Preface

Many improvements have occurred throughout history because of production and consumption activities. Industry 1.0 led to many social, economic, and technological improvements, but it has also led to problems that come with mass production. For example, increased production and consumption has led to increased waste. Humans, who have up until now survived in this type of climate, are now finding that life is becoming unsustainable. The textile industry, which has had an important place in Industry 1.0, is one of the industries responsible for sustainability problems.

This book presents different approaches and proposes solutions to sustainability issues in the textile industry, focusing on economic and social improvements and environmental protection.

Chapter 1 introduces the topic and discusses the evolution of sustainability over time.

Chapter 2 discusses current improvements and trends in sustainable fashion by focusing on technology. The chapter highlights the relationship between technological improvements and fast fashion and their environmental consequences.

Chapter 3 examines the chemicals used for sustainable textile products. It presents a green chemistry study in which polyacrylate oligomers were synthesized by microwave and compared with products synthesized by thermal method. Then, these thermally prepared products were presented to the textile industry as binders produced via an environmentally friendly process.

Chapter 4 classifies and discusses surface modification techniques and proposes solutions to environmental problems caused by textile finishing.

Chapter 5 includes a case study of textile waste management in India. It shows how India is reducing textile waste and promoting the circular economy through action and policy initiatives such as strengthening the textile recycling infrastructure and raising awareness for sustainability.

Finally, Chapter 6 discusses the aspects of sustainable fashion education from a broad perspective. The chapter highlights the importance of sustainable design and presents a framework for sustainable fashion education.

This book examines the relationships between sustainability and textiles in terms of environmental, social, and economic development. We thank all the contributing authors for their excellent chapters.

#### **Dr. Ayşegül Körlü and Seher Kanat**

Engineering Faculty, Textile Engineering Department, Ege University, Bornova-İzmir, Türkiye

#### **Dr. Muhammed İbrahim Bahtiyari**

Engineering Faculty, Textile Engineering Department, Erciyes University, Melikgazi-Kayseri, Türkiye

**1**

**Chapter 1**

**1. Introduction**

world with digitalization.

**2. Sustainability in textile industry**

Introductory Chapter:

Sustainability from Past to Future

*Ayşegül Körlü, Seher Kanat and Muhammed İbrahim Bahtiyari*

'Sustainability' has become very popular in daily life and scientific publications.

The conversion of the world economy from agricultural- to industrial-based economies has occurred much faster than the adaptation of societies and natural habitats. These ongoing conversions have triggered different ideas and discourses behind them. These discourses and ideas have shaped world politics and also affected socioeconomic life. One term that can be evaluated in this context is 'sustainability'. Sustainability originates from the 1987 - Brundtland Report as a policy concept [3]. Making a simple definition of the suitability term is complex, and it is possible to define it from multiple perspectives [4]. However, sustainable development was defined in the Brundtland Report 1987. It can be defined semantically and briefly as meeting today's needs without risking future generations' ability to fulfill their own [5]. Then, in 2015, the UN agreed on the 2030 Agenda with the goals and targets for sustainable development to reach sustainable development worldwide regarding social, economic and environmental aspects [6]. All three social, economic and environmental concepts come to life in the textile industry. In other words, the textile sector is a sector that has a social dimension through employment and is, of course, economically important due to its essential place in world trade. Due to the environmental burdens arising from

Sustainability is not a concept terminologically. The definition of sustainability is identifying and connecting what needs to last. Sustainability is a 'life principle' and an 'ethical principle'. It is characterized by transparency, participation and an enlightened, process-related (holistic) perspective [1]. Indeed, sustainability is not a new term and has a long history. Pastoralist, hunting and gathering and agricultural societies also affected the living and working areas. However, in a world where industrial production, nuclear waste, plastics, etc., were not available in the past, pollution and damage to nature are less serious than in the present [2]. First, sustainability was introduced as a principle in the eighteenth century. Saxony mining manager Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–1714) wrote the first documented idea of sustainability for the German forestry industry [1]. It caused problems that can be examined under sustainability because of manufacturing with machines during Industry 1.0. In Industry 2.0, production started with electrical energy, and automobiles entered our lives. In Industry 3.0, electronics were used in production, and humanity encountered a new

#### **Chapter 1**

## Introductory Chapter: Sustainability from Past to Future

*Ayşegül Körlü, Seher Kanat and Muhammed İbrahim Bahtiyari*

#### **1. Introduction**

'Sustainability' has become very popular in daily life and scientific publications. Sustainability is not a concept terminologically. The definition of sustainability is identifying and connecting what needs to last. Sustainability is a 'life principle' and an 'ethical principle'. It is characterized by transparency, participation and an enlightened, process-related (holistic) perspective [1]. Indeed, sustainability is not a new term and has a long history. Pastoralist, hunting and gathering and agricultural societies also affected the living and working areas. However, in a world where industrial production, nuclear waste, plastics, etc., were not available in the past, pollution and damage to nature are less serious than in the present [2]. First, sustainability was introduced as a principle in the eighteenth century. Saxony mining manager Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–1714) wrote the first documented idea of sustainability for the German forestry industry [1]. It caused problems that can be examined under sustainability because of manufacturing with machines during Industry 1.0. In Industry 2.0, production started with electrical energy, and automobiles entered our lives. In Industry 3.0, electronics were used in production, and humanity encountered a new world with digitalization.

#### **2. Sustainability in textile industry**

The conversion of the world economy from agricultural- to industrial-based economies has occurred much faster than the adaptation of societies and natural habitats. These ongoing conversions have triggered different ideas and discourses behind them. These discourses and ideas have shaped world politics and also affected socioeconomic life. One term that can be evaluated in this context is 'sustainability'. Sustainability originates from the 1987 - Brundtland Report as a policy concept [3]. Making a simple definition of the suitability term is complex, and it is possible to define it from multiple perspectives [4]. However, sustainable development was defined in the Brundtland Report 1987. It can be defined semantically and briefly as meeting today's needs without risking future generations' ability to fulfill their own [5]. Then, in 2015, the UN agreed on the 2030 Agenda with the goals and targets for sustainable development to reach sustainable development worldwide regarding social, economic and environmental aspects [6]. All three social, economic and environmental concepts come to life in the textile industry. In other words, the textile sector is a sector that has a social dimension through employment and is, of course, economically important due to its essential place in world trade. Due to the environmental burdens arising from

production processes and use, it also has environmental aspects. Within the global consumer goods industry, the textile industry is the second largest one, following the food industry [7] and has a significant place in world trade [8]. The size of the global textile market reached \$ 961.5 billion in 2019 [9] and is foreseen to be roughly \$1.4 trillion by 2028 [10, 11]. It is a global industry that employs tens of millions of people worldwide [8] and more than 300 million workers are employed in the textile value chain [12]. So, the textile industry has a vital place in terms of creating employment in many different countries [12–16]. Although the textile industry contributes significantly to economic growth, it is also known as the production sector that causes the most significant pollution [17]. It can be listed as second most polluting industry in the world. It is placed just after the oil industry, which is responsible for greenhouse gas emissions (nearly 1.2 billion tons). This value is higher than the total from international flights and maritime shipping [18, 19]. It is expected to be responsible for 25% of the world's carbon budget in 2050 [18]. Additionally, this industry is the second highest water consumer in the world, causing 20% of global wastewater [18, 20]. Approximately 100–150 L of water are consumed to process 1 kg of textile material [21]. The world's annual water consumption for textile production (including fiber production) is around 93 billion cubic meters [22, 23]. The water released after the processes mainly contains much chemical waste. It is known that approximately 2000 varied chemicals can be used in the textile industry [24]. So, another critical issue is using chemicals during the finishing processes of textiles. It is estimated that more than 35% of chemicals released into the environment result from different textile processes [25, 26].

Moreover, solid waste is another term related to textile production and consumption, and it can be of huge amounts. For example, the EU textile industry causes waste expected to be 16 million tons/year [27]. Post-consumer textile waste in the USA is projected to be 10.5 million tons/year [28]. These textile-related issues will remain on the public agenda by considering the increase in textile consumption. Annual textile consumption increased from 7 to 13 kg per capita [29], and it is foreseen to be about 17.5 kg/person by 2030 [28]. Moreover, the growth of the fast fashion business model 40 years ago and the shift of the textile sector to developing countries made this industry one of the world's most unsustainable industries [30]. For this reason, one of the areas where the concept of sustainability first came to life and was questioned is the textile industry. At this point, the textile industry's structure, which spreads worldwide and includes social, economic and ecological issues, is of great importance. On the other hand, applying a single sustainability policy to the textile industry is very difficult due to its structure. Because the sector consists of very different subsectors that need very different raw materials and inputs and cause wastes of different characteristics, this multi-dimensional structure makes it a priority to carry out sustainability-related studies in the textile sector and areas related to this sector in terms of sustainable development in general.

The environmental effects of the clothing sector are incredibly high at the both production and consumption stages. Excessive use of natural sources during production and the waste and pollution that occur during consumption harm the environment. A garment pollutes the environment during its product life cycle by causing harmful chemicals and pollutants to be released into water and air. Besides, excessive energy is consumed during a garment's production and care. For example, 400 megajoules of energy and 1500 gallons of water are consumed, and 71 pounds of carbon dioxide are released to produce a pair of jeans. The energy consumption during the washing (82%) is the highest energy consumption within the life cycle of a

#### *Introductory Chapter: Sustainability from Past to Future DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114161*

garment [31]. The clothing sector is second in the world, which pollutes the environment mostly and constitutes 10% of global carbon emissions [31, 32].

Particularly fast fashion products, which can be easily found at affordable prices, have caused an alteration in consumers' clothing consumption and disposal habits. Fast fashion has enormously increased clothing consumption by selling excessive amounts of garments at affordable prices [33]. Fast fashion is a catalyst for increasing garment consumption, and it is a fashion trend in which excessive amounts of garments are thrown away before they wear off [34]. Consumers think fast fashion garments are disposable due to low prices [35]. Therefore, due to the increase in the use of fast fashion products, the waste problem has become a global issue. Global waste from the fashion industry is estimated to reach 148 million tonnes, with a 60% increase from 2015 to 2030. The garments degraded in landfills cause negative environmental effects due to their contributions to greenhouse gas emissions, soil erosion and underground water pollution [36].

Therefore, the sustainability issues in the clothing sector can be summarized as negative working conditions, short and seasonal product life cycles, high product diversity, low product predictability, a demand which is affected by various factors, impulse buying behaviors of consumers, different consumer choices and emotional factors that affect the consumers' buying decisions [37, 38]. Moreover, most of the workers within the fashion industry are women and young workers whose education levels are very low. These workers are vulnerable to long working hours, low wages and abuse [39]. Issues like long working hours due to time pressure, unhealthy working conditions, unpaid or delayed wages, and lives far away from families living in rural areas contradict the shiny face of the fast fashion industry [40].

