Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment and Management of Bilharziasis and Other Parasitic Infections Affecting Humans in Zimbabwe: A Systematic Review

*Elliot Nyagumbo,Trust Nyirenda, Cephas Mawere, Ian Mutasa, Emmanuel Kademeteme, Alfred M. Mutaramutswa, Donald Kapanga, Godwins Ngorima, Leroy Nhari, Fabian Maunganidze, Michael Bhebhe, William Pote and Lucy Mabaya*

## **Abstract**

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that at least 251.4 million people from 78 countries were in need of preventative care for bilharziasis in 2021. Globally, soil-transmitted helminth infections are present in at least 24% of the world's population. Tropical and subtropical areas have a wide distribution of infections with a high prevalence in the sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of this study was to document plants that have been traditionally used in Zimbabwe to manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections. The literature review was based on published papers and abstracts retrieved from the online databases. Books, book chapters, scientific reports and theses from universities in Zimbabwe that were available online were also used in this review. Plants with the reported traditional usage against bilharziasis and other parasitic infections were recorded from the data retrieved. In total, 68 species were used to treat and manage bilharzia and other parasitic infections. Most of these medicinal plants were used to treat and manage schistosomes (fluke or worm). A total of 76.5% of the medicinal plants reported have been scientifically validated and documented to exhibit anthelmintic activity. In conclusion, Zimbabwe has a plethora of medicinal plants that can be used to manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections.

**Keywords:** ethnobotanical, bilharzia, schistosomiasis, worms, pharmacological, toxicology, traditional plants, anthelmintic, Zimbabwe

## **1. Introduction**

Schistosomiasis is a neglected parasitic tropical disease caused by blood flukes (trematode worms) of the genus Schistosoma. According to WHO [1] estimates, at least 251.4 million people reported from 78 countries were in need of preventative care for bilharziasis in 2021. Schistosomiasis, a disease caused by *Schistosoma mansoni* (intestinal) and *S. haematobium* (urogenital) species, is mainly concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa, where about 90% of the disease burden exists. The transmission of these species occurs through feces and urine, respectively [2]. Endemic areas where the infection is prevalent are inhabited by over 700 million people, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. Schistosomiasis is more prevalent in impoverished rural communities, particularly in regions where fishing and agricultural activities are prevalent. These areas are often characterized by poor communities lacking access to potable water and adequate sanitation [3]. Morbidity reduction can therefore be accomplished with the use of preventative therapy, which should be repeated over a number of years in endemic areas with moderate to high transmission [4]. According to WHO [5] the most frequent illnesses worldwide are soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections, which mostly afflict the poorest and most destitute populations. Where sanitation is inadequate, the soil is polluted with egg-infected human feces and fecal waste [5]. The primary causative species that infect humans are whipworms (*Trichuris trichiura*), hookworms (*Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus* and *Ancylostoma duodenale*) and roundworms (*Ascaris lumbricoides*) [6]. STH infections afflict at least 24% of the world's population, which exceeds 1.5 billion individuals. Infections are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical locations, with the Americas, China, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa having the highest frequency [5].

Pharmacotherapy is the most effective approach for decreasing the incidence of schistosomiasis infections. The WHO recommends preventive chemotherapy using praziquantel as the strategy for managing schistosomiasis. School-age children (5 to 15 years old) are the target population for this therapy due to their high infection burden and ability to be effectively targeted through schools [7]. Zimbabwe aims to eradicate bilharzia and intestinal worms, by 2030. During a mass treatment campaign carried out from April 3–9, 2022, over 1.8 million children received free oral treatment for schistosomiasis (bilharzia) and soil-transmitted helminthiases (intestinal worms) [8].

Despite not achieving complete elimination of bilharzia, Zimbabwe has significantly reduced the burden of the disease through the annual national treatment campaigns. In 2014 a study revealed that the district of Chiredzi in Masvingo province had the highest prevalence of *S. mansoni* at 43.7%, followed by the Hwedza district in Mashonaland East and Nyanga in Manicaland province, with prevalence rates of 32.3 and 31.5%, respectively [9]. Despite the great prevalence of parasitic diseases worldwide and the substantial amount of suffering caused by these parasites, the majority are considered neglected diseases. Only malaria treatment and prevention receive significant financing, but there is an urgent need for more action to be done to alleviate the suffering of the large populations of people who are infected with other parasitic diseases [10]. Similarly, despite those parasitic infections accounting for more than 10% of the world's disease burden, drug discovery efforts for parasitic diseases are limited, with only 1% of new medications addressing parasitic diseases in the last 40 years [6].

The purpose of the study is to find medicinal plant species that are used as an effective treatment against schistosomiasis in Zimbabwe. The study involved the compilation of a list of medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe to treat parasitic infections

in humans. Bilharzia, gastrointestinal worms and helminths, ectoparasites, trichomoniasis, leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are among the diseases covered. Due to the broad scope of these topics, veterinary usage and malaria were excluded. This systematic review will create a comprehensive digital database of medicinal plants used in traditional practice which holds the potential to expand treatment options, improve access to healthcare, preserve traditional knowledge and promote sustainable practices in disease management. Moreover, the potential development of drug resistance has sparked an ongoing debate about the future efficacy of praziquantel. The emergence of drug-resistant strains of schistosomes will pose a significant challenge in controlling the disease. Thus, exploring medicinal plants may help to identify novel compounds that can overcome drug resistance and provide alternative treatment options.

## **2. Objectives**

This systematic review was therefore undertaken to:


### **2.1 Inclusion criteria**

Plants used to treat the following parasitic infectious diseases were included in this study


## **2.2 Exclusion criteria**

Plants used to treat the following parasitic infectious diseases were excluded from this study

1.Malaria

2.Veterinary parasites

## **3. Materials and methods**

## **3.1 Research protocol and reporting**

The Preferred Reporting Items for the Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were used in the reporting of this study (**Figure 1**). The protocol used in this systematic review was as previously reported [14].

## **3.2 Literature search**

Electronic data on the ethnobotany of medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe were retrieved from electronic databases such as Google, Google Scholar, Springer Link, Researchgate, PubMed, Science Direct and JSTOR. The keywords set "medicinal plants AND (antiparasitic OR antihelmintic) AND Zimbabwe" were used. The retrieved articles were downloaded and stored in EndNote X9 (Thomson Reuters, San Francisco, CA and USA). Duplicate articles were then removed from the file. Further, a manual search from the reference lists of screened eligible articles and deposited electronic copies of dissertations and theses in online Universities' repositories and National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens (SRGH) libraries up to 31 December 2020 were done. Other sources utilized in this study included books [15–18], book chapters, scientific reports and theses available at universities [19, 20] and National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens (SRGH) libraries. The authors continuously received notifications of any new "similar reports" meeting the search criteria from Science Direct, Scopus and Google Scholar.

The plant names were verified with http://www.theplantlist.org and https://www. zimbabweflora.co.zw. Plants with the reported traditional usage against bilharziasis and other parasitic infections were identified and compiled from the information collected and gathered. A master list was prepared including all the medicinal plants used in Zimbabwe for the treatment and management of bilharziasis and other parasitic infections (**Table 1**). The above-mentioned databases were also searched for pharmacological and toxicological properties providing scientific evidence of medicinal usage comparable to their ethnomedicinal usage. All the information was summarized in three tables (**Tables 1**–**3**) and five figures (**Figures 2**–**6**). The review excluded medicinal plants for veterinary use and those against malaria to limit the plants to those used in the treatment and management of bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in humans.

*Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment and Management of Bilharziasis and Other… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113291*

**Figure 1.**

*PRISMA flow diagram showing the search and retrieval steps of the study (adopted from Moher et al. [14]).*









#### **Table 1.**

*Medicinal plants used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe: Family and botanical name, local name, part used, mode of preparation, growth form, distribution and ethnomedicinal uses.*










In vitro *experiments were carried-out and reported by Mølgaard et al. [23] demonstrating dose-dependent anthelmintic activity. Anthelmintic activities reported were conducted on a number of biological targets (Figure 6): Cestodes; Earthworms:* Pheretima posthuma, Edrilus euginiae, Eisinia fetida*; Leishmania:* Leishmania donovani*; Nematode:* Ascaris suum, Ascaridia galli, Caenorhabditis elegans, Chabertia ovina, Cooperia spp., Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Teladorsagia spp; *Protozoa:* Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Trichomonas vaginalis, T. b. rhodesiense*; Schistosomes:* Schistosoma haematobium*; Trypanosome:* Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma cruzi. *More studies should be carried out on more prevalent biological targets such as Schistosomes:* Schistosoma haematobium*. \* signifies the major pharmacological activity attributed by the different plant species of plants which is the anthelmintic activity.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Pharmacological and toxicological evaluation of medicinal plants used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe.*



*c No cestodes: schistosomules died.*

*Schistosomules of* Schistosoma mansoni*, Cestodes of* Hymenolepis dimin.

