alter the availability of food or nesting resources [87], leading to homogenization of pollinator communities dominated by common generalist species [89]. Gene flow has a major impact on genetic variation within populations, as it offsets the detrimental effects of genetic drift, determines effective population size, and has important implications for the management and conservation of genetic resources [82]. Since pollen movement is a key component of gene flow, density effects can be expected to alter genetic structure and, especially in small populations, increase the likelihood of extinction [86]. Therefore, given that tropical forests experience high rates of deforestation [90], knowledge of gene flow is fundamental to understanding reproductive success and management of tropical tree species.

### *4.1.3 Deforestation*

Crop loss occur when the Galamsey operations are done directly on the farm. Cocoa crops are being destroyed by large machines such as bulldozers used to clear land on Galamsey farms. Loss of crop yield and income usually occurs when the Galamsey operators forcibly take part of the farmland from the farmers. This has several negative impacts on the environment, including water and air pollution, deforestation and land degradation. Tropical forests are the most biodiverse ecosystems

### *Impact of Illegal Mining Activities on Cocoa Pollinator Abundance in Ghana DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112204*

and species-rich habitats in the world, but are significantly threatened by widespread ongoing deforestation [84]. Primary forests are of vital importance for the conservation of biological diversity due to their unprecedented diversity of species and habitats [82, 91]. Deforestation of primary and secondary forests can result in biodiversity loss and forest fragmentation, reducing previously uninterrupted habitat to smaller fragments [87]. This can result in forest-dependent species being isolated in small patches of forest that are not large enough to support a healthy population. However, secondary forests play a key role in providing habitat for a wide variety of species and in establishing connections between primary forest areas. Protection and restoration of primary and secondary forests are critical to improving tropical forest health [92]. Beyond habitat loss, land-use change can lead to deterioration in habitat quality, known as habitat degradation. In these cases, the species are able to survive, but their populations may decline [89]. For example, a recent study suggested that agricultural expansion has reduced the richness and composition of pollinators of bees and wasps in the UK [83].

### **5. Conclusions**

Since cocoa production is largely dependent on pollination by insects, any threat to pollinators will negatively impact cocoa production. There is evidence that cocoa pollination is currently below optimal levels in Ghana and that increasing pollinator populations in cocoa fields could increase cocoa production [85]. This was demonstrated by the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) in Tafo using additional (artificial) hand pollination to increase yield and also to breed new cocoa varieties [16]. It is noted that illegal small-scale mining (Galamsey) has actually been the major factor affecting cocoa production due to land degradation, water and air pollution, diversion of water bodies, damage to farms and farmhouses, etc. The findings from this suggest that Ceratopogonidae midges alone were probably too rare to act as the main or even sole pollinator of cocoa in Ghana, since the relative abundance observed on cocoa flowers in Ghana are low due to the operations of illegal mining activities done right in the cocoa farms [84].

The study identified the need for protection of extensive natural forest areas to protect the genetic identity of wild cacao pollinators in Ghana and, in addition, to promote genetic exchange between wild populations to maintain genetic variability of viable populations [22]. Evidence has shown that areas of secondary forest surrounding cocoa farms may provide pollinator resources similar to natural forests, and that deforestation and habitat fragmentation reduce the population size, composition and species richness of pollinator communities in cocoa farms to increase production [93]. Different pollinator species respond differently to changing environmental conditions caused by illegal small-scale mining due to their physiological, behavioral or other mechanisms [85].

### **6. Recommendation**

### **6.1 Ecological intensification**

Management of nature's ecological functions is needed to improve cocoa production and livelihoods while minimizing environmental damage.

### **6.2 Strengthening existing diverse farming systems**

This includes the management of systems such as forest gardens and agroforestry to promote pollinators through scientifically and local knowledge validated practices, for example, Crop rotation, cultivation of sunflowers and edge crops to provide alternative food resources to increase pollinator abundance and diversity necessary for cocoa production in Ghana.

### **6.3 Policies and laws concerning Galamsey**

Existing legislation should be strengthened by involving farmers in stakeholder decision-making on Galamsey, so that offenders are punished and others are deterred. To achieve this, the government should provide COCOBOD with structures that enable it to effectively and efficiently impose sanctions against illegal small-scale mining.