At this point, organic fiber use, reuse of materials, recycling of materials, clean technology use, product certificates, green/sustainable processes, green/sustainable design, green/sustainable production, green/sustainable logistics, fair trade, internal and external supervision are some examples for providing sustainability in clothing sector [41].

In this context, the studies within the literature related to clothing sector focus on sustainable clothing consumption and buying behaviors and determining the reasons of these behaviors, the relations between the sustainability and brand concepts in clothing sector, sustainability activities and strategies of fast fashion companies, brands and retailers and sustainable supply chain management of clothing brands and enterprises [31, 39, 42–48].

#### **3. Conclusion**

The social, political and technological developments experienced during the above-mentioned historical process have significantly affected textile and apparel sustainability.

On the other hand, the Covid period has shown by experience how much damage it has caused to humanity, nature and the environment and how difficult it has become to sustain life. The cessation of operations due to COVID-19 has reduced transportation activities, resulting in less energy consumption and lower demand for fossil fuels. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and ESA (European Space Agency) have published new evidence showing that environmental quality is improved and NO2 emissions are reduced by up to 30% [49].

During the COVID-19 period, it has been observed that there is inequality between people in topics such as education, poverty and health, which are included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SGHs). Today, when every organization and every individual can say something about sustainability, the fact that these 17 goals mentioned above have still not been achieved is an important issue that needs to be considered. Unfortunately, social, economic and environmental problems will not be solved when sustainability is not a life principle but a slogan or marketing tactic.

If human beings want to achieve sustainability, they must first see that they are a part of nature and should not engage in activities despite nature or insist on humancentred approaches. Since we are a part of nature, every activity carried out despite nature harms humanity.

With developing technology, the world has become smaller, and an economic, political or social event in geography far away from us affects the whole world. Therefore, individuals living in prosperity should not be insensitive to people living in poverty and poor conditions. For a part of society to maintain a prosperous life, it is necessary to ensure everyone lives humanely.

We must collaborate as conscious and conscientious people to discuss the future instead of empty sustainability demonstrations. Otherwise, the world will become uninhabitable for the poor and the rich.

#### **Author details**

Ayşegül Körlü1 \*, Seher Kanat1 and Muhammed İbrahim Bahtiyari<sup>2</sup>

1 Engineering Faculty, Textile Engineering Department, Ege University, Bornova-İzmir, Türkiye

2 Engineering Faculty, Textile Engineering Department, Erciyes University, Melikgazi-Kayseri, Türkiye

\*Address all correspondence to: aysegulkorlu@gmail.com

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Introductory Chapter: Sustainability from Past to Future DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114161*

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### **Chapter 2**

## The Good, the Bad, and the Sustainable: How Technology Has Changed and Continues to Change the World of Fashion, from Cotton Gin to Digital Clothes

*Meital Peleg Mizrachi*

#### **Abstract**

The fashion industry is considered to be the second most polluting industry, largely due to the production model of fast fashion, which tends to maximize profits at the expense of the environment and workers' rights. The development of technology and fast fashion are intertwined: The invention of the cotton gin pushed the world from the agricultural era toward the industrial revolution, and the invention of synthetic dyes created a demand for bright clothing. Today, technology plays a significant role in the marketing and sale of fast fashion. Social networks and trading applications have led to shortening the duration of wear and increase in the amount of clothes sold and thrown away shortly, mostly in the global south, presented as donation. At the same time, the development of technology is the main factor in the development of sustainable fashion; mostly in the fields of production efficiency, disposal of clothes, and increased transparency. This chapter highlights the most recent developments and trends in the field of sustainable, technology-based fashion. While reviewing the environmental consequences of fast fashion, as well as the historical connection between technology and fashion. This includes reference to fast fashion corporations and consumer protests that were distributed and operated by technological means.

**Keywords:** sustainable fashion, technology, online commerce, transparency, digitization, consumption, ultra-fast fashion

#### **1. Introduction**

Fashion, technology, and society are closely related. The clothing culture testifies to the present and the history of a society; reveals changes in economic behavior; and reflects religious, moral, and political norms [1]. In this way, according to the philosopher Gilles Lipovetsky, the emergence of fashion in the fourteenth century symbolizes the separation from the traditional view that clothes are used as a purely

functional means and the confirmation of the autonomous ability of humans to constantly change. The rise of ready-made clothing in the 1960s is a result of improvements in production technologies and in the global means of trade [1, 2].

The establishment of the dominance of the cotton plant in the fashion industry is also related to technological developments, which have dramatically changed the face of the fashion industry, as well as the face of society and the modern economy. Cotton is one of the crops most associated with fashion, as well as slavery, but things were not always that way. Until the eighteenth century, slaves in the United States grew tobacco; slavery was not perceived as financially profitable. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 changed the course of history.

The cotton gin is an agricultural tool that separates the cotton fibers used in the textile industry from the seeds in the ginning process. The first cotton gins were 50 times more efficient than manual ginning, enabling 23 kilograms to be ginned per day [3, 4]. This shifted the cotton production bottleneck to the rate of harvesting by the slaves, constituting a significant limitation to increasing profits. The cotton gin enabled a large expansion in cotton production and at the same time created a large expansion in the demand for slaves as well. In fact, with the invention of the cotton gin, cotton, as well as slavery became a highly profitable business.

Beginning in 1800, the yield of raw cotton doubled each decade. By 1850, America supplied three-quarters of the world's cotton, with most of it sent to New England and Great Britain. New England mills consumed 283.7 million pounds of cotton, accounting for 67 percent of the cotton used by US mills in 1860. Britain, the most economically powerful nation at the time, relied on cotton for over 80 percent of its essential industrial raw material and about one-fifth of the 22 million people living in Britain at the time were directly or indirectly involved with cotton textiles [3, 4]. Thus cotton became a powerful stimulus to international trade and fueled the industrial revolution in both Europe and America. At the same time, the demand for slaves also increased. In 1790 only six states allowed slave ownership. By 1860, there were 15 states that allowed slavery, with 4 million enslaved people in the United States who were valued with a worth greater than all the railroads and factories in the nation combined [5].

Technology has also been influenced by fashion since its inception. The first IBM computer in 1944 was based on the logic of an 1801 Jacquard weaving loom [6]. The revolutionary 1850 invention of the sewing machine expanded clothing production beyond the capabilities of handmade items and dramatically changed the way clothing was treated. The shipping container revolution that changed the face of the modern economy originates from a technological change, the result of the invention of a cotton grower who wanted to lower export costs. Container technology is also one of the most significant factors in promoting globalization, while cheapening clothing items, which later enabled the rise of fast fashion [7].

Fast fashion is mass fashion produced by huge corporations in an identical, regulated, and global manner, similar to fast food. Among the prominent examples of fast fashion chains are ZARA, H&M, TopShop, and Primark. The profit model of fast fashion is based on maximizing reductions in production costs together with rapid and broad distribution and production, often at the expense of workers' rights and the environment. The "fast" refers both to the speed of arrival of the clothing from the luxury brand runways to the consumer in a cheap and ready-to-wear version and also to the short-term use by the consumers [8–10].

Between technology and society, there are also complex interrelationships based on political and environmental ties, economic interests, and social norms. Society has

#### *The Good, the Bad, and the Sustainable: How Technology Has Changed and Continues… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112104*

a great influence on the development of science and technology. The society develops technologies according to its needs and under the influence of social, ideological, and political changes. In fact, many times, technological developments are created as a result of social considerations and not necessarily due to an acute need. For example, the historic landing of the first man on the moon, Neil Armstrong, in 1969, which is considered one of the peaks of human technological development, occurred due to social-political interests. During the years of work on the development of technology, the United States was a few decades after the Great Depression and in the midst of the Vietnam War, which both took heavy economic tolls on the US economy. Despite this, and due to the Cold War with the USSR, which took place in those years, the United States chose to invest billions of dollars in the development of technology that would allow a man to land on the moon. And this is against the backdrop of millions of poor across the United States. Therefore, technological developments are not created in isolation from the social structure but are the product of society and serve as a catalyst for social transformations and even create them [11].

Fashion also reflects and creates transformations in society: the industrial revolution, which reached its peak at the beginning of the nineteenth century, led to the improvement of technology for mass production and subsequently to the birth of consumer culture. These significant changes were reflected in an increase in the amount of clothing produced, which led to the separation of the clothing concept from the fashion concept; in changing the purpose of clothing from a means of reflecting rank and profession to a tool of expression for leisure preferences and class and cultural association; and later, in the 1980s, to the development of the production model of fast fashion. The same model, which in many ways made the fashion industry the winner of the unflattering title, the second most polluting industry on the planet.

#### **1.1 Environmental and social consequences of fast fashion**

The annual carbon footprint of the fast fashion industry includes 145 million tons of coal and 2 trillion gallons of water used to create fibers [12]. Cotton is one of the most common materials to create clothes, second only to polyester, accounting for about 33 percent of all fibers found in textiles [13]. Cotton farming is also responsible for 24 percent of insecticides and 11 percent of pesticides despite using about 3 percent of the world's arable land. For example, to create one cotton-based t-shirt, approximately 2700 liters of water are required.

However, most of the fibers in the fast fashion industry are synthetic fibers of the plastic type, which are mostly nylon and polyester, produced from petroleum [14]. Even cotton-based clothes use a variable amount of plastic fibers; this is due to the relatively cheap cost and durability of plastic compared to cotton. Thus, since the beginning of the 2000s, fashion production has doubled, and so has the use of petroleum-based synthetic fibers, which represent over two-thirds (69%) of all materials used in the textile industry to create clothing and are expected to reach almost three-quarters by the year 2030. As a result, already today, the production of fossil fuel-based fibers for the fashion industry requires more oil than the annual consumption of Spain [15].

The fashion industry's increased use of oil is not only responsible for the heavy use of fossil fuels, which exacerbates the climate crisis, but also for the release of particulate matter, acid gases such as hydrogen chloride, and volatile organic compounds such as monomers, solvents, and other by-products that end up in the wastewater of the manufacturing plants [14]. This pollution occurs mostly in the producing

countries, which are in the global south and not where most of the excess consumption occurs. For example, China is responsible for 30 percent of world apparel exports, produces over half of the world's supply of polyester, and 10 percent of the world's textiles [16] and at the same time, it is at the top of the list of countries emitting greenhouse gases (GHG). However, the main part of these emissions is a product of the production of products for export [17].

Another example of the environmental injustice that prevails in the fashion industry and in the clothing manufacturing process is from the Punjab Province in India, the largest supplier of cotton in the world. In Punjab, due to the widespread use of pesticides that are considered necessary for growing cotton, and often contaminate the water sources, there has been a dramatic increase in cancer, in the proportion of children born with birth defects, and rates of autism among children. All of this, together with the phenomenon of land desertification, which is caused by the increased use of fertilizers, and the debt of the farmers due to falling cotton prices, led to the largest recorded wave of farmer suicides in history, with one farmer committing suicide every 30 minutes for 16 years [18].