#### **Table 3.**

*Anthelmintic screening of Zimbabwean plants traditionally used against schistosomiasis [23].*

#### **3.3 Screening**

Retrieved articles were first screened based on the titles and abstracts for relevance to the study excluding articles that reported on malaria and on veterinary use of medicinal plants. For example, we excluded articles on bovine mastitis and Oriental medicines, although they appeared in the search results. However, articles that

#### **Figure 2.**

*Growth habit of medicinal plant species used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe.*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Parasites managed or treated using medicinal plants in Zimbabwe.*

included both malaria and schistosomiasis were considered. The eligible full articles were then assessed further for inclusion in the study using the inclusion/exclusion criteria.

#### **Figure 4.**

*Mode of preparation of medicinal plant species used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe.*

**Figure 5.**

*Plant parts used for medicinal preparations used for the management of bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe.*

#### **3.4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria**

Full-text articles that at least reported on ethnobotany of Zimbabwean medicinal plants written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals, reports, books,

**Figure 6.**

*Biological targets of tested parasites of medicinal plants reported.*

theses and dissertations dated 31 December 2020 were considered. All publishing years were included without any geographical restrictions. Articles that reported data not relevant to the study or reviews or those not written in English were excluded from the study.

### **3.5 Data extraction**

A data collection tool was designed in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, USA) to capture data on different aspects of Zimbabwean medicinal plants. Three reviewers independently extracted relevant data from the included articles regarding the ethnobotany of Zimbabwean medicinal plants. For ethnobotanical data, the diseases or ailments managed, parts used and mode of preparation and administration were captured. The collected data were checked for completeness and processed independently by two other reviewers.

## **4. Results and discussion**

From the several scientific papers reviewed based on ethnobotanical surveys of different areas of Zimbabwe, the results are presented in the following sections.

### **4.1 Literature search and publications**

A total of 750 reports were retrieved out of which 138 met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed. Most of the articles were published in the 2010–2019 decade, indicating a lot of research is being done as compared to the preceding decades. This could be due to: (1) the growing need for more effective and less toxic medicinal products of plant origin, (2) emerging antimicrobial resistance that has rendered most

chemotherapeutic agents less effective, (3) new disease outbreaks like COVID-19 and (4) increase in noncommunicable diseases such as cancers, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and sexual dysfunction that require readily available, affordable, effective and safe therapies.

## **4.2 Ethnobotanical surveys and distribution of medicinal plants traditionally used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe**

Based on soil, rainfall regime and several other factors, Zimbabwe is divided into 5 agro-ecological regions. A total of 43 of the medicinal plants reported in this review are widely distributed throughout the Northern (N), Eastern (E), Central (C), Western (W) and Southern (S) regions of Zimbabwe as represented in **Figure 7**. The remaining plant species were distributed in several regions across the country with n = 9 plant species distributed in 4 regions, n = 8 in 3 regions, n = 2 in 2 regions and n = 1 in 1 region. A total of n = 3 plant species are being cultivated [*Celtis africana, Musa sp., Phaseolus vulgaris*] and n = 1 has been recently introduced *Ricinus communis*. *Warburgia sulcata* had no information on distribution in Zimbabwe (**Table 1**).

The current review indicates that there are at least 68 species of plants belonging to 63 genera in 33 families used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe (**Table 1**).

Generally, the family with the highest number of medicinal plants in Zimbabwe was the *Fabaceae* family represented with a total of 17 plants followed by *Combretaceae* (n = 5), *Apocynaceae* (n = 5), *Anacardiaceae* (n = 4), *Rubiaceae* (n = 3), *Euphorbiaceae* (n = 3) *Asteraceae* (n = 3), *Rutaceae* (n = 2) and *Meliaceae* (n = 2). A further 24 more plant families which only had one plant represented were also

**Figure 7.** *General distribution of medicinal plants in different floristic regions of Zimbabwe.*

recorded, giving a total of 33 families. These included *Apiaceae, Asparagaceae, Bignoniaceae, Boraginanceae, Canellaceae, Celastraceae, Dracaenaceae, Ebenaceae, Hydroraceae, Loganiaceae, Lorantaceae, Menispermaceae, Musaceae, Olacaceae, Poaceae, Polygalaceae, Proteaceae, Rhamnaceae, Salicaceae, Sapindaceae, Solanaceae, Ulmaceae, Verbenaceae* and *Vitaceae*.

Hutchings et al. [17] reported similar use of some medicinal plants reported in this study to treat and manage bilharziasis: *Abrus precatorius, Cassia abbreviata, Cissampelos mucronata, Euclea divorum, Faurea saligna, Gymnosporia senegalensis (Maytenus senegalensis), Mondia whitei, Pterocarpus angolensis, Sclerocarya birrea and Ximenia caffra*. Other studies reported similar anthelmintic medicinal plants; *Dicoma anomala* - Intestinal worms [15]; *Pterocarpus angolensis -* General use against intestinal worms, *Sclerocarya birrea* - Intestinal worms [18]; *Securidaca longipedunculata* – Tapeworm, *Vangueria infausta* - Roundworm [238]; *Ximenia caffra* - Intestinal worms [226]. These medicinal plants have been compiled by Cock et al. [10] review of Southern Africa.

## **4.3 Growth habit, parts used and mode of preparation of medicinal plants used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe**

According to **Figure 2**, the frequency and type of plants used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections is as follows; tree (n = 23), tree, tree or shrub (n = 18), herb (n = 9), shrub (n = 5), climber, liane (n = 3), herb or shrub (n = 3), climber (n = 3), grass (n = 1), liane (n = 1), root parasite (n = 1) and shrub or climber (n = 1).

According to **Figure 3**, the parasites managed or treated are schistosomes (fluke or worm) 79%, unspecified parasitic worms 11%, hookworm 5%, tapeworm 4% and roundworm 1%. Midzi et al. [9] carried out a nationwide survey in Zimbabwe in 2010 and 2011 to map schistosomiasis and STH. The survey was conducted among primary school children. The study reported a high national prevalence of schistosomiasis (22.7%) and STH (5.5%). The common schistosome was *Schistosoma haematobium* with a prevalence of 18.0% while that of *Schistosoma mansoni* was 7.2%. The most common STH were hookworms (*Ascaris lumbricoides* and *Trichuris trichiura*) with a prevalence of 3.2% followed by *A. lumbricoides* and *T. trichiura* with prevalence of 2.5 and 0.1%, respectively [9]. Mutsaka-Makuvaza et al. [239] recorded a 13.3% prevalence in Madziwa, Shamva District among preschool-aged children. Therefore, there has been high use of medicinal plants to treat schistosomiasis due to its high prevalence in Zimbabwe.

The most frequently used mode of preparation was infusion 46% followed by decoction 22%, soup 19% and powder 13% (**Figure 4**). Methods of preparation of plant medicines seem to vary according to the area and subculture of the people in that region. Plant materials may be used as fresh or dry. However, the review observed a high usage of fresh material. Preparation of decoctions is carried out by boiling the plant material in water to such an extent that the volume of water is reduced to half. An infusion is a less concentrated version of a decoction and usually prepared by adding the plant material to water. There is a predominant use of decoctions and infusions which when both combined contribute to 68% of the gross mode of preparation. This may be attributed to the quick, low cost and easy to administer properties of these methods. Unfortunately, some of the ethomedicinal papers did not highlight the mode of preparation of the medicinal plants used [21, 22, 25, 26, 28].

The plant parts that are frequently used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections are shown in **Figure 5**. It appears the roots (46%) are the main target plant parts used. The use of the roots, bark and / or stem are the least environmentally sustainable part of the plant as its collection may lead to death of the plant however, they are the most preferred source of medicine. A number of papers did not highlight the plant parts used: [21, 22, 25, 26, 28].

## **4.4 Pharmacological properties of medicinal plants traditionally used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe**

Some of the plant species have demonstrated a wide range of medicinal uses across different clinical conditions and therefore utilizing scientific methods to fully understand their pharmacological consequences could be vital. We have summarized the results of the pharmacological properties of 61 (89.7%) of the plant species (**Table 2**). The activities that were reported to be key in the treatment of bilharzia and parasitic infections were mainly dominated by the anthelmintic/antiparasitic properties. A medicinal plant with anthelmintic activity is responsible for treating and managing infections caused by a broad range of parasites (trematodes, worms, cestodes and nematodes) [240] (**Table 3**). Other complementary pharmacological properties include antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal activities responsible for managing and treating parasitic infections (**Table 2**).

## **4.5 Toxicological evaluation of medicinal plants used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe**

Out of the medicinal plants listed in **Table 1**, a total of 47 species (69.1%) have been subjected to toxicological evaluation studies, while the remaining 21 species (30.9%) lacked documented studies in this regard (**Table 2**). According to Kumari and Kotecha [241] ensuring the safety of herbal medicines is crucial in herbal research due to the potential for adverse effects and interactions. Of the 47 plants with toxicological profiles, the toxicological activities of the extracts were evaluated in several ways, including their effects on liver chang cells, cytotoxic activities on human monocyte cells, genotoxicity and anticancer properties among others. According to Kumari and Kotecha [241] toxicity assessment of herbal medicines involves various techniques, including *in vivo, in vitro* and cell line studies, as well as modern methods like microarray analysis. The BSLT and rodent acute toxicity experiments were the most common methods used to assess the toxicity of the 47 plants with available toxicological profiles (**Table 2**). Munodawafa et al. [100] reported that the BSLT and rodent acute toxicity tests were the most common methods used to assess the toxicity of herbal extracts. This is probably because the tests are relatively reliable, accurate, simple and cost-effective.