### **6.4 Strategies to conserve pollinators and biodiversity**

Mining activities should be structured to strike a balance between economically driven extraction of mineral resources and the strategies needed to conserve natural resources and maintain ecosystem integrity and species viability.

### **Acknowledgements**

The authors acknowledge the support from the Africa Regional Postgraduate program in insect science, co-authors, DAAD support and the cocoabod of Ghana.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors have no conflict of interest.

### **Author details**

Sampson Addae\*, Sarah Acquah and Samuel Nyarko Essuman University of Ghana, Legon Campus, Accra, Ghana

\*Address all correspondence to: trustaddae@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Impact of Illegal Mining Activities on Cocoa Pollinator Abundance in Ghana DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112204*

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Section 4

## Cocoa Cultivation: Role in Peace Building

## Cacao: A Path of Everyday Resistance and the Pursuit of Peace

*Julian Villa-Turek Arbelaez*

### **Abstract**

Cacao crops are not only a form of subsistence and agricultural project but also connect the way of life and resistance in conflict scenarios. San José de Apartadó, Colombia, and its local population have suffered from the consequences of long-term armed conflict, which left hundreds of victims of forced displacement and disappeared, leaving a territory disconnected from its population and its interactions with agriculture and peace. The 2016 Peace Agreement between the FARC-EP and the Colombian government reopened a history of resistance among peasants, who have cultivated their lands to live and build peace by recognizing patterns of violence in the search for missing persons. Today, the armed conflict has not ended; there is a repeated presence of other armed groups in Urabá, a factor that involves the possibility for local populations to live in peace. Favorably, the institutions have begun to take action to continue with the efforts of the Peace Agreement. The creation of the Search Unit for Missing Persons (UBPD) has helped the families to continue searching for the disappeared and recognize the ways of life and practices of the territory, where cacao crops are a central form of life and social organization.

**Keywords:** cacao production, everyday resistance, search for missing people, peace research, human rights

### **1. Introduction**

Colombia and various regions have exemplified how agriculture, particularly cacao crops, can foster peace and transform violence in areas affected by armed conflicts. In these regions, agriculture, connected to rural areas and land for production, has been a recurring source of territorial disputes involving various legal and illegal economies. San José de Apartadó, located in the northwest region of Urabá, is a referent of social leadership and resistance to powerful ways of violence deployed by armed actors and civilian groups. The cacao crops cultivated in this region have the characteristics of ensuing the central economy of thousands of families and, therefore, a form of resistance and strength to continue searching for their lost family members and relatives, aiming to reduce the impacts of a common framework of the Colombian armed conflict: the enforced disappearance. Special acknowledgment should be given to the social organization CACAOVIVE in San José de Apartadó, with whom I had the invaluable opportunity to conduct my bachelor's degree thesis in political science and emphasize peace research and conflict resolution in the region as a case study in 2020 and 2021. Through this research, I had the privilege of meeting various social leaders who dedicate themselves tirelessly to the pursuit of peace in the region1 [1].

The enforced disappearance of civilians in the conflict and in San José de Apartadó was common during the armed conflict. Its use was aimed to eliminate the others, taking their humanity away from them, and ruining prebuilt social systems based on the relationships in communities with its territories and, therefore, their ways of life, practices, and knowledge. For the National Centre for Historical Memory (CNMH), more than 60,000 people have disappeared between 1970 and 2015, contrasting with the Registry of Victims (RUV), a State Registry to know how many people have the status of victims. They may need assistance for reparation and Truth—who aims that between 1978 and 2020, at least 178.000 were victims of this type of violence. Although these statistics may be suffering sub-registry omissions due to labels of murders and kidnappings—related forms of violence—they show how big numbers are and the challenges to finding them inside the armed conflict and the still presence of armed groups in the region.