The environmental damage of the fast fashion industry does not end with the production process. Wasteful consumption patterns have turned textile waste into one of the most urgent environmental problems today; on average, Americans throw away 68 pounds of textiles per person a year [16]. This is in addition to a 60 percent increase in purchases of clothing items compared to the year 2000 [13].

The status quo in the western world is now increased purchasing of clothing items together with shorter periods of use resulting in 85% of the clothes in the United States being thrown away less than a year from the moment of purchase [19]. Much of this discarded clothing is transferred as a donation to the countries of the global south. For example, Chile receives 59,000 tons of donated clothes every year, most of which becomes waste.

As a result, in 2019, a series of East African countries led by Rwanda tried to outlaw the acceptance of clothing donations. In response, the United States threatened to exclude the countries that refused to receive contributions from the preferential trade agreement between the United States and Africa [20], a threat that was de facto an embargo on the weakest countries in the world. This led to the failure of the attempt. The president of Rwanda, Paul Kagame, who was the vocal leader of this effort, argued that East African countries should stay the course, even if this meant sacrificing economic growth. Or to use his words: "*This is the choice we have to make. We may suffer consequences. Even when faced with difficult choices, there is always a way out*" [21].

#### **1.2 History of technology and fashion: Shortening of global supply chains and the return to production as substance, through technology**

In the 1980s, an increase in purchasing power of individuals, along with the improvement of global means of communication, led to an increased interest in fashion trends and a massive industrialization of the fashion market [22]. This industrialization was reflected in a significant reduction in item prices, which was made possible by the shortening of global supply chains and led to the development of the competitive trade model of fast fashion [23, 24]. Alongside the shortening of supply chains and the great improvement in production technologies, marketing strategies also changed. Among the dramatic changes that occurred, the increase in the number of collections (e.g., a gathering of clothes with a common theme, presented

#### *The Good, the Bad, and the Sustainable: How Technology Has Changed and Continues… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112104*

as a design and conceptual innovation.) per year stands out, from 2 to 4 in the 1980s, through 8 in the 1990s and up to 52 collections per year nowadays [25].

Another important change is the separation between the image of the brand and of the product and the actual production of the product. This shift divorced the production of clothing from the image of the fashion brand allowing the production of clothing to be outsourced and subcontracted [26]. Indeed, the member states of the European Union imported clothes worth 154 billion Euros in 2019, with more than half of them coming from countries that are not members of the European Union (52%, or 80 billion Euros), the three largest countries of origin being: China, Bangladesh, and Turkey [27].

It should be mentioned that the increasing use of technology among fashion companies, with the aim of making fashion companies greener and more sustainable, has changed this perception. The way clothing is made is starting to come back and unite with the essence of the garment and the brand image. For example, at the Coperni fashion show at Paris Fashion Week 2022, supermodel Bella Hadid modeled a dress that was not ready until the middle of the show – when audience members witnessed its preparation right in front of their eyes with a special spray [28]. During the preparation of the dress, Dr. Manel Torres, the inventor of the sprayed fabric, and other technology experts surrounded Hadid and sprayed her with a spray that resembled snow.

The material sprayed on Hadid, patented by the London Company Fabrican, was a liquid fiber bound together with polymers, bio-polymers, and greener solvents, which evaporates when the spray comes into contact with some surface. Thus, during the show, the spray dried on the model's body and turned into a white dress and a particularly viral moment. In fact, the Tik Tok hashtag of the spray dress received 73.6 million views in less than a week. "*It is our duty as designers to try new things and present a possible future*," said the pair of designers Arnaud Vallian and Sebastian Meyer, who worked on the dress for 6 months, to Vogue. "We will not make money from it, but it is a beautiful moment, an experience that creates emotion" [29].

Similarly, at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, the USA flag-bearers wore classic blue polo jackets that included electroluminescent panels from Ralph Lauren. And in the 2018 Winter Olympics, the USA flag-bearers wore Ralph Lauren coats as well, with adaptable heat technology that could be controlled by a smartphone app. Jackets had no great environmental or technological significance. However, the jacket represented Ralph Lauren's ongoing commitment to being a trailblazer in fashion through innovative design and manufacturing processes [30, 31].

This phenomenon of fashion designers who tie the essence of the garment to technological developments in the production processes, is still on the fringes of the fashion industry and is especially common among high-end brands, such as Coperni and Stella McCartney, which produces "leather" clothing from mushrooms with the aim of promoting sustainability in fashion. Based on past experience, it can be assumed that it will not be long before what happens on the runways of high-end brands spills over into mass production as well.

Despite the optimism, most of the clothing in the world, as of today, is produced in the countries of the global south, and the production of the clothing by subcontractors in the developing countries is not based on innovative technology, but on cheap labor employed in many cases under slave like or actual slavery conditions. The fashion industry is labor-intensive: currently every sixth person in the world works in the fashion industry [32, 33], and most of the clothing sold in the world are sewn with manual machines, usually by women [34]. The reason for this is trade liberalization,

which characterizes a neoliberal economy. This means that an exploitative – but legal – transaction is cheaper than investing in the development of advanced sewing technologies, much as the landfill and incineration of clothing is cheaper than using advanced textile recycling technologies to recycle clothing from mixed materials.

#### **2. Technology as a promoter of fast fashion consumption**

#### **2.1 Mobile phones as amplifiers of excess consumption**

Technology plays a significant role in marketing fast fashion and increasing the amount of clothing purchased in the Western world. In the last decade, with the increase in smartphone ownership, the volume of online commerce has grown unprecedentedly. Fifty eight percent of the global population of Internet users made an online purchase in the last 12 months, with about half of the purchased items falling into the fashion category (i.e., clothing or footwear) [24]. The Internet, with an emphasis on social networks, allows consumers ongoing access to vast amounts of information on the latest fashion trends and a direct, quick, and easy connection between viewing a trendy product and purchasing it. The 1995 release of Internet Explorer 1.0 by Microsoft laid the groundwork for the e-commerce boom in fashion, forever changing the way consumers shop for fashion [35].

In an analysis of fashion shopping habits from 2019, based on millions of shopping visits to fashion sites around the world, mobile phones accounted for 67% of traffic to fashion retail sites and 52% of sales revenue, with conversion rates on phones at 53% higher than the previous year [36]. The 2019 revenue from online commerce amounted to almost 5.42 trillion US dollars, with clothing accounting for 66% of all the online commerce of fashion worldwide [37]. In 2021 retail e-commerce using mobile phones (m-commerce) sales hit 359.32 billion US dollars, an increase of 15.2% over 2020. Moreover, by 2025, retail m-commerce sales should more than double, reaching 728.28 billion US dollars and accounting for 44.2% of retail e-commerce sales in the US [38]. The fashion e-commerce industry, from clothing and apparel to accessories and footwear, has become an industry valued at 9.91 trillion US dollars [39].

Social networks, which are often accessed through mobile phones, play a significant role in promoting excess consumption of clothes. In 2020, people spent an average of 10 hours a day using their mobile phones; this number has since been steadily increasing [38]. Social network users tend to buy based on the recommendation of influencers at a higher rate than based on the recommendations of celebrities in advertisements [39]. Facebook and Instagram are leading the way as the top platforms for influencer marketing. Social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest have introduced "buy buttons" that let shoppers make purchases without having to leave the platform [40]. And indeed, 19% of consumer decisions are made after seeing a post on Facebook [41]. Even if the customer did not intend to purchase anything, the mere use of social networks increases the likelihood of a purchase.

Moreover, the use of mobile phones to increase sales also significantly influences in-store purchases. Mobile phones are now one of the key sources for retailers to build a better connection with their customers so as to provide a personalized shopping experience, and as a result, increase sales. In fact, almost 49 percent of retailers use mobile phones to enhance the in-store shopping experience. For example, the largest fashion and clothing retailer ZARA has added QR codes to its clothing labels, which can be scanned to obtain the manufacturing details of the product and *The Good, the Bad, and the Sustainable: How Technology Has Changed and Continues… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112104*

information on different colors and sizes available in the product range. Many retail chains use QR codes to monitor the time customers spend on each product within the store, and how often he or she lingers near a particular product [42]. In addition, many fashion chains, including Urban Outfitters and American Eagle Outfitters, use beacon devices in their stores that transmit Bluetooth signals to the customers' phones located in the vicinity of the store. The signals transmit advertising content to customer phones and may also enable monitoring the owners of the phones during their stay in the store [42].

#### **2.2 The rise of ultra-fast fashion**

Fashion brand apps, which are becoming increasingly popular, are in now a central mechanism to leverage mobile phone use with the intent of motivating purchases. In 2021 there was an 11.4% increase in downloads and purchases through the top 15 fashion apps. Consumers' use of these applications allows the fashion chains not only to sell but also to collect data on consumers' usage habits. Indeed ASOS, Forever 21, Urban Outfitters, SHEIN, and Zaful, among others, utilize a Recommendation Engine based on machine learning which is designed to entice consumers to purchase more [43]. Fashion brand apps often make an effort to create a user experience similar to social networks. For example, the SHEIN app added a tab for live feeds of its influencer and customer community [43].

Transferring the "desired ideal" from the runways of high fashion brands to the screens of social networks is one of the central drivers enabling the emergence of ultra-fast fashion. Ultra-fast fashion, represented by websites such as SHEIN Boohoo and Emmiol, which are popular mainly among under 25 s, is produced at a faster pace than fast fashion and in larger quantities. The time of use of garments is even shorter, and accordingly, the environmental damages are greater [44]. For comparison, while fast fashion chains spend between 50 for 100 collections per year, ultra-fast fashion chains upload about 5000 new models to their websites every day. Ultra-fast fashion chains exist almost only on the Internet, which allows them to have a greater variety of products and is characterized by extremely cheap clothing prices, aggressive advertising based on network influencers, and a very short response time. As Kane, Boohoo's founders put it, "*A traditional retailer might buy three or four styles, but we'll buy 25*" [45].

In addition, the unique characteristics of online purchasing further enable the existence of fast and ultra-fast fashion. Online purchasing is characterized by the blurring of physical boundaries, so that it is possible anywhere and at any time, regardless of the opening hours of the stores or where they are located in the world, making the buying options endless. The GAP store chain took it to the next level, when by using Augmented Reality (AR), it created an application allowing potential customers to try their collections from anywhere in the world [37].

Online purchasing also increases the chances of additional impulse purchases and excess consumption [46]. In addition, the fact that it is not possible to try on or feel the garment often leads to gaps between the buyer's expectations and the actual item. This results in a considerable increase in the number of returns transferred to second-hand stores, for recycling, or landfilling without ever being worn [47]. Social networks also encourage shortening clothing wear time. Over 40% of social media users in the US report that they are not interested in wearing the same item of clothing twice due to the fear that they will be photographed wearing it; many even state that they buy clothes specifically for Instagram and do not wear them except for photographs [48].

This phenomenon is often expressed on Instagram under the hashtag #out fit of the day [46]. The result is that the average American throws away approximately 32 kilos of textile waste every year; manifested in a datum every minute in the US, the amount of textile waste that enters a truck is buried in the ground or burned [34].