Munodawafa et al. [100] and Erhabor et al. [242] classified BSLT toxicity by determining the lethal concentration [LC50] of medicinal plant extracts that resulted in 50% mortality in brine shrimps, and the lethal dose [LD50] causing 50% mortality in mice/ rats for rodent acute toxicity studies. In the classification of BSLT toxicity, high toxicity was assigned to [LC50] values below 249 μg/mL, moderate toxicity encompassed the range of 250–499 μg/mL, concentrations between 500 and 999 μg/mL were regarded as weak or low in toxicity and values exceeding 1000 μg/mL were considered safe Bussmann et al. [243] and Erhabor et al. [242]. In the rodent acute toxicity tests

conducted by Malebo et al. [121], substances with [LD50] values below 50 mg/kg body weight were classified as highly toxic, those within the range of 50–300 mg/kg body weight were considered toxic, 300–1000 mg/kg body weight fell under the category of moderately toxic, 1000–2000 mg/kg body weight were mildly toxic and 2000 up to 5000 mg/kg body weight were classified as non-toxic. Among the 47 plants used for the treatment and management of bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe, 30 plants (63.8%) were deemed safe/non-toxic, 6 plants (12.8%) exhibited weak or low toxicity or mild toxicity, 5 plants (10.6%) showed moderate toxicity, 1 plant (2.1%) was classified as toxic and 5 plants (10.6%) were highly toxic (**Table 4**).

*In vitro* investigations play a crucial role in the initial screening of compounds; however, these studies do not yield insights regarding the bioavailability, toxicity and *in vivo* efficacy of the tested extract/compound. Consequently, it is imperative to conduct future *in vivo* studies utilizing appropriate animal models to comprehensively


#### **Table 4.**

*Toxicological evaluation of medicinal plants used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in Zimbabwe.*

comprehend the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the tested extract/compound. The majority of *in vivo* studies fail to provide evidence concerning the toxicity and mechanism of action of medicinal plants/compounds, thereby highlighting the neglected nature of this aspect. Researchers are strongly encouraged to assess the toxicity levels and pharmacological actions of the tested plant/compound.

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## **Author details**

Elliot Nyagumbo<sup>1</sup> \*, Trust Nyirenda<sup>2</sup> , Cephas Mawere<sup>3</sup> , Ian Mutasa<sup>4</sup> , Emmanuel Kademeteme<sup>4</sup> , Alfred M. Mutaramutswa<sup>1</sup> , Donald Kapanga<sup>1</sup> , Godwins Ngorima<sup>1</sup> , Leroy Nhari<sup>1</sup> , Fabian Maunganidze<sup>1</sup> , Michael Bhebhe<sup>1</sup> , William Pote<sup>4</sup> and Lucy Mabaya<sup>1</sup>


© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] World Health Organization. Schistosomiasis: Key Facts. Geneva: World Health Organization; April 17, 2019. Available from: https://www.who. int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sch istosomiasis; 2023 [Accessed: July 28, 2023]

[2] Deol AK, Fleming FM, Calvo-Urbano B, Walker M, Bucumi V, Gnandou I, et al. Schistosomiasis—Assessing progress toward the 2020 and 2025 global goals. New England Journal of Medicine. 2019;**381**(26):2519-2528

[3] World Health Organization. Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia). 2018 [Accessed: July 31, 2023]. Available from: https://www.who.int/health-topic s/schistosomiasis#tab=tab\_1

[4] World Health Organization. Schistosomiasis. 2021 [Accessed: May 31, 2021]. Available from: https://www.who. int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sch istosomiasis

[5] World Health Organization. Soiltransmitted helminth infections. 2020 [Accessed: May 31, 2021]. Available from: https://www.who.int/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/soil-tra nsmitted-helminth-infections

[6] Loukas A, Hotez PJ, Diemert D, Yazdanbakhsh M, McCarthy JS, Correa-Oliveira R, et al. Hookworm infection. Nature Reviews Disease Primers. 2016; **2**(1):1-8

[7] Montresor A, Engels D, Ramsan M, Foum A, Savioli L. Field test of the 'dose pole'for praziquantel in Zanzibar. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2002; **96**(3):323-324

[8] World Health Organization. Over 1.8 million children receive treatment for

bilharzia and intestinal worms. 2022. [Accessed: August 2, 2023]. Available from: https://www.afro.who.int/c ountries/zimbabwe/news/over-18-million-children-receive-treatmentbilharzia-and-intestinal-worms-0

[9] Midzi N, Mduluza T, Chimbari MJ, Tshuma C, Charimari L, Mhlanga G, et al. Distribution of schistosomiasis and soil transmitted helminthiasis in Zimbabwe: Towards a national plan of action for control and elimination. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2014;**8**(8):e3014

[10] Cock IE, Selesho MI, Van Vuuren SF. A review of the traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of selected parasite infections affecting humans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2018;**220**:250-264

[11] Moyo M, Aremu AO, Van Staden J. Medicinal plants: An invaluable, dwindling resource in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2015;**174**:595-606

[12] Chandra LD. Bio-diversity and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants. Advances in Plants & Agriculture Research. 2016;**5**(4):00186

[13] Gafna DJ, Obando JA, Kalwij JM, Dolos K, Schmidtlein S. Climate change impacts on the availability of antimalarial plants in Kenya. Climate Change Ecology. 2023;**5**:100070

[14] Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, PRISMA Group\*. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2009;**151**(4):264-269

[15] Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG. The medicinal and poisonous plants of

southern and eastern Africa being an account of their medicinal and other uses, chemical composition, pharmacological effects and toxicology in man and animal. In: The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa Being an Account of their Medicinal and Other Uses, Chemical Composition, Pharmacological Effects and Toxicology in Man and Animal. 2nd ed. South Afica: E & S. Livingstone; 1962

[16] Gelfland M, Mavi S, Drummond RB, Ndemera B. The Traditional Medical Practitioner in Zimbabwe: His Principles of Practice and Pharmacopoeia. Zimbabwe: Mambo Press; 1985

[17] Hutchings A. Zulu Medicinal Plants: An Inventory. South Africa: University of Natal Press; 1996

[18] Van Wyk BE. Oudtshoorn BV. Briza: Gericke N. Medicinal Plants of South Africa; 1997

[19] Viol DI. Screening of Traditional Medicinal Plants from Zimbabwe for Photochemistry, Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Antiviral and Toxicological Activities [doctoral dissertation] University of Zimbabwe

[20] Marekerah L. A Survey on the Biological Activities of Selected Plants Used to Manage Diarrhoea and Cancer in Vumba, Zimbabwe. Online: Afribary; 2015

[21] Ndamba J, Nyazema N, Makaza N, Anderson C, Kaondera KC. Traditional herbal remedies used for the treatment of urinary schistosomiasis in Zimbabwe. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1994; **42**(2):125-132

[22] Nyazema NZ, Ndamba J, Anderson C, Makaza N, Kaondera KC. The doctrine of signatures or similitudes: A comparison of the efficacy of

praziquantel and traditional herbal remedies used for the treatment of urinary schistosomiasis in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Pharmacognosy. 1994;**32**(2):142-148

[23] Mølgaard P, Nielsen SB, Rasmussen DE, Drummond RB, Makaza N, Andreassen J. Anthelmintic screening of Zimbabwean plants traditionally used against schistosomiasis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2001; **74**(3):257-264

[24] Maroyi A. Acacia karroo Hayne: Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important medicinal plant in southern Africa. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2017;**10**(4):351-360

[25] Mangoyi R, Chitemerere T, Chimponda T, Chirisa E, Mukanganyama S. Multiple antiinfective properties of selected plant species from Zimbabwe. Novel Plant Bioresources: Applications in Food, Medicine and Cosmetics. 2014;**3**:179-190

[26] Magwenzi R, Nyakunu C, Mukanganyama S. The effect of selected Combretum species from Zimbabwe on the growth and drug efflux systems of Mycobacterium aurum and mycobacterium smegmatis. Journal of Microbial & Biochemical Technology. 2014;**3**(003):1-7

[27] Rodgers CB, Verotta L. Chemistry and biological properties of the African Combretaceae. In: Hostettmann K, Chinyanganya M, Maillard M, Wolffender JL, editors. Chemistry, Biological and Pharmacological Properties of African Medicinal plants. Zimbabwe: University of Zimbabwe Publications; 1996. p. 121-141

[28] Mapfunde S, Sithole S, Mukanganyama S. In vitro toxicity determination of antifungal constituents from Combretum zeyheri. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2016;**16**:1-1

[29] Munodawafa T. Screening of some traditional medicinal plants from Zimbabwe for biological and antimicrobial activity. [Master's thesis]. University of Zimbabwe. 2012

[30] Maroyi A. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by the people in Nhema communal area, Zimbabwe. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011; **136**(2):347-354

[31] Maroyi A. Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-Central Zimbabwe: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2013;**9**(1):1-8

[32] Maroyi A. Phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review of Elephantorrhiza goetzei (harms) harms. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2017;**10**(2):107-113