The use of violence, including enforced disappearance, has been a prominent and widely acknowledged issue, which was extensively discussed during the peace negotiations held in La Habana, Cuba. These negotiations ultimately led to signing the 2016 Peace Agreements between the Colombian State and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC-EP) guerrilla group. The primary objective of these agreements was to address historical conflicts rooted in territorial and social issues. Furthermore, one of the highlights has been the creation of The Colombian Integrated System of Truth, Justice, Reparation, and Non-Repetition (SIVJRNR in Spanish), in which the victims are central key players in peacebuilding alongside new policy frameworks and bodies such as the Truth Commission (*CEV* in Spanish), the Special Jurisdiction for Peace (*JEP* in Spanish) and the Search Unit for Missing Persons (*UBPD* in Spanish). The last have developed different strategies to strengthen confidence between individuals, collective actors, and the State to search, find, prospect, and identify missed persons, victims of enforced disappearance during the armed conflict.

With pedagogical tools, the Unit started approaching different collective and individual actors. Many social organizations stated social objectives in specific territories with differential characteristics and armed conflict impacts, just as in San José de Apartadó and the Urabá region in Colombia. In this region, the Unit implemented the Creative Knowledge Circles (*Círculos de Saberes Creativos* in Spanish), a dissimilar methodology to the judicial system. This approach aimed to listen to the victims in a horizontal relationship, acknowledging the knowledge and practices they have.

This research endeavors to establish a connection between social leadership, which centers around developing the local economy through cacao crops, and peacebuilding over the search for missing people due to the armed conflict. A particular emphasis is placed on the utilization of Creative Knowledge-Circles to strengthen the outcomes of dialog between different stakeholders. The objective is to contribute to the search for missing persons while concurrently promoting the establishment of sustainable cacao-based agriculture as a more equitable approach to foster local economies.

<sup>1</sup> Undergraduate thesis in Political Science with emphasis on Conflict Resolution and Peace Research at the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia.

### **2. Theoretical framework: Everyday resistance and searching for missing people**

The exercise of social leadership in a place fully affected by violence implies the use of categorical variables to analyze how the search for missing people and the use of cacao crops allow a new understanding with the case study based on qualitative methodologies as a guiding example. First, the resistance to violence can be addressed with an everyday resistance approach. Second, the search for missing people constitutes a category of analysis that can be connected to different types of organizations. Third, the connection between both categories could influence the agricultural choices of a specific population in a territory, as the relationship with State bodies and institutions.

Resistance to violence has been studied in social sciences as a tool to understand everyday violence management. Scott [2] defined everyday resistance as a process in which resist means to start organizing from small actions and a discursive tool over a specific time, space, and with different social relationships. Since violence can be considered a state of power [2–4], society can decide to change that statement of violence in everyday contexts. Therefore, a historically related power practice can be reactive to a homogeneous and noncontingent context, the reason behind its intersectional dimension to consider different types of power and changes [4]. How resistance can arise after violence disclaimed collective visions to invisible ones, the same that starts to change since the first invisible and individual stage that is open to establishing a new political subject.

Purposes of resistance distinguish between purposes of violence since it is not singular and unique in its patterns and identities. For authors like Butler [5] and Mbembe [6], violence follows patterns of affecting individuals and collectives due to an interest in affecting the humanity of others and making invisible race, gender, and cultural differences. The body is at the mercy of social and environmental modes that allow the use of war, in which death is justified and approved toward some subjects. Therefore, the use of violence and resistance to it allows the creation of new spheres of recognition and concession to other existing epistemologies that have been disrupted by different uses of power. This recognition of everyday resistance to contexts marked by armed conflicts allows the recognition of specific uses of violence in which social efforts to resist will be held.

Since forced disappearance has been shared in some armed conflicts, the theory helps the Colombian case analysis. This kind of violence consists of repression methods that break social and individual senses of identity and practices [7]. According to the classical framework created by Galtung [8], this violence can be defined as direct violence (visible) and addressed within a structure with cultural conditions to legitime the use of violence [9]. But the effect of the forced disappearance affects not just the missed ones and victims but also the ones who stay and start looking for them, victims too. Thus, as Casado [10] expresses, the interest in searching for the lost defines the search as a bioprocess of who is being searched for and who is searching for them.