#### **3. Technology as sustainable fashion promoter**

Against the background of the aforementioned, it may appear that technology and sustainable fashion are in opposition to each other. However, a closer analysis reveals a symbiotic relationship between the two. Technology, in fact, enables sustainable fashion to thrive and develop. Moreover, in a broader sense, fashion has always been a wearable expression of the technological state of society: in the days of the Qing Dynasty in Imperial China, technical developments in looms made it possible to create weaving structures that expressed social classes. The invention of synthetic dyes in the nineteenth century created a demand for extremely bright clothing. Dior's "new look," launched in 1947, was based on the synthetic polymers developed for the production of parachutes in World War II and marked the end of World War II and the promise of clothing that are not just utilitarian [49]. The proliferation of polyester in clothing, in the last two decades is a product of improvement in production technologies, as well as the rise of fast fashion, associated with the rise of neoliberal economics [15].

Technology in and of itself is not a negative thing; its environmental impact depends on its use and its goals. From an environmental point of view, correct technological choices in production and sales methods can have extremely positive effects. Much like in the fields of energy, transportation, and agriculture, many in the fashion industry place their hope in technological developments to reduce the environmental effects, and according to many, the future of the world of fashion lies in technology and sustainability [50].

At the forefront of the research of technological developments to reduce the environmental effects of the fashion industry are corporations alongside modest ventures. Huge corporations, such as ZARA, H&M, and Microsoft, are developing digital ID cards for clothing to increase the ability to follow their production steps (i.e., trackability) in collaboration with the technology company EON [51]. Stella McCartney is developing, in collaboration with the start-up company Bolt Threads, a technology for the production of micro-silk without the use of animals and mushroom-based "leather" vegan clothing [19]. Small ventures and start-ups, such as RoundRack, allow fashion designers easy access to sustainable fabrics based on artificial intelligence [52]. The Teemill project produces and recycles t-shirts in a circular model by using renewable energy [53]. Made2Flow promotes tracking of the production stages, measurement of the environmental impact of the clothes, and its translation into impact visualization with the help of technological aids, with an emphasis on machine learning [54].

#### **3.1 Main technological developments**

#### *3.1.1 Technology developments in the production processes*

Technological developments in the production processes primarily focus on production efficiency and developing or sourcing fibers from recycled and sustainable materials. The use of 3D printing, which enables a "zero waste" production process alongside customization for the customer and personalization of the clothing to reduce the environmental effects during the cutting and dyeing stages, as well

#### *The Good, the Bad, and the Sustainable: How Technology Has Changed and Continues… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112104*

as avoiding the "dead stocks" phenomenon, is a major development [55]; Artificial intelligence monitors quantities of clothing produced and the accurate production without excess. Developments in the field of digital printing possess great environmental potential because the fabric dyeing process involves the use of upwards of 3500 toxic chemicals with 10–20% material loss during shearing [56].

Among the start-up ventures developing technologies to achieve precision in the quantities produced, Teemill, whose motto is "conscientious use of technology," stands out positively. Teemill only makes clothing to order, maintaining no stock on hand. Their clothing items are made from materials that are recycled in the factory and are "pure material" (unlike most clothes made from a mixture of materials), which allows for additional recycling in a circular model and at a relatively cheap cost. Furthermore, the venture provides open online access to its supply chain through cloud technologies allowing anyone to use the company's systems for free to achieve accuracy in production quantities [53].

Another technological use to reduce the quantities produced in digital clothing is called Tokenizing (i.e., NFT). Tokenizing allows customers to purchase digital clothing to upload to Instagram, Zoom, online games and platforms, or use for additional applications, instead of a physical garment [57]. In a reality where 40 percent of teenagers report that they do not want to wear an item of clothing again after being photographed with it, digital clothing enables more sustainable fashion consumption. In addition, the absence of surplus production manifested in dead stocks, and the saving of depreciation in the shearing process, are also notable environmental advantages. On the other hand, it is important to note that most digital clothing is based on blockchain technology, which has high energy costs that will increase in a nonlinear manner as the use of blockchain increases.

Digital clothing is gaining popularity. In November 2020, Scandinavian brand retailer Carlings released its first digital clothing collection. The 19 gender-neutral and size-less items cost between €10 and €30, each with a limited production run of up to 12 copies. Carlings hired a number of influencers to promote the collection on Instagram, and it completely sold out within a week. In January 2021, the London fashion house Alexander McQueen launched their first digital collection [58]. In February 2021, digital fashion shows were held in New York and London as part of their respective Fashion Week programs [59]. In February 2022, the first all-digital Fashion Week (MetaVerse Fashion Week) was held under the auspices of Decentraland, a platform that allows consumers to purchase spaces in an online and three-dimensional space [60]. Many predict that as virtual reality becomes more commonplace, the deeper digital clothing will penetrate.

#### *3.1.2 Solution concerning alternative fibers*

Sustainability efforts also are emerging to provide alternative fiber sources. Recycled synthetic fibers can be made from a variety of materials including used plastic bags and glass bottles. For example, in 2015, Adidas launched shoes made from waste from the bottom of the ocean. This is of course a positive development, but it is important to remember that about 90% of Adidas clothing items are made of, or mixed with, synthetic fibers based on fossil fuels [15]. In addition, due to the mixing of materials in the production process, clothing and shoes made of recycled plastic are not recyclable, and constitute a "final stop" for the material. Therefore, sustainability efforts in the field of fashion should focus on reducing the use of fossil fuels and the overall reduction in production.

Packaging of fashion products purchased on the Internet has also been an area for sustainability innovation. This includes biodegradable packaging made from sugar cane and recycled plastic, which are becoming more and more common and are used by fast fashion giants such as H&M and ASOS [61]. However, caution is also required. While reducing the use of plastic is a positive thing, the essential question that needs to be asked is what the garment inside the bag is made of, and more importantly, how many garments are produced each year by these fashion companies?

Synthetic fibers also allow for more ethical fashion alternatives, such as leather substitutes. Again, skepticism is warranted as most skin substitutes are based on synthetic fibers, primarily polyester, which are produced from fossil fuels, such as oil and gas. Polyester production has far-reaching environmental consequences. In 2015, polyester production for textiles alone was responsible for more than 700 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, an amount equivalent to Mexico's annual GHG emissions. Moreover, with the increase in the proportion of polyester in clothing, there was also an increase in the proportion of microplastics. As of today, the fashion industry is responsible for the emission of half a million tons of microplastics into the sea every year. Finally, more environmentally friendly packaging may create a moral license among consumers for excess consumption.

#### *3.1.3 Developments concerning the disposal of unwanted clothes*

Disposing of unwanted clothing (postconsumer textiles) appears to be the most urgent category. As mentioned, according to the report of the United Nations Economic Commission, 85% of the textiles sold every year are sent to landfill [19]. Today it is 40 billion tons of textiles, and the amount is increasing every year. Paradoxically, this category is characterized by the smallest number of solutions. The main obstacles are the fact that most clothing is made from mixed fiber compounds and the need to sort clothing based on fabric composition and color. Sorting, currently done almost exclusively manually, makes the process significantly more expensive.

Automated sorting technologies can turn nonwearable textiles into valuable raw materials with the potential for use in construction and plastic products. One of these technologies is Fibersort, an infrared (NIR) based technology capable of cataloging textiles for recycling according to their composition, structure, and color of the fibers. However, despite being a promising technology, it currently faces a series of regulatory and economic barriers [62].

Solutions in the field of textile recycling not only demonstrate an environmental benefit but also an economic one. The value of the fashion industry is estimated at approximately 2.4 trillion dollars a year. Every year it loses approximately 500 billion dollars due to the lack of recycling capabilities and the clothing that is thrown away before reaching the sale's floor [63]. More efficient allocation of resources, amputation, and recycling of the lost material, improvement of employment conditions, and use of sustainable materials are expected to increase industry profits by 1–2% by 2030, in contrast to a business-as-usual scenario, which is expected to result in heavy losses [64].

#### **4. A look into the future**

In line with the economic forecasts, the large fashion corporations, which have become synonymous with fast fashion, are placing themselves at the forefront of technological developments for sustainable fashion. ZARA has committed to using

#### *The Good, the Bad, and the Sustainable: How Technology Has Changed and Continues… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112104*

only organic, sustainable, or recycled cotton by 2025 [65]. H&M has promised to complete a similar move by 2030 [66]. Nike has committed to operating its factories using only renewable energy by 2025 [67]. The Wrangler Company boasts of developing a process for the production of jeans that reduces water waste [50, 68].

These improvements are all driven by new technologies, which, in addition to the resources available to fashion corporations, can change the way clothing is produced on an unprecedented scale. However, alongside the hope for significant technological developments, it must be remembered that a production model of 52 collections per year, based on exploitation in the production process, cannot be sustained, even if the most innovative developments are used. Also, the degree of sustainability of these moves is questionable, and often they amount to greenwashing. Therefore, it is important to emphasize the role of technology in changing consumption patterns and increasing transparency in production.

#### **4.1 Technology to increase transparency in the fashion industry**

Despite its importance, the use of technology to increase transparency and awareness receives relatively little attention [56]. Among the most prominent examples includes the designer Martine Gralgaard, who, in collaboration with the high technology company *Provence*, uses blockchain technology, so that consumers can follow the garment production process, from the fiber stage to the sale's transaction [69]. Stella McCartney is collaborating with Google Cloud to build a tool that allows companies to assess the environmental impact of production based on data analysis such as soil quality, wastewater, material waste, and greenhouse gas emissions [70].

The Made2Flow initiative enables manufacturers to measure and improve the environmental effects of products, with the aim of promoting active ownership of the processes occurring in the supply chains. The online tool "How dirty is your closet?" allows consumers to examine the environmental impact of their consumption habits [71]. What all these examples have in common is the need for both producers and consumers to bear joint responsibility, which is essential for their success. As well as the need for the willingness of producers to provide transparency, in order to allow the consumers accurate information for their decision-making.

Past attempts to encourage consumers to bear responsibility include the "Who made my clothes" campaign. The campaign arose in response to the 2013 Rana Plaza disaster, the biggest disaster in the history of the fashion industry. 1147 workers were killed, and about 3000 more were injured in the collapse of a textile factory building in Bangladesh. The *Fashion Revolution* movement that arose following the disaster called on fashion bloggers from around the world to upload to Instagram a photo with the label of their clothing plus the hashtag "Who made my clothes" and tagging the fashion companies. The fashion corporations responded to the campaign quickly, uploading photos of the farmers and production workers to Instagram, plus the hashtag "I made your clothes" and information about their terms of employment. The disclosure of the information led to a certain improvement in the terms of employment, and increased the transparency and traceability in the supply chains, which constituted important progress [34].