[33] Chimponda T, Mukanganyama S. Antimycobacterial activities of selected medicinal plants from Zimbabwe against Mycobacterium aurum and Corynebacterium glutamicum. Tropical Biomedicine. 2010;**27**(3):595-610

[34] Maroyi A. Dicoma anomala sond.: A review of its botany, ethnomedicine, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2018;**11**:70-77

[35] Maroyi A. Lannea discolor: Its botany, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2018;**11**(10):49

[36] Maroyi A. Medicinal uses, biological and chemical properties of wild grape

(Lannea edulis): An indigenous fruit plant of tropical Africa. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2019;**12**(9):16-20

[37] Maroyi A. Local plant use and traditional conservation practices in Nhema communal area, Zimbabwe. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies-Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinarity. 2012;**7**(1):109-128

[38] Maroyi A. Sansevieria hyacinthoides (L.) Druce: A review of its botany, medicinal uses, phytochemistry, and biological activities. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2019;**12**(9):21-26

[39] Maroyi A. Nutraceutical and ethnopharmacological properties of Vangueria infausta subsp. infausta. Molecules. 2018;**23**(5):1089

[40] Tan A. Turkey: Country Report to the FAO International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resource. Leipzig, Germany; 1996. p. 46

[41] Rashmi A, Gill NS, Sukhwinder K, Jain AD. Phytopharmacological evaluation of ethanolic extract of the seeds of Abrus precatorius Linn. Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 2011; **6**(6):580-588

[42] Sunday RM, Ilesanmi OR, Obuotor EM. Acute and subacute toxicity of aqueous extract of Abrus precatorius seed in Wister rats. The Internet Journal of Pharmacology. 2013; **11**(1):1-7

[43] Ragasa CY, Lorena GS, Mandia EH, Raga DD, Shen CC. Chemical constituents of Abrus precatorius. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural Products. 2013;**1**(2):7-10

[44] Sheikh SG, Hedge K. Therapeutic uses of Abrus precatorius: A review.

International Journal of Pharma and Chemical Research. 2017:196-201

[45] Bhakta S, Das SK. The medicinal values of Abrus precatorius: A review study. Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2020;**3**(2):84-91

[46] Dahikar GK, Rathi B, Kamble SB. Critical review on pharmacological uses of Gunja (Abrus precatorious). Journal of Indian System of Medicine. 2020;**8**(3): 155-161

[47] Adedapo AA, Sofidiya MO, Masika PJ, Afolayan AJ. Antiinflammatory and analgesic activities of the aqueous extract of acacia Karroo stem bark in experimental animals. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2008;**103**(5):397-400

[48] Nielsen TR, Kuete V, Jäger AK, Meyer JJ, Lall N. Antimicrobial activity of selected south African medicinal plants. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012;**12**:1-6

[49] Njanje I, Bagla VP, Beseni BK, Mbazima V, Lebogo KW, Mampuru L, et al. Defatting of acetone leaf extract of Acacia karroo (Hayne) enhances its hypoglycaemic potential. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2017;**17**(1):1-1

[50] Chipiti T, Ibrahim MA, Koorbanally NA, Islam MS. In vitro antioxidant activities of leaf and root extracts of Albizia antunesiana harms. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica. 2013; **70**(6):1035-1043

[51] Koné WM, Atindehou KK, Dossahoua T, Betschart B. Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants used in northern Côte d'Ivoire against intestinal helminthiasis. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2005;**43**(1):72-78

[52] Hassan HS, Ahmadu AA, Hassan AS. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Asparagus africanus root extract. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines. 2008;**5**(1):27-31

[53] Kebede S, Afework M, Debella A, Ergete W, Makonnen E. Toxicological study of the butanol fractionated root extract of Asparagus Africanus Lam., on some blood parameter and histopathology of liver and kidney in mice. BMC Research Notes. 2016;**9**:1-9

[54] Matowa PR, Gundidza M, Gwanzura L, Nhachi CF. A survey of ethnomedicinal plants used to treat cancer by traditional medicine practitioners in Zimbabwe. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 2020;**20**(1):1-3

[55] Toua V, Ahmadou A, Dieudonne N. In vitro effect of Burkea Africana Burke, 1840 (Fabaceae-cesalpinoideae) ethanolic bark extract on the nematode Haemonchus contortus rudolphi, 1803. Indo American Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2017;**4**(12):4733

[56] Moura I, Duvane JA, Ribeiro N, Ribeiro-Barros I. Woody species from the Mozambican Miombo woodlands: A review on their ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological potential. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2018;**12**(2): 15-31

[57] Namadina MM, Aliyu BS, Haruna H, Sunusi U, Kamal RM, Balarabe S, et al. Pharmacognostic and acute toxicity study of Burkea Africana root. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 2020;**24**(4):565-573

[58] Woode E, Ansah C, Ainooson GK, Abotsi WM, Mensah AY, Duweijua M. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of the root extract of Carissa edulis (Forsk.) Vahl (Apocynaceae). Journal of Science and Technology (Ghana). 2007;**27**(3):5-15

[59] Harwansh RK, Garabadu D, Rahman MA, Garabadu PS. In vitro anthelmintic activity of different extracts of root of Carissa spinarum. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2010;**1**(10):84

[60] Ibrahim H, Williams FE, Salawu KM, Usman AM. Phytochemical screening and acute toxicity studies of crude ethanolic extract and flavonoid fraction of Carissa edulis leaves. Biokemistri. 2015;**27**(1):39-43

[61] Osseni R, Akoha S, Adjagba M, Azonbakin S, Lagnika L, Awede B, et al. In vivo toxicological assessment of the aqueous extracts of the leaves of Carissa edulis (Apocynaceae) in Wistar rats. European Journal of Medicinal Plants. 2016;**15**(1):1

[62] Kaunda JS, Zhang YJ. The genus Carissa: An ethnopharmacological, phytochemical and pharmacological review. Natural Products and Bioprospecting. 2017;**7**:181-199

[63] Parry O, Matambo C. Some pharmacological actions of aloe extracts and Cassia abbreviata on rats and mice. Central African Journal of Medicine. 1992;**38**(10):409-414

[64] Okeleye BI, Mkwetshana NT, Ndip RN. Evaluation of the antibacterial and antifungal potential of Peltophorum africanum: Toxicological effect on human chang liver cell line. The Scientific World Journal. 2013;**2013**:1-9

[65] Mongalo NI. Peltophorum africanum Sond [Mosetlha]: A review of its ethnomedicinal uses, toxicology, phytochemistry and pharmacological

activities. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2013;**7**(48):3484-3491

[66] Viol DI, Chagonda LS, Moyo SR, Mericli AH. Toxicity and antiviral activities of some medicinal plants used by traditional medical practitioners in Zimbabwe. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2016;**7**(11):1538

[67] Mujuru S. Flavonoid content, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity of cassia abbreviata pods [doctoral dissertation] BUSE

[68] Sobeh M, Esmat A, Petruk G, Abdelfattah MA, Dmirieh M, Monti DM, et al. Phenolic compounds from Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae) exhibit distinct antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities in vivo. Journal of Functional Foods. 2018;**41**: 223-231

[69] Conde P, Figueira R, Saraiva S, Catarino L, Romeiras M, Duarte MC. The botanic mission to Mozambique (1942-1948): Contributions to knowledge of the medicinal flora of Mozambique. História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos. 2014;**21**:539-585

[70] Saini H, Dwivedi J, Paliwal H, Kataria U, Sharma M. An ethnopharmacological evaluation of Catunaregam spinosa (thumb.) tirveng for antioxidant activity. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics. 2019;**9**(4-s): 280-284

[71] Al-Taweel AM, Perveen S, El-Shafae AM, Fawzy GA, Malik A, Afza N, et al. Bioactive phenolic amides from Celtis Africana. Molecules. 2012;**17**(3): 2675-2682

[72] Akhlaq A, Mehmood MH, Rehman A, Ashraf Z, Syed S, Bawany SA, et al. The prokinetic,

laxative, and antidiarrheal effects of Morus nigra: Possible muscarinic, Ca2+ channel blocking, and antimuscarinic mechanisms. Phytotherapy Research. 2016;**30**(8):1362-1376

[73] Tanko Y, Yaro AH, Isa AI, Yerima M, Saleh MI, Mohammed A. Toxicological and hypoglycaemic studies on the leaves of Cissampelos mucronata (Menispermaceae) on blood glucose levels of streptozotocin-induced diabetic Wistar rats. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research: Planta Medica. 2007;**1**(5):113-116

[74] Garba SH, Jacks TW, Onyeyili PA, Nggada HA. Testicular and andrological effects of the methanol extract of the root of Cissampelos mucronata (A. Rich) in rats. Journal of Biological Sciences and Bioconservation. 2014;**6**:18-30

[75] Maroyi A. A synthesis and review of medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich. (Menispermaceae). Journal of Pharmacy and Nutrition Sciences. 2020;**10**: 2013-2022

[76] Pathak AK, Kambhoja S, Dhruv S, Singh HP, Chand H. Anthelimintic activity of Cissus quadraangularis Linn stem. Pharmacology. 2010;**3**:15-18

[77] Buddhadev S, Buddhadev S. A review update on plant Cissus quadrangularis L. Punarnav. 2014;**2**:1