A subject who decides to search has become a political actor with a differentiated identity. Since it is also a victim of forced disappearance and has faced the process of invisiblization of the pattern of violence, the remembering process deeply suffers and puts the searcher in a complex process of recognizing their identity and practices [9, 11]. Anonymity begins to fade from the moment an individual begins to search, a process that continually has challenges, as organizing a search group is a complicated second step due to the breakdown of social networks and the impacts on identity left by violence and enforced disappearance.

The missed ones have affected left a space of uncertainty in the daily lives of their families, neighbors, and known people. Therefore, authors like Delacroix [12], analyzing the case of Perú and Robledo [13] in Mexico, have stated the significant impacts on everyday life with an absence of meaning that leads to a new performance of stories that connect with others who are living the same on rebuilding step process. Since the impacts left a catastrophe on social networks [13], it connects a reduced interpersonal network that becomes a powerful tool to remember the missing to act alongside and on them [12]. These purposes and processes may be accompanied by institutional efforts [10]. Then, the establishment of new public policies toward the search for missed people states new practices to manage the absence of institutions or stigmatization and revictimization of the victims. That guides the collective subject that Jelin [14] mentions, with an agency built on interpersonal relations that can work or demand institutions to start, continue, or improve the search for missing people. All these efforts need to be recognized as an everyday process as they improve the achievements to change structural violence and seek conflict resolutions and peacebuilding.

### **3. Context over the study case**

### **3.1 Cacao crops in Colombia: A more visible economy**

In Colombia, at least three cacao crops can be planted in the country. Under official statistics [15], more than 65.000 families live in 422 municipalities and 27 departments where this agriculture has been deployed. In terms of production, more than 188.000 Ha in 2020, where 64.000 tons were produced. Also, each producer produces at least 3 Ha of cacao crops in the median. The regions with the most cacao production are those that the armed conflict has deeply impacted. In the last decade, cacao production expansion mainly took place in remote, low-connected, and lowdensity areas such as the Choco, Amazon foothills, and Magdalena Medio. Notably, these areas have also been highly impacted by the internal armed conflict [16]. In this sense, the entry of more extractivist multinationals represents a great vital and territorial threat to the entire country and especially to the Gulf of Urabá region [17]. Therefore, cacao yield had a spatial and temporal trend characterized by an increase in regions that were previously impacted by the conflict, such as Urabá, creating instability while impacting smallholders' likelihood to receive training, credits, and their capacity to produce permanent crops (see **Figures 1–3**) [16].

### **3.2 San José de Apartadó: A history of violence and hope**

San José de Apartadó has been living a story of violence and resistance. Since the 1970s, civilian organization based on the creation of banana agrarian unions formed in the 1960s, and the guerrillas' support increased violence with forced displacement, the first massacres of civilians, and the forced disappearance of people during the armed conflict with the Colombian army [18]. Years later, a systemic way of repression was deployed to dismantle and affect a region where the political party of Unión Patriótica (UP) – part of the Peace Treaty Agreements between the State and the guerrilla of the FARC-EP in 1984 – had enormous support since they used to guide a new political agenda based on social leaderships. Although it had high pikes in the decade of 1980, the next decade came up with new enforcement in violence levels and the entry of paramilitary groups to the region [19, 20]. The Autodefensas Unidas

*Cacao: A Path of Everyday Resistance and the Pursuit of Peace DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112999*

### **Figure 1.**

*Location of Urabá region in the Department of Antioquia and San José de Apartadó. Source: Movimiento regional por la Tierra [17].*

### **Figure 2.**

*Municipal production trends (cacao production). Source: Grow Colombia [16].*

de Colombia (AUC) paramilitary group, one of the biggest ones, perpetrated more massacres and was a crucial factor in the increase of missing people due to the armed violence and the social control deployed by armed groups. From 1994 onwards, just in San José de Apartadó, the number of cases of disappearance increased without a

### **Figure 3.**

*Violent actions per 100.000 habitants during the Colombian armed conflict for the 2000–2018 period. Source: Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica (CNMH) (2018) cited in Grow Colombia [16].*

notable decrease until 2004, with more than 100 cases per year. The municipality remains in the first five cities in the Department of Antioquia with more cases of enforced disappearance.