Moreover, thanks to the power of social networks, which often function as an amplifier, even individual actions receive a wide distribution, which allows them to produce a significant impact. It was a post on Facebook that led to the expansion into the textile sector of the law prohibiting the destruction of surplus food (Food Act) in France. In the winter of 2019 in Paris, a passerby named Nathalie Beauval

encountered the employees of the fashion company CELIO destroying unsold clothing outside the store. Destroying the clothing was more profitable than selling them at a discounted price in order to preserve the economic value of the clothes in the eyes of the customers. Nathalie took a picture of the piles of destroyed clothing and uploaded the picture to Facebook, and crafted a post about what she had seen. The post quickly became viral, and within 6 months, France passed the extension of the law prohibiting the destruction of surplus food to also include the field of textiles, as part of France's new *Circular Economy Roadmap* [10, 72, 73].

#### **5. Macro inference**

Past experiences show that this approach of direct consumer calls for accountability, as opposed to technological solutions designed to allow continued consumption on the same scale, is the most effective one for promoting sustainable fashion. Unlike green fashion and eco-collections that refer only to environmental aspects, sustainable fashion relies on the values of sustainability in the broad sense of the relationship between economy, environment, and society. In many ways, this difference is also at the heart of the distinction between the environmental quality approach and sustainability in practice.

This does not mean that all responsibility should be placed on the consumer. The consumer's power to influence the economic production fields is limited. There is no doubt that regulation and corporate responsibility play an important role. The main damage to natural resources is the result of the industrial production process and not at the hands of the consumer. However, those who finance the environmental and social damage, and because of this, enable the continued existence of fast fashion, are the consumers. On the other hand, the consumers are also the ones who push fashion corporations to look for technological solutions in an attempt to produce sustainable fashion.

It must be remembered that fashion is one of the most influential factors in the economy and culture. It is a business with a global turnover of over two trillion dollars and employs more than 300 million people worldwide. This is alongside fashion's ability to shape the consciousness of many and set far-reaching social processes in motion. As a result, it can not only be part of the solution to the climate crisis but even lead it.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author would like to thank Rachel A.M. Gould for the initial editing, and to the Israel Pollak Fellowship Program for Excellence, for supporting the research.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*The Good, the Bad, and the Sustainable: How Technology Has Changed and Continues… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112104*

### **Author details**

Meital Peleg Mizrachi Tel Hai College and Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv and Upper Galilee, Israel

\*Address all correspondence to: meitalpeleg@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 3**

## Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy as Aqueous Binder for Textile Printing

*Fatma N. El-Shall, Karema M. Haggag, Mohamed M. El-Molla and Ahmed I. Hashem*

#### **Abstract**

Polyurethane acrylate oligomer has been synthetized using microwave irradiation as a green chemistry and synthetized using thermal heating for comparison. Using microwave irradiation, it was possible to either synthesize polyurethane acrylate oligomers without catalyst and/or solvent or achieved at a record time representing 1/ 12 of the reaction time needed for normal thermal heating. Polyurethane acrylate oligomers synthesized using microwave irradiation possess enhanced thermal stability than the thermal heating synthesized one. The crystallinity percentages of microwavesynthesized polyurethanes are higher than the thermal heating-synthesized polymer. Several experimental measurements applied to the samples like X-ray diffraction (XRD), IR spectra, and transmission electron Microscopy (TEM) etc. The overall morphology of the synthesis of polyurethane acrylate oligomers using microwave irradiation was investigated by TEM, which indicated regular, ordered, and homogeneous polymers within nanosized particle distribution. The disappearance of isocyanate bands on IR charts are strong evidence for the success of the preparation processes for polyurethane acrylate oligomers by all used methods.

**Keywords:** synthesis, polyurethane acrylate, aqueous binder, textile printing, microwave irradiation

#### **1. Introduction**

The use of microwave irradiation as a source of energy in chemical reactions with its magnificent properties, such as enhancing the rate of reaction, decreasing the reaction time, and reducing or eliminating the reaction auxiliary, shows the most important features of microwave-assisted chemistry. On the other hand, the application of microwave irradiation in polymerization reactions is a good alternative to thermal heating with improved environmental scope [1–5]. Under controlled reaction conditions and catalyst concentration, one or two hydroxyl groups in the polypropylene glycol (PPG)

and/or sorbitol react with the primary isocyanate group of isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) to form an isocyanate – terminated polyurethane prepolymer leaving the second isocyanate group unreacted for subsequent reaction with hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) to introduce unsaturation sites at the ends of polyurethane prepolymers to form polyurethane acrylate. Isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) is an unsymmetrical molecule and therefore has isocyanate groups with different reactivities. The primary isocyanate group is more reactive than the secondary one [6, 7].

Improvement of the properties of acrylated urethane may be achieved by using sorbitol (bio-based compound) as a chain extender to increase the ability of crosslinking and hydrogen bond formation producing higher molecule weight and more flexible isocyanate functional prepolymer, which is subsequently caped, by hydroxyl ethyl acrylate monomer. Polyurethane acrylate, based on aliphatic isocyanates (e.g., isophorone diisocyanate), is more flexible than aromatic urethane acrylates with the same functionality [8]. The main advantage of aliphatic polyurethane acrylates is the fact that they are virtually non-yellowing and therefore can be used for long-lasting applications, on white- or light-colored substrates [9]. The reaction rate enhancement occurs through increasing the rotation, friction, and collision of the molecules of the monomer having specific groups (NCO and OH) [10, 11]. Pigment fixation on textiles relies on a binding agent that requires a curing process to hold the pigments on a textile fabric. The binding agents are polymers or preferably copolymers of unsaturated monomers such as ethyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, styrene, acrylonitrile, vinyl acetate, and butadiene. However, pigment coloration has some industrial and ecological problems such as relatively high-temperature cure, stiff hand, poor crock fastness, formaldehyde emissions, and clogging nozzles and screens in both textile inkjet and screen printing processes. These disadvantages are related to the binding agent. Thus, to improve the quality of the textile pigmented colored goods, the overall properties of the binding agents should be improved [12–15].

The present work was carried out with the following objectives synthesis of polyurethane acrylate oligomers as aqueous binder, by both of microwave's irradiation and conventional thermal heating under comparable conditions, and it is utilized these binders for printed cotton fabrics using pigment color.

#### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Chemicals**

Polypropylene glycol (PPG) (2000 g/mol) is supplied by Fluka chemical [Co. Switzerland)], Germany. Hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) is supplied by Degussa, Germany. N, N-dimethylacetamide (DMA) is supplied by ACROS Chemical Co. All chemicals are dried before being used. Dibutyltin dilaurate (DBTDL), isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI), and sorbitol were supplied by across Chemical Co, used as received.

#### **2.2 Methods**

#### *2.2.1 Synthesis of polyurethanes acrylate (PUAmcs, PUAms, and PUAm) via MW irradiation*

The reaction was carried out under microwave irradiation in a pulses multimode Milestone microwave reactor with a frequency of 2.45 GHz and maximum microwave

#### *Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112425*

power of 1200 W. Where PUAmcs is polyurethane acrylate synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation using catalyst and solvent, PUAms is polyurethane acrylate synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation without assistance of the catalyst, and PUAm is polyurethane acrylate synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation in the absence of solvent and catalyst.

System setup: a 500-ml round-bottom flask with a magnetic stirrer sited on an electromagnetic plate located below the bottom of the microwave cavity, and a stirring bar was used to promote a high-speed magnetic stirring during the reaction. There were two joints for gas inlet and outlet to achieve continuous flow of nitrogen (nitrogen gas was pumped) into the vessel to provide inert reaction conditions and chemical injection (by mean of a syringe). The column was connected from the upper side to a refluxed condenser and a drying tube. Moreover, the system was supplied by infrared sensor directed toward the reaction flask for automatic measuring of the temperature change as simplified in **Figure 1**.

Polyurethane acrylate is synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation where the catalyst and solvent are involved during synthesis of PUAmcs, while polyurethane acrylate prepared without the assistance of the catalyst via microwave irradiation is symbolized as PUAms, and synthesis of polyurethane acrylate PUAm in the absence of solvent and catalyst has been done via microwave irradiation. The reactions were performed at a temperature range between 40 and 60°C by and microwave power between 100 and 250 W. A calculated amount of polypropylene glycol (PPG) (2000 g/mole) and sorbitol were added in N, N dimethylacetamide as solvent in a modified one-necked flask located inside Milestone microwave reactor as shown in **Figure 1**. The reaction mixture was left about 10 min at 60°C and 200 W to ensure complete mixing of the reaction mixture. The reaction temperature and microwave power were reduced again to 40°C and 100 W, respectively. A calculated amount of

**Figure 1.** *Modified microwave reactor system.*

IPDI with and without 0.05 (w/w) DBTDL was slowly dropped into the reaction medium for 5 min. The reaction mixture was stirred for an additional 10 min at 60°C and 200 W to achieve an acceptable reaction rate without gelation [8]. The reaction temperature and microwave power were reduced to 40–50°C and 150 W, and a calculated amount of hydroxy ethyl acrylate (HEA) was gradually added to the reaction mixture. The reaction was complete without any further change in temperature with constant stirring for approx 10 min. This action allows the polypropylene glycol (PPG) (microwave inert) to absorb the microwave energy, and this step was continued for 5 min at 200 W (depending on the amount of PPG), i.e. the synthesis of PUAmcs. A calculated amount of IPDI without either DBTDL (i.e. without catalyst for synthesis of polyurethane acrylate (PUAms) or without solvent and catalyst for the synthesis of polyurethane acrylate (PUAm) was slowly dropped into the reactor at 40° C during a period of 5 min. The reaction mixture was stirred, and the reaction temperature was raised again to 60°C and 200 W for an additional 10 min. The mixture was allowed to react to generate a microwave reactive intermediate (urethane prepolymer), and then the silicon carbide bar was removed from the reaction medium. The end point was determined as the theoretical NCO value reached. After the end point has been reached, the reaction temperature and power are reduced to 50–40°C and 150 W, respectively. A calculated amount of HEA was gradually added to the reaction mixture, and the reaction mixture was left without any change in conditions with constant stirring for 4 min continuously to cap the terminal NCO groups.