[78] Shukla R, Pathak A, Kambuja S, Sachan S, Mishra A, Kumar S. Pharmacognostical, phytochemical and pharmacological overview: Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Research. 2015;**3**(3):59

[79] Kavitha A, Babu AN, Nadendla RR. Acute toxicity study of Cissus

quadrangularis in wiss albino mice. Panacea Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2018;**7**(1): 748-756

[80] McGaw LJ, Rabe T, Sparg SG, Jäger AK, Eloff JN, Van Staden J. An investigation on the biological activity of Combretum species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2001;**75**(1):45-50

[81] de Morais Lima GR, de Sales IR, Caldas Filho MR, de Jesus NZ, de Sousa FH, Barbosa-Filho JM, et al. Bioactivities of the genus Combretum (Combretaceae): A review. Molecules. 2012;**17**(8):9142-9206

[82] Roy S, Gorai D, Acharya R, Roy R. Combretum (combretaceae): Biological activity and phytochemistry. American Journal of Pharm Research. 2014;**4**(11): 5266-5299

[83] Peloewetse E, Thebe MM, Ngila JC, Ekose GE. Inhibition of growth of some phytopathogenic and mycotoxigenic fungi by aqueous extracts of Combretum imberbe (Wawra) wood. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2008;**7**(16):2934-2939

[84] Masoko P, Picard J, Howard RL, Mampuru LJ, Eloff JN. In vivo antifungal effect of Combretum and Terminalia species extracts on cutaneous wound healing in immunosuppressed rats. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2010;**48**(6): 621-632

[85] Mangoyi R, Mafukidze W, Marobela K, Mukanganyama S. Antifungal activities and preliminary phytochemical investigation of Combretum species from Zimbabwe. Microbial and Biochemical Technology. 2012;**4**:037-044

[86] Ramalhet C, Lopes D, Mulhovo S, Rosário VE, Ferreira MJ. Antimalarial activity of some plants traditionally used in Mozambique. In: Workshop Plantas Medicinais e Fitoterapêuticas Nos Trópicos. IICT/CCCM 2008 Oct 29. Vol. 29. p. 30

[87] Salawu OA, Chindo BA, Tijani AY, Obidike IC, Salawu TA, Akingbasote AJ. Acute and sub-acute toxicological evaluation of the methanolic stem bark extract of Crossopteryx febrifuga in rats. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2009;**3**(12): 621-626

[88] Nnatuanya IN, Ohadoma SC. Pharmacological evaluation for antitrypanosomal activity of aqueous stem bark extract of Grossopteryx verbrifuga in rats. Journal of Applied Sciences. 2014;**17**(2): 11282-11291

[89] Bassoueka DJ, Taiwe Sotoing G, Nsonde Ntandou G, Ngo BE. Anticonvulsant activity of the decoction of Crossopteryx febrifuga in mice. International Journal of Sciences and Research. 2016;**3**:112-116

[90] Idris MM, Nenge HP. Antihyperglycaemic and antilipidaemic properties of ethanol stem bark extract of Crossopteryx febrifuga in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. ChemSearch Journal. 2019;**10**(2): 130-137

[91] Uchogu AP, Yahaya TA, Salawu OA, Adamu MA, Ameh FS. Anti-proliferative potential of some common vegetables and plants in Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 2020;**2**:2

[92] Grace OM, Prendergast HD, Jäger AK, Van Staden J, Van Wyk AE. Bark medicines used in traditional healthcare in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: An inventory. South African Journal of Botany. 2003;**69**(3):301-363 [93] Okokon JE, Ofodum KC, Ajibesin KK, Danladi B, Gamaniel KS. Pharmacological screening and evaluation of antiplasmodial activity of croton zambesicus against plasmodium berghei berghei infection in mice. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2005;**37**(4): 243

[94] Okokon JE, Nwafor PA, Noah K. Nephroprotective effect of croton zambesicus root extract against gentimicin-induced kidney injury. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2011;**4**(12):969-972

[95] Salatino A, Salatino ML, Negri G. Traditional uses, chemistry and pharmacology of croton species (Euphorbiaceae). Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society. 2007;**18**:11-33

[96] Okokon JE, Dar A, Choudhary MI. Immunomodulatory, cytotoxic and antileishmanial activity of phytoconstituents of croton zambesicus. Phytopharmacology Journal. 2013;**4**(1): 31-40

[97] Mfotie Njoya E, Eloff JN, McGaw LJ. Croton gratissimus leaf extracts inhibit cancer cell growth by inducing caspase 3/7 activation with additional antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2018;**18**(1):1-1

[98] Mahmoud AB, Danton O, Kaiser M, Khalid S, Hamburger M, Mäser P. HPLCbased activity profiling for antiprotozoal compounds in Croton gratissimus and Cuscuta hyalina. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2020;**11**:1246

[99] Safari VZ, Ngugi MP, Orinda J, Njagi EM. Antipyretic, antiinflammatory and analgesic activities of aqueous stem extract of Cynachum viminale (L.) in albino mice. Medicinal

and Aromatic Plants. 2016;**5**(236): 2167-0412

[100] Munodawafa T, Moyo S, Chipurura B, Chagonda L. Brine shrimp lethality bioassay of some selected Zimbabwean traditional medicinal plants. International Journal of Phytopharmacology. 2016; **7**(4):229-232

[101] Clarkson C, Maharaj VJ, Crouch NR, Grace OM, Pillay P, Matsabisa MG, et al. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised in South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2004;**92**(2-3):177-191

[102] Mulyangote LT. Ethnobotany and bioactivity of medicinal plants used to treat symptoms associated with gastrointestinal infections in Namibia [doctoral dissertation] University of Namibia

[103] Mokoka TA. The discovery and characterization of antiprotozoal compounds from South African medicinal plants by a HPLC-based activity profiling technique [doctoral dissertation]

[104] Mmbengwa V, Samie A, Gundidza M, Matikiti V, Ramalivhana NJ, Magwa ML. Biological activity and phytoconstituents of essential oil from fresh leaves of Eriosema englerianum. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2009;**8**(3):361-364

[105] Lawal OA, Ogunwande IA. Essential oils from the medicinal plants of Africa. In: Medicinal Plant Research in Africa. Nigeria: Elsevier; 2013. pp. 203-224

[106] Bunalema L, Kirimuhuzya C, Tabuti JR, Waako P, Magadula JJ, Otieno N, et al. The efficacy of the crude root bark extracts of Erythrina abyssinica on rifampicin resistant mycobacterium tuberculosis. African Health Sciences. 2011;**11**(4):587-593

[107] Lagu C, Kayanja FI. The in vitro antihelminthic efficacy of erythrina abyssinica extracts on Ascaridia galli. In: Insights from Veterinary Medicine. London: IntechOpen; 2013. pp. 269-281

[108] Chitopoa W, Muchachaa I, Mangoyi R. Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of Erythrina abyssinica leaf extract. Journal of Microbial & Biochemical Technology. 2019;**11**(2):43-46

[109] Macharia FK, Mwangi PW, Yenesew A, Bukachi F, Nyaga NM, Wafula DK. Hepatoprotective effects of erythrina abyssinica lam ex dc against non alcoholic fatty liver disease in Sprague dawley rats. BioRxiv. 2019: 577007

[110] McGaw LJ, Jäger AK, Van Staden J. Antibacterial, anthelmintic and antiamoebic activity in South African medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2000;**72**(1-2): 247-263

[111] Kama-Kama F, Midiwo J, Nganga J, Maina N, Schiek E, Omosa LK, et al. Selected ethno-medicinal plants from Kenya with in vitro activity against major African livestock pathogens belonging to the "mycoplasma mycoides cluster". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;**192**:524-534

[112] Woldemedhin B, Nedi T, Shibeshi W, Sisay M. Evaluation of the diuretic activity of the aqueous and 80% methanol extracts of the root of Euclea divinorum Hiern (Ebenaceae) in Sprague Dawley rats. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology. 2017;**202**: 114-121

[113] Al-Fatimi M. Antifungal activity of Euclea divinorum root and study of its ethnobotany and phytopharmacology. PRO. 2019;**7**(10):680

[114] Mangoyi R, Mukanganyama S. In vitro antifungal activities of selected medicinal plants from Zimbabwe against Candida albicans and Candida krusei. The African Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology. 2011;**5**(1):1-7

[115] Kota GC, Karthikeyan M, Kannan M. Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr.-A phytopharmacological review. International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences. 2012;**3**(1):78-81

[116] Obbo CJ, Makanga B, Mulholland DA, Coombes PH, Brun R. Antiprotozoal activity of Khaya anthotheca, (Welv.) CDC a plant used by chimpanzees for self-medication. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2013; **147**(1):220-223

[117] Sashidhara KV, Singh SP, Singh SV, Srivastava RK, Srivastava K, Saxena JK, et al. Isolation and identification of βhematin inhibitors from Flacourtia indica as promising antiplasmodial agents. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2013;**60**:497-502

[118] Hussain SM, Hussain MS, Ahmed A, Arif N. Characterization of isolated bioactive phytoconstituents from Flacourtia indica as potential phytopharmaceuticals-an in silico perspective. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2016;**5**(6):323-331