As a form of resistance to violence, in 1997, a group of more than 300 families created the Peace Community of San José de Apartadó (CPSJA). It became a neutral place where no armed group could enter its territory. Therefore, they had to deal with all armed groups at different times, facing a continuum of violence and stigmatization of all armed groups, including guerrillas, paramilitaries, and national armed forces [21–24]. After the 2005 massacre against the Peace Community, the demobilization of the AUC dismantled the Paramilitary Central Bloc in Urabá (BEC) as a result of negotiations between the AUC and the central government that ended in the Santa Fé de Ralito Agreements of 2003. Although an agreement was reached, the paramilitary groups did not disappear and were transformed into more decentralized armed groups, as were the criminal gangs [19, 20]. A decrease in violence was apparent and visible but far from ending. However, the transformation of the armed conflict led to new armed groups that remain predominant to the present day as the National Liberation Army (ELN) and the Gaitanista Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AGC), which reflects the aggravated context against the settlers and the general fragmentation of trust with the Colombian State [17, 23]. However, the Peace Agreements of 2016 opened a new window of opportunity to build peace on the territorial level alongside civil society. The creation of the SIVJRNR influenced the creation of the Search Unit for Missing Persons (UBPD). This humanitarian and extrajudicial entity has operated autonomously and independently from the traditional judicial bodies.

In the case of agriculture and cacao production, most producers are individuals who, together with cooperatives, cultivate the land with cacao crops and other plantations (for their own use, e.g., corn, banana, avocado and mandioca/cassava). In the last decades, there was a change from banana to cacao production as the primary plantation since the first one raised price problems, and a new market of exportation created the input for the organizations to think and design new strategies [17]. Thanks to Peace Accords, the figure of the cooperatives became an excellent opportunity to

transform social leadership, not only in the organizational and political view but also in the economic model. It influenced a new recognition by the State and the territory and its legitimate practices, such as cocoa cultivation and production.

### **3.3 Creative knowledge circles strategy**

Implementing different policies after the Peace Agreements of 2016 has changed how the State searches for missing people due to the armed conflict. Under the new policy frameworks, the primary mission is to fulfill victims' rights to reparation, access to truth and justice, and guarantees for non-repetition. These agendas serve as guiding principles for the institutions established because of the 2016 Peace Agreements and build upon the foundation laid by the Law 1448 of 2011, which aimed to recognize the armed conflict and address reparations to the victims. Then, the role of the UBPD has been searching for people who may be victims of enforced disappearance and to differentiate its actions from those carried out by existing institutions such as the Attorney General's Office. Its approach consists of five steps in searching for missing people: search, location, recovery, identification, and dignified return. These steps follow the interest of working with participation, information, and prospecting since the need to add voices and stories of victims is crucial to have a human searching and bring all the experiences of professionals to prospect, recover, and identify identities, aiming to a humanitarian and extrajudicial perspectives [1].

The creative knowledge circles mentioned above can be defined as an innovative way involving the active participation of victims and groups who have experienced disappearances. With a safe and inclusive space, all individuals can share their stories and connect the experiences of violence and resistance (on an individual or collective level) and the ongoing efforts to locate missing persons. In those spaces, the UBPD plays a crucial role in facilitating the participation of all involved parties and ensuring their voices are heard. The institution guarantees its support by collecting and managing information to initiate the process of locating potential sites of violent incidents or places where information on missing individuals may be available. Furthermore, the UBPD utilizes genetic identification techniques to identify living persons separated from their families due to violence. This whole process is therefore an effort that over time, requires the gradual establishment of trust and rapport between the individuals. As trust is built, progress can be made in gathering and assessing the information related to the missing individuals and the violent episodes they experienced.

### **4. Analysis: How cacao crops can be a good tool to build peace and help the UNBPD efforts to find missing people in San José de Apartadó**

The decision of communities in San José de Apartadó to focus on cacao cultivation as their primary agricultural product stems from their aspiration for better and more equitable local economies, intending to resist the violence prevalent in the region. The cultivation of cacao has emerged as one of the most significant economic activities for local families, influencing their resistance against not only the armed conflict and the recruitment of young people (due to a lack of preventative policies) but also the cultivation of illicit crops such as marijuana and coca, which directly undermines community peacebuilding efforts.