#### *2.2.2 Synthesis of polyurethane acrylate (PUAt) via conventional thermal heating*

The reaction of polypropylene glycol with isophorone diisocyanate was conducted according to the modification of procedure described elsewhere [16–19] as follows: A calculated amount of polypropylene glycol (PPG) (2000 g/mole) was added in DMA (solvent) into a three-necked flask equipped with a stirrer, thermometer, and reflux condenser under nitrogen atmosphere and heating oil bath. The reactant was left for about an hour at 40°C to ensure complete mixing of the reaction mixture. A calculated amount of IPDI containing 0.05 (w/w) DBTDL as catalyst was slowly dropped into the reaction medium at 40°C for over an hour. The reaction mixture was stirred for additional 2 h at 60°C to obtain an acceptable reaction rate without gelation. The mixture was allowed to react until the theoretical NCO content is reached. The end point of this step has been detected based on the NCO concentration which is determined by using a standard dibutylamine backtitration method [8]. The reaction temperature was reduced again to 45–50°C. A calculated amount of hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) was gradually added to the reaction mixture during an hour. After the addition of HEA, the reaction was complete without any further change in temperature with constant stirring for 2 h. Reduced reaction temperature was needed to avoid any possibility of thermal cross-linking on unsaturated sites in the system. There was a noticeable change in the viscosity of the reaction mixture during this part of the reaction. The PU prepolymer is viscous transparent liquid, with just the addition of HEA, its viscosity decreased sharply. Again, the viscosity of reactants starts to increase after a few minutes of addition. Therefore, at the end of reaction, a thick, viscous, and transparent liquid is obtained. Black bottles were used for saving PUA to avoid any possible photoreaction. Moreover, after the evaporation of the solvent, a white collected powder of polyurethane acrylate has been formed.

*Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112425*

#### **2.3 Measurements and analysis**

#### *2.3.1 X-ray diffraction analysis*

Phase identification, purity, relative crystallinity, and crystallite size of the products were performed at room temperature by using a Philips diffract meter (PW 3710). The patterns were run with Ni-filtered copper radiation (λ = 1.5404 Å) at 30 kV and 10 mA with a scanning speed of 2θ = 2.5°/min0.

#### *2.3.2 Infrared analysis*

The infrared of the synthetized polyurethanes was measured using infrared spectrometer, Perkin Elmer system 2000 FT-IR (Fourier transform IR spectrometer). Single-beam spectrometer has a resolution of 2 cm<sup>1</sup> . The samples were ground with KBr (1:100 ratio) as a tablet and mounted on the sample holder in the cavity of the spectrometer.

#### *2.3.3 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)*

Synthesized polyurethanes are mounted on aluminum stubs and sputter-coated with gold in a 150-Å sputter (Coated Edwards) and examined by Jeol (JXA-840A) Electron Probe Microanalysis (Japan), magnification range of 35–10,000, and accelerating voltage of 19 kV in order to confirm the presence of fragrance particles.

#### **3. Results and discussion**

#### **3.1 Synthesized polyurethane acrylate (PUAmcs, PUAms, and PUAm) and (PUAt)**

The completion of the reaction without the use of the catalyst is considered an example of green chemical reaction aimed to minimize or to eliminate the chemical auxiliary during the reaction addition to the nonuse of substances with a toxic nature such as DBTDL that has a bad impact on both public health and on the environment [20]. The properties of prepared polyurethane PUAm has been compared with the rest of all synthesized polyurethanes prepared either in the microwave's reactors or by the conventional thermal heating (PUAt) as well explained in former characterization. The most important observation during the preparation of polyurethane acrylate PUAm is the greater increase in viscosity compared to all solvent involved reactions, especially in acrylation step. This may be due to that the presence of a solvent during the reaction is carried out quieting the monomers interaction which leads to reduce the viscosity of yields. However, it is clear that the operating of the reaction in microwave reactor without the presence of solvent accelerates the rates of reaction beside increases the viscosity, but the reaction for general is hard to control. This technique is useful for the production of dry polymers because of the difficulty of complete solvent removal in polyaddition polymerization [5]. On the contrary, of that, in conventional heating synthesis, the heat introduced in the reaction medium from the outside and the walls of the reaction vessel are generally the hottest parts of the reaction, especially during the initial ramp to the desired temperature. This causes nonhomogeneous temperature distribution though reactor wall, which results in

dropping in reaction rate. Consequently, an increase in time is needed to achieve the desired reaction. Pulsed microwave heating is used to control temperature and eliminate the exothermic temperature peak from the fast exothermic reaction that will lead to maintain the same temperature distribution at all of the reaction stages [10]. The reaction rate acceleration using microwave's irradiation technique, compared with common thermal heating under similar reaction conditions [21], can be determined by using relationship:

$$\text{rate enhancement} = \frac{\text{convational reaction time}}{\text{microwave reaction time}} \tag{1}$$

By the application of this relationship to the reactions studied here, it was found that the synthesis of polyurethane acrylate inside microwave reactor accelerates the rate of reaction by 12 times compared to the conventional heating methods. In addition, the most important observation during the microwave's synthesis is that the gelation effect is minimized to a higher degree compared to normal thermal heating. So, microwave's irradiation can be used successfully in the synthesis of polyurethane acrylate instead of thermal heating. The suggested reactions for the prepared polyurethane acrylate can be represented in **Figures 2** and **3**.

#### **3.2 FT-IR spectral of synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers**

Infrared spectra of the synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers are shown in **Figure 4**. During polyurethane synthesis, there are two major peaks used as a monitor for checking the reaction pathway. The reaction development is tested by the disappearance of NCO peak at around 2260 to 2270 cm�<sup>1</sup> and appearing of ѵ-NH peak at around 3000 to 3400 cm�<sup>1</sup> on FT-IR spectra [8]. From the infrared spectrum of IPDI,

**Figure 2.** *The synthesis of urethane prepolymer.*

*Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112425*

**Figure 3.** *The synthesis of polyurethane acrylate oligomer, where D is isophorone.*

there is a characteristic peak for ѵ–NCO group around 2100–2270 cm�<sup>1</sup> due to the presence of diisocyanate groups.

It is clear from the IR charts of all synthesized polyurethane acrylates that there are no bands observed at approximately 2100–2270 cm�<sup>1</sup> . This indicates that all entire amount of IPDI is completely consumed during the reaction, and the final products are free from free isocyanate groups [22–24]. By taking a general look on IR charts of the prepared polymers, we can conclude that all prepared polymers are characterized by strong absorption bands at 3300 cm�<sup>1</sup> attributed to ѵ-NdH, bands around 1720 cm�<sup>1</sup> corresponding to ѵ-C]O, absorption bands in range of 1640 cm�<sup>1</sup> for ѵ-C]C, and absorption bands at approximately 1100 cm�<sup>1</sup> on fingerprint range of infrared. Spectral scale is corresponding to ѵ-CdOdC [25]. The appearance of all these peaks and the disappearance of the isocyanates bands on IR charts are strong evidence for the success of the preparation processes for those polymers by all used methods [25]. Therefore, the shift of FT-IR peak position to a lower frequency is an evidence of the existence of hydrogen bonding. The amount of the shift is a sign for the strength of the bonding [26]. Examination of the FT-IR spectra of prepared polyurethanes revealed that the position of ѵ-NdH are to be at 3299 cm�<sup>1</sup> for PUAms, 3322 cm�<sup>1</sup> for PUAm, 3334 cm�<sup>1</sup> for PUAmcs, and 3361 cm�<sup>1</sup> for PUAt. Moreover, ѵ-C]O are found to be at 1725 cm�<sup>1</sup> for PUAt, 1717 cm�<sup>1</sup> for PUAmcs, 1717 cm�<sup>1</sup> for

#### **Figure 4.**

*FT-IR chart of synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers: (a) PUAt, (b) PUAmcs, (c) PUAms, (d) PUAm, and (e) isophorone diisocyanate.*

PUAms, and 1716 cm�<sup>1</sup> for PUAm. Principally, the appearance of ѵ-N-H peaks at lower wavenumber refers to the existence of hydrogen bonds and consequently to the existence of polymers phase separation [27].

The highest value of ѵ-NdH shifting is for PUAms which refers to the highest phase separation degree occurred with PUAms polymer next value for, PUAmcs and finally PUAm between microwave polyurethane groups. In addition, the appearance of broad ѵ-NdH bands introduces another proof about the exciting of NdH groups in the bonded state. Moreover, ѵ-NdH for PUAt is at 3361 cm�<sup>1</sup> which may refer to less degree of hydrogen bonding and consequently to a lower-phase separation manner. These results were supported by the shifting values in ѵ-C]O; all microwavesynthesized polyurethanes show more shifting in values for ѵ-C]O bands (1717 cm�<sup>1</sup> ) indicating the presence of C]O in the bonding state which supported the presence of segment phase separation. While ѵ-C]O for PUAt appeared at 1725 cm�<sup>1</sup> referring to a relatively less bonded one. From the aforementioned results, we can conclude that the presence of a solvent during the synthesis of polyurethanes under microwave irradiation develops the phase separation between polymer units. In addition, microwave irradiation polyurethane acrylates synthesis developed the hydrogen bond formation between the polymer segments which forces unites toward a more phase separation manner than thermal heating synthesis method.

#### **3.3 Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) of polyurethane acrylate oligomers**

Determination of polyurethane acrylate oligomers molecular weight is considered as an essential factor because it determines many physical properties. The data

#### *Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112425*

obtained from gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis of the prepared polyurethane acrylate oligomers are listed in **Table 1**.

From gel permeation chromatography data, it can be noted that, generally, Mw values for synthetized polyurethanes (PUAmcs, PUAms, and PUAm) using microwave are higher than that of the conventional thermally synthesized one (PUAt). These results agree very well with the previous reports. Microwave synthesis of polyurethane acrylate oligomers is producing higher molecular weight compared with thermal heating [5]. This may be due to that microwave irradiation is not depending on the thermal conductivity of the vessel materials. Thus, leading to a rapid raising in matter temperature directly related to the rotational motion of the molecules.

This action increases molecule mobility and therefore increases the reactivity of molecule functional groups, that is, OH and NCO groups. Consequently, this leads to enhance the reaction between functional groups [10]. Then, the interaction rate will increase, which results in higher molecular weight than that obtained from the thermal heating synthesis method. That increase in molecular weight of polyurethane acrylate oligomers is required, because it is well known that to obtain good mechanical properties as a molecular weight higher than 10,000 g/mole is needed [28].

From gel permeation chromatography data, it is clear that PUAmcs and PUAms have the highest Mw values in microwave PU group. While, lower value is corresponding to PUAm. This means that the presence of a solvent during microwave synthesis of PUA favored the formation of higher-molecular-weight polymer chains. This may be attributed to the action of a solvent during the polymerization process. The solvent enhances the chain growth of polymers instead of chain transfer resulting in increasing in the molecular weight of polymer as whole [29]. This is also may be due to the dependence of the microwave irradiation character on the properties of the solvent used [5].