[119] Taderera T, Chagonda LS, Gomo E, Shai LJ. Inhibitory activity of αglucosidase and α-amylase by Annona

stenophylla root extract as mechanism for hypoglycaemic control of DM. International Journal of Pharmacy, Photon. 2015;**106**:436-444

[120] Khalid SA, Friedrichsen GM, Christensen SB, El Tahir A, Satti GM. Isolation and characterization of pristimerin as the antiplasmodial and antileishmanial agent of Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell. Archive for Organic Chemistry. 2007;**2007**(9): 129-134

[121] Malebo HM, Wiketye V, Katani SJ, Kitufe NA, Nyigo VA, Imeda CP, et al. In vivo antiplasmodial and toxicological effect of maytenus senegalensis traditionally used in the treatment of malaria in Tanzania. Malaria Journal. 2015;**14**:1-7

[122] Makgatho ME, Nxumalo W, Raphoko LA. Anti-mycobacterial, oxidative,-proliferative andinflammatory activities of dichloromethane leaf extracts of Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. South African Journal of Botany. 2018; **114**:217-222

[123] Lee SE, Kim MR, Kim JH, Takeoka GR, Kim TW, Park BS. Antimalarial activity of anthothecol derived from Khaya anthotheca (Meliaceae). Phytomedicine. 2008; **15**(6–7):533-535

[124] Suleiman MM, Bagla V, Naidoo V, Eloff JN. Evaluation of selected South African plant species for antioxidant, antiplatelet, and cytotoxic activity. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2010;**48**(6): 643-650

[125] Saadabi AM, Ayoub SM. Comparative bioactivity of Hydnora abyssinica A. Braun against different groups of fungi and bacteria. Journal of

Medicinal Plants Research. 2009:**3**(4): 262-265

[126] Osman HM. Anti-diarrhoeal activity of hydnora abyssinica aqueous root extract in rats [doctoral dissertation] Department of Preventive Medicine and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum

[127] Yagi S, Drouart N, Bourgaud F, Henry M, Chapleur Y, Laurain-Mattar D. Antioxidant and antiglycation properties of Hydnora johannis roots. South African Journal of Botany. 2013;**84**:124-127

[128] Al-Fatimi M, Ali NA, Kilian N, Franke K, Arnold N, Kuhnt C, et al. Ethnobotany, chemical constituents and biological activities of the flowers of Hydnora abyssinica A. Br. (Hydnoraceae). Die Pharmazie-An International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2016;**71**(4):222-226

[129] Moideen SV, Houghton PJ, Rock P, Croft SL, Aboagye-Nyame F. Activity of extracts and naphthoquinones from Kigelia pinnata against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Planta Medica. 1999; **65**(06):536-540

[130] Sharma UK, Sharma US, Singh A, Agarwal VI. Diuretic activity of Kigelia pinnata bark extract. Journal of Pharmacology Research. 2010;**1**(2):17-20

[131] Atawodi SE, Olowoniyi OD. Pharmacological and therapeutic activities of Kigelia Africana (Lam.) Benth. Annual Research & Review in Biology. 2015;**5**:1-7

[132] Chakuma N, Chipurura B, Muchuweti M, Chitindingu K, Bhebhe M, Chagonda L. Total phenolic content, free radical scavenging and antioxidant potential of Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl bark and root extracts. Journal of Biologically Active Products from Nature. 2015;**5**(1):71-77

[133] Aremu AO, Cheesman L, Finnie JF, Van Staden J. Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae): A review of its biological activities, conservation strategies and economic potential. South African Journal of Botany. 2011;**77**(4): 960-971

[134] Gakunga NJ, Sembajwe LF, John K, Patrick V. Phytochemical screening and antidiarrheal activity of ethanolic fresh root bark extract of Mondia whitei in albino rats. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Scientific Innovation. 2013;**2**(6):1-6

[135] Oketch-Rabah HA. Mondia whitei, a medicinal plant from Africa with aphrodisiac and antidepressant properties: A review. Journal of Dietary Supplements. 2012;**9**(4):272-284

[136] Joseph O, Kihdze TJ, Katusiime B, Imanirampa L,Waako P, Bajunirwe F, Ganafa AA. Toxicity of four herbs used in erectile dysfunction; Mondia whiteii, Cola acuminata, Urtica massaica, and Tarenna graveolensin male rats. African Journal of Pharmacy and Phamacology. 2015;**9**(30):756-763

[137] Imam MZ, Akter S. Musa paradisiaca L. and Musa sapientum L.: A phytochemical and pharmacological review. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. 2011;**30**:14-20

[138] Pereira A, Maraschin M. Banana (Musa spp) from peel to pulp: Ethnopharmacology, source of bioactive compounds and its relevance for human health. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2015;**160**:149-163

[139] Neuwirt N, Gregory L, Yoshihara E, Gorniak SL. Effect of Musa spp. extract on eggs and larvae of gastrointestinal

nematodes from infected sheep. Semina: Agricultural Sciences. 2015;**36**(6): 3751-3756

[140] Gregory L, Yoshihara E, Ribeiro BL, Silva LK, Marques EC, Meira EB, et al. Dried, ground banana plant leaves (Musa spp.) for the control of Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis infections in sheep. Parasitology Research. 2015;**114**:4545-4551

[141] Ugbogu EA, Ude VC, Elekwa I, Arunsi UO, Uche-Ikonne C, Nwakanma C. Toxicological profile of the aqueous-fermented extract of musa paradisiaca in rats. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine. 2018;**8**(6):478

[142] Moshi MJ, Cosam JC, Mbwambo ZH, Kapingu M, Nkunya MH. Testing beyond ethnomedical claims: Brine shrimp lethality of some Tanzanian plants. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2004;**42**(7): 547-551

[143] Nyaberi MO, Onyango CA, Mathooko FM, Maina JM, Makobe M, Mwaura F. Bioactive fractions in the stem charcoal of Ozoroa insignis used by the pastoral communities in West Pokot to preserve milk. Journal of Applied Biosciences. 2010;**26**: 1653-1658

[144] Haule EE, Moshi MJ, Nondo RS, Mwangomo DT, Mahunnah RL. A study of antimicrobial activity, acute toxicity and cytoprotective effect of a polyherbal extract in a rat ethanol-HCl gastric ulcer model. BMC Research Notes. 2012;**5**:1-9

[145] Nyaberi MO. Studies on the use of herbs to preserve meat and milk among the pastoral communities of West Pokot in Kenya [doctoral dissertation]

[146] Obiro WC, Zhang T, Jiang B. The nutraceutical role of the Phaseolus

vulgaris α-amylase inhibitor. British Journal of Nutrition. 2008;**100**(1):1-2

[147] Ríos-de Álvarez L, Jackson F, Greer AW, Grant G, Jackson E, Morrison AA, et al. Direct anthelmintic and immunostimulatory effects of oral dosing semi-purified phytohaemagglutinin lectin in sheep infected with Teladorsagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus colubriformis. Veterinary Parasitology. 2012;**187**(1–2): 267-274

[148] Saleem ZM, Ahmed S, Hasan MM. Phaseolus lunatus Linn: Botany, medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2016;**5**(11):87-93

[149] Ganesan K, Xu B. Polyphenol-rich dry common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and their health benefits. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017;**18**(11):2331

[150] Jawaid T, Kamal M, Kumar S. Antihypertensive effect of the alcoholic extract of seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris Linn.(Fabaceae) on high salt diet induced hypertension in male rats. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2017;**8**(7): 3092-3097

[151] Ramadhani UP, Chandra B, Rivai H. Overview of phytochemistry and pharmacology of chickpeas (Phaseolus vulgaris). World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2020;**9**(9): 442-461

[152] Kone WM, Atindehou KK, Kacou-N A, Dosso M. Evaluation of 17 medicinal plants from northern Côte d'Ivoire for their in vitro activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary

and Alternative Medicines. 2007;**4**(1): 17-22

[153] Ukwuani A, Ihebunna O, Samuel RM, Peni IJ. Acute oral toxicity and antiulcer activity of Piliostigma thonningii leaf fraction in albino rats. Bulletin of Environment, Pharmacology and Life Sciences. 2012;**2**: 41-45

[154] Afolayan M, Srivedavyasasri R, Asekun OT, Familoni OB, Orishadipe A, Zulfiqar F, et al. Phytochemical study of Piliostigma thonningii, a medicinal plant grown in Nigeria. Medicinal Chemistry Research. 2018;**27**:2325-2330

[155] Chipinga JV. Efficacy of Pterocarpus angolensis crude extracts against Candida krusei, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae and Escherichia coli. Malawi Medical Journal. 2018;**30**(4):219-224

[156] Sigidi MT, Anokwuru CP, Zininga T, Tshisikhawe MP, Shonhai A, Ramaite ID, et al. Comparative in vitro cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobiological activities of two indigenous Venda medicinal plants. Translational Medicine Communications. 2016;**1**:1-7

[157] Zininga T, Anokwuru CP, Sigidi MT, Tshisikhawe MP, Ramaite II, Traoré AN, et al. Extracts obtained from Pterocarpus angolensis DC and Ziziphus mucronata exhibit antiplasmodial activity and inhibit heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) function. Molecules. 2017; **22**(8):1224

[158] Sadashiv PS. Acute toxicity study for Ricinus communis. Der Pharmacia Lettre. 2011;**3**(5):132-137