The social leaders of the CACAOVIVE organization assert that the fertile land in the region can support the cultivation of various crops. However, cacao remains the predominant choice due to several factors. First, cacao is a resilient crop that does not easily succumb to damage or diseases. It is also relatively cost-effective to cultivate, even without fair pricing mechanisms in the market [1, 16, 17].

Regarding pricing, the leaders argue that multinational companies often offer a reasonable and fair price for the crop during the cacao-growing season. However, this is not the case during off-season periods when the farmers' demand and prices are less favorable. Despite this challenge, the communities continue to prioritize cacao cultivation as it represents their primary source of income and a means to sustain their livelihoods amidst the prevailing socioeconomic circumstances. By focusing on cacao cultivation, the San José de Apartadó communities aim to create economic opportunities that provide for their immediate needs and contribute to their resilience and resistance against the violence and illicit economies that undermine peacebuilding efforts in the region.

After resisting decades of violence, the communities decided to organize themselves. Within a story of colonization over the territory and enforced displacement from armed actors and multinationals of banana cultivation since the 1970s, cultivating the land became a way of resistance [18, 21]. Since the physical and psychosocial problems have been extreme, the interest in sitting with the community and deciding on creating social organizations and cooperatives implies the first step in everyday resistance. They could reveal positions and interests to recognize the impacts of the armed conflict and work to transform them [3]. Then, the everyday resistance started from the individual's perspective but had deep transformations to recognize marginalized people [6] and build toward cultural differences that connect to the territory and the cultivation of cacao [5]. These efforts also connect with an institutional framework after creating cooperatives and the interest to work alongside public institutions on common challenges.

Therefore, the efforts of cooperatives and social organizations may include working alongside institutions and new bodies such as the UBPD. Implementing the creative circles' strategy has been crucial in this regard due to the recognition of the history of resistance of families searching for missing persons without legal assistance. The answer to understanding the change of collaborative work among actors is related to building trust among the parties, including members of the same community and territory. After a long and sustained stigmatization by most state institutions toward victims throughout the country, coupled with a lack of policies that address the needs of this population, the entry of institutions such as the UBDP has transformed how the search is understood as humane with the requirement of having all the knowledge and practices of civil society, becoming a horizontal hierarchy when it comes to dialog and as a starting point for locating them.

In the Circles of Knowledge, the story of production of cacao has played a crucial role, providing insights that guide families in San José de Apartadó. This implies that families of missing persons participate alongside individuals who are not involved in the search. Consequently, this connection aligns with the bioprocess defined by Casado [10], where the shared interest in searching for missing persons brings together both victims and non-victims, affected by both structural and cultural violence [8]. Therefore, the Circles seek to promote the exchange of knowledge and practices among participants with participation methodological tools. An open exchange with other actors may arise when there is a transparent image of the resistance with discursive rhetoric [3]. Through a transformative know-how process [25], the fact that the UBPD promotes these spaces strengthens the recognition based on the community's differences from other actors and the rich set of practices they deploy, including the search and the cultivation of cacao.

### *Cacao: A Path of Everyday Resistance and the Pursuit of Peace DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112999*

Creating new stories to transform social networks has been an ongoing and arduous effort undertaken by social organizations. Since the enforced missing can be defined as a catastrophe [13], the absence of the people alters how processes may be conducted in the community. The organizations have been working on different spheres over time, dividing tasks and activities related to the booster of conditions to cultivate the land with cacao crops, and also addressing human rights matters by communicating to authorities and more NGOs about risk levels that social leaders and the civil population face due to the presence of armed groups and the stigmatization that may arise between judicial institutions, the national army and the civil organizations. That creates a collective subject that is organized and ready to continue without institutional support [14] but with an everyday resistance approach [4]. The claim for a total memory without more blood has been a statement for civil organizations, such as the cooperatives and local participation bodies.