In addition to that, by comparing gel permeation chromatography data of PUAmcs and PUAms in detail, it is evident that PUAmcs has slightly higher Mw value than PUAms, while PDI value of PUAms is better than PUAmcs. This can be explained as follows: the basic function of the catalyst during polyurethane synthesis is to catalyze chain extension in addition to developing several side reactions [8]. Based on this fact, the catalyst-free reaction powered by microwave irradiation may guide the reaction to develop in the desired direction (the formation of the main product), at the same


*Where PUAt polyurethane acrylate was synthesized via conventional thermal heating;*

*PUAmcs polyurethane acrylate was synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation using catalyst and solvent; PUAms polyurethane acrylate was synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation without assistance of the catalyst; PUAm polyurethane acrylate was synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation in the absence of solvent and catalyst.*

#### **Table 1.**

*Gel permeation chromatography data of prepared polyurethane acrylates oligomers.*

time, reduce the side reactions to a minimum degree, and to improve the polymerization mechanism pathway (PDI value) as whole. PDI or polydispersity index is a value, which expresses the scale of nonuniformity during the polymerization reactions. PDI is used as a measure for the broadness of a molecular weight distribution of a polymer. The larger the PDI is, the broader the molecular weight will be. A monodispersed polymer, where all chain lengths are equal (such as a protein), has PDI = 1. The bestcontrolled synthetic polymers have PDI of 1.02 to 1.10. Chain reactions yield PDI values between 1.5 and 20. From GPC data, the PDI values for both microwave and thermal prepared polyurethanes have values between 1.11907 and 1.3454 which indicate that all reactions are carried out under uniform and homogenous mechanism. The best PDI value is 1.11907 for PUAms. This result proves that microwave irradiation synthesis of PUA is more ordered, homogenous, and uniform process than a thermal heating process [10].

#### **3.4 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of polyurethane acrylate oligomers**

This analysis is important to be performed in finding out the suitable environment for the processing of materials. In addition, any undesired byproduct can be distinguished from TGA data. **Figure 5** shows the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers. It is seen that all synthesized PUA via microwave irradiation (PUAmcs, PUAms, and PUAm) show enhanced thermal stability than conventional thermal ones (PUAt).

By comparing the values of the initial decomposition temperature of the synthesized samples Ti (the temperature corresponding to the decomposition process is started) and Tmax (the temperature corresponding to major decomposition process), it is found that Ti and Tmax values of all PUAm are higher than that of PUAt. Determination of kinetic parameters related to thermal decomposition is considered a key factor for understanding the thermal character of polyurethane under dynamic conditions [30]. Activation energy (E\*) is considered as a semiquantitative factor describing the thermal stability of material, the higher E\* value is, the greater the

**Figure 5.** *Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of synthesized polyurethane acrylates.*

*Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112425*


*Where PUAt polyurethane acrylate was synthesized via conventional thermal heating;*

*PUAmcs polyurethane acrylate was synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation using catalyst and solvent; PUAms polyurethane acrylate was synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation without assistance of the catalyst; PUAm polyurethane acrylate was synthesized with the aid of microwave irradiation in the absence of solvent and catalyst.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Thermogravimetric analytical data of synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers.*

thermal stability of polymer. The calculated activation energy values for the synthesized PUA agreed well with the previous results.

The temperature variations corresponding to different percentages of weight loss during the process of thermal decomposition of the tested synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers are listed in **Table 2**.

The results show that the microwave PUA record improved thermal stability than PUAt. This is proved by recording higher decomposition temperatures corresponding to microwave PUA during degradation processes than that of PUAt.

From the results stated above, PUA synthesized using microwave irradiation recorded improved results than PUAt in all of Ti, Tmax, activation energy, and the rest of the other kinetic parameters [30]. From these results, we can conclude that microwave irradiation synthetic method of polyurethane acrylates improves their thermal stability under all reaction conditions. Moreover, PUAms shows enhanced kinetics parameter results. So, PUAms can be considered as the highest thermally stable synthesized polymer.

#### **3.5 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)**

Thermal history of the synthesized polyurethane acrylate samples is studied by means of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. In the temperature range below 100°C, DSC curves for the synthesized PUAS show two transitions. The first one is between 5.6 and 8.5°C. The second transition is around 57°C. These temperatures are corresponding to the glass transition temperature (Tg) and melting point temperature (Tm) of the soft segment, respectively. The appearance of Tg corresponding to soft segments in a separated manner enhances the presence of a suggested phase separation performance [31]. DSC curves are shown in **Figure 6**. The lowest Tg value is corresponding to PUAt. While, all microwave-synthesized PUAS show higher values.

This may be explained as follows: the value of Tg is mainly affected by segment mobility [32]. Therefore, as described above, all microwave-synthesized PUAS have higher ability for hydrogen bond formation between segments than PUAt. Thus, they exhibit higher phase separation manner than PUAt. In addition, it is known that phase separation restricts the chain mobility and hinders their movement [33]. This causes an increase in Tg values for all microwave-synthesized PUA compared to PUAt. From the above data, we can conclude that MW irradiation synthesis of polyurethane acrylate enhances Tg values of soft segments than thermal heating method.

**Figure 6.** *Differential scanning calorimetry of synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers.*

#### **3.6 X-ray diffraction**

The crystallinity is a term that is referring to a high degree of atom arrangement (tightly packed, repeating, and regular structure). In the field of polymers, there is no crystalline polymer even with a highly ordered one. There must be some crystals disorder [7]. On the other hand, the brilliant physical properties of polyurethane polymer are due to its ability for the formation of what is called segments as reported before [7]. So, the polymer matrices containing both amorphous and crystalline domains are deployed in each other. This action plays a major role in the crystallization of polyurethane polymers. These bonds effectively link neighboring chains to build crystals which aid in reinforcing polyurethane unite and increase its stability [34]. Moreover, PU morphology and macroscopic properties are governed by the crystallinity of the phases, size of domains, and molecular composition. Both of the hydrogen bonding and the interaction among the units in the hard domains (Van der Waal's force) control polyurethane crystallinity [35]. By calculating the crystallinity % of the synthesized PUA, the degree of phase separation can be estimated. All PUA polymers are scanned over the range of 2theta (θ) angle from 5 to 70 degrees. From **Figure 7**, which represents XRD spectra of the synthesized PUAS, we can note that all samples show a crystalline structure represented by the emergence of strong crystallinity peaks on XRD charts. Highly characteristic crystallinity peaks appear at around 2θ = 19.1, 23.2, 26.1, respectively [36].

In addition to that, a broad amorphous peak is observed on XRD charts. Crystallinity% has been calculated from the following equation [37]:

$$\text{\%Crystallimity} = \frac{Area\ under\ crystals\ peaks}{\text{Total Area under all peaks!}} \times \text{100} \tag{2}$$

The calculated crystallinity % shows that all samples possess good crystallinity degree. This gives a good evidence about the existence of hydrogen bonds between polymers units, and therefore, the presence of phase separation pattern. The crystallinity % values of microwave-synthesized polyurethane group are 45.25, 42.7, and 38.6 for PUAms, PUAmcs, and PUAm respectively. The highest crystallinity % is found for *Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112425*

**Figure 7.** *XRD chart of synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers.*

PUAms. This may be due to that it has the highest hydrogen bond formation ability among all synthesized PUAs as shown from FT-IR data. The next value is attributed to PUAmcs, and at the end of microwave PUA list PUAm is located. These results can be explained by the following: the presence of a solvent can develop the polyurethanes crystallinity during microwave irradiation synthesis through the enhancement of hydrogen bond formation between segments leading to a higher phase separation degree. Generally, the crystallinity % values for PUAm are higher than PUAt (32.5%). These results show a good agreement with FT-IR spectral data previously explained. From the above results, we can conclude that microwave irradiation synthesis of polyurethane acrylates develops hydrogen bond formation between polymer units leading to enriching the phase separation action, resulting in increasing the ability of the polymer molecules to be ordered in well-arranged manner. Therefore, the crystallinity percentage is increased than the thermal heating.

#### **3.7 Transmission electron microscopy**

By comparing TEM images of microwave-synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers (**Figures 8b**–**8d**) and that of the thermal synthesized one (PUAt) (**Figure 8a**), it is observed that all microwave-synthesized polyurethanes show smaller particle size, regular, and uniform particle structure with a narrower distribution compared to PUAt particles. In addition to this feature, all PUAm appear to be in a nanoscaled size with particles size in range between 37 and 17 nanometer.

From the above results, it is clear that the ability of microwave irradiation synthesis of PUA to yield nanoscale-uniform polymers particles; whether the reaction in MW reactor is carried out in all systematic reaction condition (PUAmcs) or not (PUAm, PUAm). It is evident also that the absence of the catalyst or even the solvent from the reaction conditions do not affect the brilliant character of synthesized PUA via microwave irradiation.

On the other hand, TEM image of PUAt shows larger range of particles size distribution, as the particles of PUAt appear to be out of nanoscale, where TEM image shows the spreading of all particles in the range between 118 and 184 nanometer. But all microwave-synthesized polyurethanes show a nanosized cubic crystal in the range between 35 and 39 nanometers. So, the synthesized polyurethane acrylate oligomers can be classified as nanostructured oligomers [11].

**Figure 8.**

*Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of (a) PUAt, (b) PUAmcs, (c) PUAms, and (d) PUAm.*

Due to the severe conditions in which the polymer was synthesized (under microwave irradiation without using catalyst and solvent), it shows an additional different trends in its TEM images. Tree-like shape and broad networks in addition to subsequent aggregation are observed [38]. This may be explained as follows: the absence of a solvent during the synthesis process results in a direct harsh interaction between monomer and molecules in the presence of microwave irradiation resulting in a concentrated branched polymer network.

Finally, from the above results, it could be concluded that the microwave irradiation may guide the reaction mechanism toward the producing of nanoscaled particles with uniform and homogeneous particle distribution during PUA synthesis.

#### **4. Conclusion**

From the results obtained from different analyses of the polyurethane acrylate oligomers synthesized by either microwave irradiation or thermal heating, it is possible to conclude the following: successful synthesis of polyurethane acrylate has been verified by FT-IR analytical tool under both thermal heating and microwave irradiation. Due to the ultra-properties of microwave irradiation, it was possible to synthesize polyurethane acrylate without catalyst and/or solvent. This represents an excellent environmental additive in polyurethane synthesis chemistry. The synthesis of polyurethanes using microwave irradiation was achieved in a record time representing 1/12 of the reaction time needed for the normal thermal heating. Phase separation manner develops when microwave irradiation was used as the energy

#### *Synthesis of Polyurethane Acrylate Oligomers Using Microwave Irradiation Energy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112425*

source instead of the normal thermal heating method. Both the Mw and Mn of microwave-synthesized polyurethane oligomers recorded higher values compared to those obtained by the thermal heating process. In addition, the PDI values indicate that microwave irradiation syntheses of polyurethanes resulted in a more uniform and homogenous reaction mechanisms. Polyurethane acrylates synthesized by microwave irradiation possess enhanced thermal stability than the thermal heating synthesized one. The crystallinity percentages of microwave-synthesized polyurethanes are higher than the thermal heating-synthesized polymer. Regular, ordered, and homogeneous polymers within nanosize particle distribution are obtained because of the application of microwave irradiation in the synthesis of polyurethane acrylate.