[159] Franke H, Scholl R, Aigner A. Ricin and Ricinus communis in pharmacology

and toxicology-from ancient use and "papyrus Ebers" to modern perspectives and "poisonous plant of the year 2018". Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology. 2019;**392**:1181-1208

[160] Khan, Marwat S, Khan EA, Baloch MS, Sadiq M, Ullah I, Javaria S, et al. Ricinus cmmunis: Ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological activities. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2017;**30**(5):1815-1827

[161] Fomum WS, Nsahlai VI. In vitro evaluation of anthelmintic efficacy of some plant species possessing proteinases and/or other nitroge-nous compounds in small ruminants. Journal of Alternative Complementary & Integrative Medicine. 2017;**3**:038

[162] Aliero AA, Jimoh FO, Afolayan AJ. Antioxidant and antibacterial properties of Sansevieria hyacinthoides. International Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. 2008;**2**(3):103

[163] Sultana N, Rahman MM, Ahmed S, Akter S, Haque MM, Parveen S, et al. Antimicrobial compounds from the Rihzomes of Sansevieria hyacinthoides. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. 2011;**46**(3):329-332

[164] Akhalwaya S, Van Vuuren S, Patel M. An in vitro investigation of indigenous south African medicinal plants used to treat oral infections. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2018; **210**:359-371

[165] Ojewole JA, Mawoza T, Chiwororo WD, Owira PM. Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst. ['Marula'] (Anacardiaceae): A review of its phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology and its ethnomedicinal uses. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to

Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives. 2010;**24**(5):633-639

[166] Auwal SM, Atiku MK, Wudil AM, Sule MS. Phytochemical composition and acute toxicity evaluation of aqueous root bark extract of Securidaca longipedunculata (Linn). Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. 2012;**5**(2): 67-72

[167] Jain SC, Jain R, Sharma RA, Capasso F. Pharmacological investigation of Cassia italica. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1997;**58**(2): 135-142

[168] Ahangarpour A, Oroujan AA. The effects of Cassia italica leaves aqueous extract on non-pregnant uterus contraction in rats. Iranian Journal of Reproductive Medicine. 2010;**8**(4): 179-184

[169] Qamar F, Afroz S, Feroz Z, Siddiqui S, Ara A. Evaluation of hypoglycemic effect of Cassia italica. Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences. 2011;**7**(1)

[170] Dabai YU, Kawo AH, Aliyu RM. Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of the leaf and root extracts of Senna italica. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2012; **6**(12):914-918

[171] Chitra A, Senthilkumar N, Ashraf AM. Antioxidant and antitumor activities on catunaregumspinosa. International Journal of Research in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics. 2013;**2**:464-470

[172] Nadro MS, Onoagbe IO. Effects of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Cassia italica leaf in normal rats. American Journal of Research Communication. 2014;**2**(8):72-80

[173] Bayala B, Zohoncon TM, Djigma FW, Nadembega C, Baron S, Lobaccaro JM, et al. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities on prostate and cervical cultured cancer cells of five medicinal plant extracts from Burkina Faso. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences. 2020;**14**(3): 652-663

[174] Mahmuda A, Sani M, Adamu T, Sanda A, Gobir LG. In vivo anthelminthic activity of Ethanolic leaf extract of Senna italica on rats with Hymenolepis diminuta infection. Advances in Research. 2020; **21**(8):18-27

[175] Yongwa G, Ngnoda BF, Ndjonka D, Saotoing P. In vitro anthelmintic activity of aqueous and ethanolic extract of Senna italica (Caesalpiniaceae) on threestages of Haemonchus contortus. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2020;**32**(3):25-34

[176] Tshikalange TE, Meyer JJ, Hussein AA. Antimicrobial activity, toxicity and the isolation of a bioactive compound from plants used to treat sexually transmitted diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2005;**96**(3): 515-519

[177] Aremu AO, Ndhlala AR, Fawole OA, Light ME, Finnie JF, Van Staden J. In vitro pharmacological evaluation and phenolic content of ten south African medicinal plants used as anthelmintics. South African Journal of Botany. 2010;**76**(3):558-566

[178] Umar AB. Phytochemical evaluation, toxicity study and graded dose response of the methanol crude extract of Cassia singueana (del.) on experimental animals. International Journal of Academic Research. 2019; **1**(4):36-50

[179] Adzu B, Abbah J, Vongtau H, Gamaniel K. Studies on the use of Cassia singueana in malaria ethnopharmacy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2003; **88**(2-3):261-267

[180] Mandal K, Dobhal Y, Joshi BC. An updated review on Solanum viarum Dunal. Recent Trends in Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2019;**2**:1-6

[181] Indhumathi T, Mohandass S. Efficacy of ethanolic extract of Solanum incanum fruit extract for its antimicrobial activity. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied sciences. 2014;**3**(6):939-949

[182] Mwonjoria JK, Ngeranwa JJ, Githinji CG, Kahiga T, Kariuki HN, Waweru FN. Suppression of nociception by Solanum incanum (Lin.) Diclomethane root extract is associated anti-inflammatory activity. Suppression of nociception by Solanum incanum (Lin.) The Journal of Phytopharmacology. 2014;**3** (3):156-162

[183] Dakone D, Guadie A. A review on ethnomedicinal use, nutritional value, phytochemistry and pharmacological characteristics of Solanum incanum L. An important medicinal plant. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research. 2016;**5**(6):350-354

[184] Anwar S. Pharmacological investigation of solanum incanum against P. Falciparum, L. infantum, T. Cruzi and T. Brucei: A role of antioxidant effect and clinical overview. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal. 2018;**11**(2): 653-660

[185] Wang RW, Rebhun LI, Kupchan SM. Antimitotic and antitubulin activity of the tumor inhibitor steganacin. Cancer Research. 1977;**37**(9):3071-3079

[186] Demoz MS, Gachoki KP, Mungai KJ, Negusse BG. GC-MS analysis of the essential oil and methanol extract of the seeds of steganotaenia araliacea hochst. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2014;**5**(26): 3752

[187] Mailu JK, Nguta JM, Mbaria JM, Okumu MO. Medicinal plants used in managing diseases of the respiratory system among the Luo community: An appraisal of Kisumu East Sub-County, Kenya. Chinese Medicine. 2020; **15**:1-27

[188] Sunghwa F, Koketsu M. Phenolic and bis-iridoid glycosides from Strychnos cocculoides. Natural Product Research. 2009;**23**(15): 1408-1415

[189] Ngadze RT, Verkerk R, Nyanga LK, Fogliano V, Ferracane R, Troise AD, et al. Effect of heat and pectinase maceration on phenolic compounds and physicochemical quality of Strychnos cocculoides juice. PLoS One. 2018;**13**(8): e0202415

[190] Moshi MJ, Mbwambo ZH. Some pharmacological properties of extracts of Terminalia sericea roots. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2005;**97**(1):43-47

[191] Lembede BW. Effect of dietary Terminalia sericea aqueous leaf extracts on high-fructose diet fed growing Wistar rats [doctoral dissertation] University of Witwatersrand

[192] Mongalo NI, McGaw LJ, Segapelo TV, Finnie JF, Van Staden J. Ethnobotany, phytochemistry, toxicology and pharmacological properties of Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC.(Combretaceae)–A review. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016; **194**:789-802

[193] Parkar H. Wound healing potential of Terminalia sericea [doctoral dissertation] University of Pretoria

[194] Beigi M, Haghani E, Alizadeh A, Samani ZN. The pharmacological properties of several species of Terminalia in the world. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2018;**9**(10):4079-4088

[195] Nair AA, Anjum N, Tripathi YC. A review on ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, and pharmacological significance of Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC. Journal of Pharmacy Research. 2018;**12**(3):420

[196] Sobeh M, Mahmoud MF, Hasan RA, Abdelfattah MA, Osman S, Rashid HO, et al. Chemical composition, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities of methanol extracts from leaves of Terminalia bellirica and Terminalia sericea (Combretaceae). PeerJ. 2019;**7**: e6322

[197] Masoko P, Eloff JN. Screening of twenty-four south African Combretum and six Terminalia species (Combretaceae) for antioxidant activities. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines. 2007;**4**(2):231-239

[198] Liu M, Katerere DR, Gray AI, Seidel V. Phytochemical and antifungal studies on Terminalia mollis and Terminalia brachystemma. Fitoterapia. 2009;**80**(6):369-373

[199] Rajkumar M, Chandra R, Asres K, Veeresham C. Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lam.-A comprehensive review. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2008;**2**(4):386

[200] Madhava MS, Srivastava S, Sharma S. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the villagers of district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India. International Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2012;**2**(3):417-421

[201] Orwa JA, Ngeny L, Mwikwabe NM, Ondicho J, Jondiko IJ. Antimalarial and safety evaluation of extracts from Toddalia asiatica (L). Lam.(Rutaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2013; **145**(2):587-590

[202] Nattudurai G, Gopinath R, Kavimani S, Jayakumararaj R. Antimicrobial activity of Toddalia asiatica against some human pathogens. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2014;**6**(3): 378-381