Moreover, it is crucial to consider the perspective of the UBPD workers, who recognize the importance of adopting an active listening approach while participating in spaces like Creative Circles. Through this exchange of knowledge, two aspects arise. First, understanding the complex social context is characterized by visibly armed conflicts that persist. Second, they become aware of communities' relentless efforts in searching for missing people and their organized approach, which connects the agricultural way of life and the decision to cultivate cacao crops as a way of resistance means of resistance against an unstable market and the lack of supportive programs from the State for small-scale producers to improve their crop systems. After the paramount cause of searching for the missing people, they unveil the strength and knowledge within these communities, who are determined to persist and resist through their way of life. Therefore, cacao production is a sign of resistance to unequal markets in the territory, systemic violence, and a State that has failed to provide adequate assistance for developing local economies and supporting peacebuilding.

Consequently, the development of pedagogical tools around the Circles of Knowledge has recognized the power of resistance through a territorial and communitarian organization. A new type of organization improves the recognition level by the State and its bodies of the historical violence that has affected the territory and population, as is the case of San José de Apartadó and the Urabá region in Colombia. Second, it has stated that social leaders are developing, with their possibilities and available resources, an integrative system of action that is co-guided by human rights advocacy and the establishment of sustainable economies that allow them to create a community atmosphere through more spaces of participation.

### **5. Conclusions**

It has been seen around this research that searching for missing people in San José de Apartadó is an organizational process that has been active in the last decades after experiencing the profound impacts of violence left in the territory and the communities. Despite the lack of public policies that could create new public management approaches to create better cultivation facilities and spaces for education, the communities organized through social organizations and cooperatives have led the image of a reborn resistance to the reconstruction of the social fabric. The entrance of the UBPD has been a clear signal of how State bodies can reconnect with citizens after a long-stigmatized relationship due to the armed conflict. Their entrance means a

reconstruction of confidence and allows the institutions to support already designed community tasks to search for the missing and establish local economies based on cacao production.

Nonetheless, the challenges to building peace remain in Urabá and other regions of Colombia. The 2016 Peace Agreements do not mean the violence has been decreasing, nor by the new government of Gustavo Petro, a progressist who is willing to negotiate with all the armed groups, creating the so-named "Total Peace", a way full of challenges and step backs, a situation that shows how the civil organizations remain resisting to live in peace on its territories. In general, the resistance, shown as an everyday task in connection to the cultivation of the land, will remain a key factor of peacebuilding from a bottom-up approach. The replication of development models that maintain the violence and armed conflict characteristics may create new conflicts, which is the reason behind the importance of spaces like the UBPD ones, in which the exchange of knowledge can create a better understanding of the territory and the possibilities of cultivating cacao crops as a territorial peace tool.

The research on cacao crops and everyday resistance has significant potential. It can significantly benefit from interdisciplinary approaches since the possibilities are enormous, and the interest in having more sustainable economies, energy transition platforms, and the protection of the environment can be a clear advantage. Bringing in perspectives from diverse disciplines, such as agriculture, environmental sciences, economics, social sciences, and sustainability, would be relevant for efforts to move toward more sustainable crops and production, ensuring equitable access to assistance and markets at the national and international level. Listening to the leaders of San José de Apartadó has been a crucial experience for redesigning policies and creating better results in peacebuilding and violence transformation processes.

### **Acknowledgements**

I want to sincerely thank the following individuals and organizations for their invaluable contributions and stories of resistance: Néstor, Luis, Leonel, Fredy, and all the people from San José de Apartadó. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the whole CACAOVIVE organization for its leadership and defense of human rights. I am deeply grateful to my supervisor, Juan Daniel Cruz, for their guidance and friendship. Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude to my dear friends and research teammates, Juan Esteban Uribe and Sebastián Osorio, who, together with Juan Daniel, have supported and collaborated to our journey in peace research and decolonial peace.

Cooperativa CACAOVIVE: https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100081035 856701&locale=hi\_IN

*Cacao: A Path of Everyday Resistance and the Pursuit of Peace DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112999*

### **Author details**

Julian Villa-Turek Arbelaez Hertie School, the University of Governance in Berlin, Germany

\*Address all correspondence to: julianvillat@hotmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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