[203] Shan XF, Kang YH, Bian Y, Gao YH, Wang WL, Qian AD. Isolation of active compounds from methanol extracts of Toddalia asiatica against Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Veterinary Parasitology. 2014;**199**(3-4):250-254

[204] Kimang'a A, Gikunju J, Kariuki D, Ogutu M. Safety and analgesic properties of ethanolic extracts of Toddalia Asiatica (L) Lam.(Rutaceae) used for central and peripheral pain management among the east African ethnic communities. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences. 2016;**26**(1):55-66

[205] Zhu Y, Chen Y, Yao X, Zhang X, Yang F, Fang X. Chemical constituents from Toddalia asiatica. Natural Product Research & Development. 2019;**31**(2): 225-230

[206] Omara T. Plants used in antivenom therapy in rural Kenya: Ethnobotany and future perspectives. Journal of Toxicology. 2020;**2020**:1-9

[207] Germanò MP, D'Angelo V, Biasini T, Sanogo R, De Pasquale R, Catania S. Evaluation of the antioxidant

properties and bioavailability of free and bound phenolic acids from Trichilia emetica Vahl. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2006;**105**(3): 368-373

[208] Komane BM, Olivier EI, Viljoen AM. Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae)–A review of traditional uses, biological activities and phytochemistry. Phytochemistry Letters. 2011;**4**(1):1-9

[209] Prisca DA, Félix YH, Gnahoué Kouadio AE, David NJ, Joseph DA. Phytochemical and Acute Toxicity Study of Trichilia Emetica (Meliaceaes) bark of trunk Extract in Albinos Rats. American Journal of Bio-pharmacology Biochemistry and Life Sciences. 2015;**4** (1):1-8

[210] Konaté K, Yomalan K, Sytar O, Zerbo P, Brestic M, Patrick VD, et al. Free radicals scavenging capacity, antidiabetic and antihypertensive activities of flavonoid-rich fractions from leaves of Trichilia emetica and Opilia amentacea in an animal model of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2014;**2014**:1-13

[211] Konaté K, Yomalan K, Sytar O, Brestic M. Antidiarrheal and antimicrobial profiles extracts of the leaves from Trichilia emetica Vahl. (Meliaceae). Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2015;**5**(3):242-248

[212] Rukayyah SS, Jigam AA, Aisha MT. In vivo antiplasmodial and effects of subchronic administration of Trichilia emetica leaves extracts. International Journal of Natural Sciences Research. 2015;**3**(2):1-5

[213] Lindsey K, Jäger AK, Raidoo DM, van Staden J. Screening of plants used by southern African traditional healers in

the treatment of dysmenorrhoea for prostaglandin-synthesis inhibitors and uterine relaxing activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1998;**64**(1):9-14

[214] de Boer HJ, Kool A, Broberg A, Mziray WR, Hedberg I, Levenfors JJ. Anti-fungal and anti-bacterial activity of some herbal remedies from Tanzania. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2005; **96**(3):461-469

[215] Mbukwa E, Chacha M, Majinda RR. Phytochemical constituents of Vangueria infausta: Their radical scavenging and antimicrobial activities. ARKIVOC. 2007;**9**:104-112

[216] Bapela MJ, Kaiser M, Meyer JJ. Antileishmanial activity of selected South African plant species. South African Journal of Botany. 2017;**108**: 342-345

[217] Gwatidzo L, Chowe L, Musekiwa C, Mukaratirwa-Muchanyereyi N. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Vangueria infausta: An edible wild fruit from Zimbabwe. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2018;**12**(13):168-175

[218] Alara OR, Abdurahman NH, Mudalip SK, Olalere OA. Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Vernonia amygdalina: A review. Journal of Chemical Engineering and Industrial Biotechnology. 2017;**2**(1):80-96

[219] Tijjani MA, Mohammed GT, Alkali YT, Adamu TB, Abdurahaman FI. Phytochemical analysis, analgesic and antipyretic properties of ethanolic leaf extract of Vernonia amygdalina Del. Journal of Herbmed Pharmacology. 2017;**6**(3):95-99

[220] Danladi S, Hassan MA, Masa'ud IA, Ibrahim UI. Vernonia amygdalina Del: A mini review. Research Journal of

Pharmacy and Technology. 2018;**11**(9): 4187-4190

[221] Kapravelou G, Martínez R, Andrade AM, Lopez Chaves C, López-Jurado M, Aranda P, et al. Improvement of the antioxidant and hypolipidaemic effects of cowpea flours (Vigna unguiculata) by fermentation: Results of in vitro and in vivo experiments. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2015;**95**(6):1207-1216

[222] Sayeed VK, Satish S, Kumar A, Hegde K. Pharmacological activities of Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp: A review. International Journal of Pharma and Chemical Research. 2017; **3**(1):44-49

[223] Akinpelu LA, Adegbuyi TA, Agboola SS, Olaonipekun JK, Olawuni IJ, Adegoke AM, et al. Antidepressant activity and mechanism of aqueous extract of vigna unguiculata ssp. Dekindtiana (L.) walp dried aerial part in mice. International Journal of Neuroscience and Behavioral Science. 2017;**5**(1):7-18

[224] Abdoulaye T, Constant AA, Faustin KA, Claude KA, Etienne EK, Alette ZE, et al. Antibacterial activity and acute toxicity studies of culinary leaves from Corchorus olitorius L., Vigna unguiculata L. Walp and Hibiscus sabdariffa L. used in the north of cote d'Ivoire. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Biological and Chemical Sciences. 2018;**9**(5):485-494

[225] Zaheer M, Ahmed S, Hassan MM. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (Papilionaceae): A review of medicinal uses, Phytochemistry and pharmacology. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2020;**9**(1):1149-1152

[226] Maroyi A. Ximenia caffra Sond. (Ximeniaceae) in sub-Saharan Africa: A synthesis and review of its medicinal potential. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;**184**:81-100

[227] Mulaudzi RB, Ndhlala AR, Kulkarni MG, Finnie JF, Van Staden J. Antimicrobial properties and phenolic contents of medicinal plants used by the Venda people for conditions related to venereal diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011;**135**(2): 330-337

[228] Mboweni HF. Antimicrobial, cytotoxic and prelimenary phytochemical analysis of four medicinal plants and their formulation [doctoral dissertation]

[229] Nair JJ, Mulaudzi RB, Chukwujekwu JC, Van Heerden FR, Van Staden J. Antigonococcal activity of Ximenia caffra Sond.(Olacaceae) and identification of the active principle. South African Journal of Botany. 2013; **86**:111-115

[230] Olila D, Opuda-Asibo J. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of extracts of Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Warburgia ugandensis, Ugandan medicinal plants. African Health Sciences. 2001;**1**(2):66-72

[231] Nalule AS, Mbaria JM, Kimenju JW. In vitro anthelmintic potential and phytochemical composition of ethanolic and aqueous crude extracts of Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl

[232] Bbosa GS, Mwebaza N, Lubega A, Musisi N, Kyegombe DB, Ntale M. Antiplasmodial activity of leaf extracts of Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. British Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2014;**4**(6):705

[233] Ngugi DN. Study of antiplasmodial activity, cytotoxicity and acute toxicity of Zanthoxylum chalybeum ENGL, and

Vernonia lasiopus o. Hoffman [doctoral dissertation], University of Nairobi; 2014

[234] Agwaya M, Nandutu A, Vuzi P. Protective effects of Zanthoxylum chalybeum in diabetes-induced myocardial dysfunction in rats. European Journal of Medicinal Plants. 2016;**12**(1):1

[235] Nantongo JS, Odoi JB, Abigaba G, Gwali S. Variability of phenolic and alkaloid content in different plant parts of Carissa edulis Vahl and Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. BMC Research Notes. 2018;**11**(1):1-5

[236] Waterman C, Smith RA, Pontiggia L, DerMarderosian A. Anthelmintic screening of sub-Saharan African plants used in traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2010;**127**(3): 755-759

[237] Mongalo NI, Mashele SS, Makhafola TJ. Ziziphus mucronata Willd. (Rhamnaceae): It's botany, toxicity, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities. Heliyon. 2020;**6**(4):1-20

[238] Koenen EV. Medicinal, Poisonous and Edible Plants in Namibia. Namibia: Klaus Hess Verlag; 1996

[239] Mutsaka-Makuvaza MJ, Matsena-Zingoni Z, Katsidzira A, Tshuma C, Chin'ombe N, Zhou XN, et al. Urogenital schistosomiasis and risk factors of infection in mothers and preschool children in an endemic district in Zimbabwe. Parasites & Vectors. 2019; **12**:1-5

[240] Silva C, Vareda J, Sousa A, Perestrelo R. Forensic attribution profiling of food using liquid chromatography–Mass spectrometry. In: Food Toxicology and Forensics. Portugal: Elsevier Academic Press; 2021. pp. 97-121

[241] Kumari R, Kotecha M. A review on the standardization of herbal medicines. International Journal of Pharma Sciences and Research. 2016;**7**(2):97-106

[242] Erhabor JO, Komakech R, Kang Y, Tang M, Matsabisa MG. Ethnopharmacological importance and medical applications of Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw. (Myrothamnaceae)- A review. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2020;**252**:112576

[243] Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Nilsen B, Parris B, et al. Toxicity of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine in Northern Peru. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011; **137**(1):121-140