### **Author details**

Fatma N. El-Shall<sup>1</sup> , Karema M. Haggag<sup>1</sup> , Mohamed M. El-Molla1,2\* and Ahmed I. Hashem<sup>3</sup>

1 National Research Centre, Textile Research and Technology Institute, Giza, Egypt

2 Chemistry Department, College of Science and Arts, Jouf University, Al-Gurayyat, Saudi Arabia

3 Faculty of Science, Chemistry Department, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

\*Address all correspondence to: mmelmolla@ju.edu.sa; mohamedelmolla212@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 4**

## The Role of Surface Modification Methods for Sustainable Textiles

*Gürsel Korkmaz, Mehmet Kılınç, Nur Kılınç and Y. Dilek Kut*

#### **Abstract**

Sustainability aims to provide a livable future for the next generations. Studies on reducing high chemical, energy, and water consumption make significant contributions to sustainability in many sectors. The textile sector consists of many processes such as fiber production, yarn and fabric production, dyeing, and finishing processes. Each of these processes consumes a significant amount of water and energy. Cotton fiber production consumes approximately 1559 kg of fresh water per kg, and polyester fiber production consumes approximately 108 kWh of electricity per kg. Clean water consumption can be up to 200 L/kg in subsequent processes such as bleaching, dyeing, printing, and finishing. Surface modification techniques in textile production can play a role in sustainability, especially in areas such as reduction, reuse, and recycling. In this chapter, we aim to investigate the effects of surface modification techniques on reducing chemical, energy, and water consumption in textile production, improving textile performance properties, and altering the service life of textiles.

**Keywords:** sustainable textiles, energy consumption, water consumption, surface modification, finishing

#### **1. Introduction**

The textile and apparel industries consume large amounts of energy, chemicals, and water [1]. Especially high amounts of water and chemicals used in dyeing and finishing processes cause concerns. Approximately 50–200 liters of water are required to produce 1 kg of textile products. In addition to the amount of water consumed, this water can be seriously contaminated during textile production due to dyeing and chemical treatments [2]. This pollution can lead to damage to water resources and the environment. Inadequate water treatment systems and low-efficiency production methods can increase pollution. The textile industry is an important industry that has developed since the beginning of humanity and will probably continue until the end of humanity. For this reason, sustainability, reduce, reuse, and recycling are important concepts in the textile industry. Many brands and manufacturers are taking various measures to make their production processes water-friendly. Steps such as more efficient production machines, dyeing and finishing processes with low water consumption, and the use of organic and recycled materials are becoming common in the industry.

Some countries and sectors have sustainability standards and certification programs. For example, certificates such as the Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) and Bluesign regulate issues such as water consumption and environmental impacts in textile production. These standards promote sustainability and water saving in the sector. Many textile companies known in the global market organize projects on sustainability: Adidas Parley for the Oceans; Nike Grind; H&M Conscious Collection; Levi's, Water<Less; Patagonia Common Threads Initiative; Dry Indigo – Arvind; DYECOO – DYECOO Textile Systems; ECOSENSOR – Hohenstein Institute; Dry Dye – Yeh Group. In addition, award organizations organized on sustainability, some projects to reduce energy consumption, and some projects to reduce chemical consumption are given below:

#### **Awards and competitions**


#### **Projects to reduce energy consumption**


#### **Projects to reduce chemical consumption:**


Sustainability is a concept that basically aims to provide a livable environment for present and future generations. The waste management hierarchy, which has many rules, is an important part of sustainability. Some of these rules are called R rules: reuse, reduce, and recycle. In addition, some researches also give refuse, rethink, and recover [3]. The concept of reduction basically means reducing waste. For this, reducing unnecessary

consumption comes first. Reuse encourages the preference for durable, reusable products over disposable products and the use of second-hand products. After that, recycling supports the reintroduction of nonreusable products into the production line as raw material or supporting material. We can adopt these concepts individually and turn them into our lifestyles. We can also adapt production processes to these concepts. Surface modification techniques can reduce water, chemical, and energy consumption and extend the life of products. Thus, it contributes to the concepts of reduce and reuse in production processes.

Some methods such as dyeing with supercritical fluids can reduce or eliminate water consumption and the use of chemicals; As another example, the use of reducing and oxidizing agents is reduced in the electrochemical dyeing method. This reduces water pollution and the amount of waste. There are also different aspects to reducing chemical pollution: use of green chemicals, use of more efficient methods; advanced treatment and recycling systems; alternative methods such as digital printing; training to be given to employees on sustainability; and creating sustainable supply chains that encourage stakeholders to use less chemicals; Participating in sustainability standards and certification programs. In addition, surface modification techniques can increase processing speeds, thereby reducing energy consumption. In this chapter, surface modification techniques and alternative methods that benefit sustainability are classified under biological, physical, and chemical subheadings. We aimed to summarize these methods that contribute to the reduction of water, chemical, and energy consumption in the textile sector and to contribute to the widespread use of these methods.

#### **2. Surface modification methods**

Surfaces can be modified by chemical, biological agents, or physical mechanisms. Surface modification can change some properties on a substrate with some methods. For example, adding new functional substances by grafting [4]; changing the area and structure of surfaces by plasma treatment [5]. Thus, different properties such as antibacterial, water-repellent, and UV resistance can be given to the substrate; on the other hand mechanical properties of the substrate can be changed [4]. There are various classifications for surface modification ways in the literature. In this chapter, we have given some surface modification techniques with physical, biological and chemical subtitles (**Figure 1**).

#### **2.1 Physical-based surface modification methods**

#### *2.1.1 Plasma treatment*

Ionized gasses, defined as the fourth state of matter, are called plasma. Sir William Crookes was the first to describe the existence of an ionized gas, the fourth state of matter, in 1879 [6–8]. The scientist who used the term plasma in 1929 was Irving Langmuir [6]. After the discovery of the plasma state of matter, interest in this field increased in the following years, and this technique began to be used to give many different properties to materials used in various industries. The properties of materials used in the ceramics, plastics, textiles, inorganic biomaterials, paper, and electronics industries were developed using plasma technology [9].

A basic distinction is made between cold and hot plasma applications, but not all plasma forms can be applied to textile materials. In particular, hot plasma applications change the structure of the textile material and cause deformation, which leads to a deterioration of the physical and chemical properties of the material [10]. Cold plasma applications are preferred for textiles because hot plasmas damage the material, application costs are high, and energy requirements are high under ambient conditions [7, 10]. Cold plasma applications are divided into atmospheric and vacuum plasma [11]. Atmospheric plasma is classified as dielectric barrier discharge, thermal discharge, and corona discharge. Vacuum plasma, on the other hand, is classified into two groups: Low frequency and high frequency [10]. Plasma application can impart water-repellent, oil-repellent, wettable, antifelting, flame-retardant, dyeable, and antimicrobial properties to the textile product [12].

The type of gas used, the flow rate, the system pressure, the discharge power, the duration of treatment, the aging of the plasma-treated surface, and the temperature change during plasma treatment are the parameters that affect the application [10, 12, 13].

The importance of plasma technology for sustainability is mentioned below [13–16].


#### **2.2 Laser treatment**

Laser is the abbreviation for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation" [17]. The basis of laser is based on electron transitions between atomic or molecular energy levels. The first laser forming the basis of this laser technology was manufactured in 1960 [18]. Lasers are classified as gas lasers (He-Ne, argon, carbon dioxide, and excimer), solid-state lasers (ruby, Nd:YAG, erbium-doped glass, and Fcenter), metal vapor lasers (helium-cadmium and copper vapor), and other lasers (dye and free electrons) [18]. Laser technology is used in engineering and technology, health sciences, security, and defense [19].

The technologies used in the textile industry are increasing daily to meet the requirements. One of these technologies is laser technology. This technology is used in the textile industry for fading (marking), engraving (laser printing), cutting, and welding [20]. From the studies conducted so far, laser technology is used in textile defect detection, cutting, body size scanning, denim fading, printing, thermoplastic welding, evaluation of seam pucker, barcode scanning, marking, surface metal substance detection, and surface decoration [21]. The advantages of laser application in terms of sustainability are listed below [17, 21–24].


#### **2.3 UV radiation treatment**

In the electromagnetic spectrum, the rays with a wavelength between 100 nm and 400 nm are called UV rays [25]. The existence of UV rays was noted by Johann Ritter in 1801 [26]. UV rays are divided into three different groups: UV-A (320-400 nm), UV-B (280–320 nm), and UV-C (200-280 nm) rays [27].

UV technology is used in various industrial fields (enzyme immobilization, tissue engineering, etc.) [28]. One of these application areas is the textile industry. Studies can be found in the literature where UV rays have been applied to polypropylene, polyethylene, cotton, and wool fibers [27, 29, 30]. In these studies, it was found that the application of UV rays for surface modification improved hydrophilicity, adhesion, dye uptake, and decrease in pilling on product surfaces

[27, 31, 32]. UV rays cause weak bonds to break and functional groups to form on the applied surfaces. It has been reported that UV rays form carboxyl, aldehyde, hydroxyl, carbonyl, and other reactive groups on the surface, resulting in an increase in hydrophilicity and dye uptake [25]. Another advantage is that the modification does not cause a significant change in fabric strength during this application [33]. In addition to these advantages, the benefits in terms of sustainability are as follows:


#### **2.4 Gamma radiation treatment**

Gamma rays were observed in 1900 by chemist Paul Villard [34]. Gamma rays (λ < 10 pm) are electromagnetic radiations with high energy (energy >100 keV) [35]. Gamma rays are rays emitted by radioactive isotopes (Cs-137 or Co-60) [25]. Gamma rays are used in medicine, genetics, the textile industry, the nuclear industry, and various industries where disinfection and sterilization are required [36]. Gamma irradiation is defined as penetrative ionizing radiation. Due to this ionizing property, ions, free radicals, excited states, and reactive intermediates are formed as a result of ionization and excitation on the treated surfaces.

In the textile industry, there have been studies on cationization of textile surfaces by gamma irradiation, adding functional groups on the surface, mercerization, increase in dye uptake, and finishing [36]. In related studies, it was found that dye uptake, hydrophilicity, color fastness and strength, and interfacial strength (composites) increased on the surface, and the degree of wrinkling decreased [35, 37, 38]. Gamma rays are known to cause both physical and chemical changes in textile products [25]. In this direction, it is assumed that the above-mentioned changes have occurred. Gamma radiation also has advantages in terms of sustainability. Each of these is listed below [37–39].


#### **2.5 Microwave treatment**

Microwave has a frequency of 300 to 300,000 megahertz (MHz) and a wavelength of 1 cm to 1 m [40]. The development of microwave technology began during World War II [41]. In addition, microwave technology was commercialized in 1947 [40]. Microwave technology is used in various fields of industry for drying, accelerating chemical reactions, and organic synthesis [42].

In the textile industry, microwave technology is used in drying and application processes in textile finishing. The relevant literature states that microwave energy has some positive impact on uptake of dye, dyeing time, effective and homogeneous drying, and dye fastness [25, 43–46]. In addition, the effects of microwave application on sustainability are explained point by point below [25, 41, 47–49].


#### **2.6 Chemical vapor deposition**

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) is one of the thin film and vapor phase deposition methods [50]. In the CVD method, the gaseous material to be coated is deposited on the surface in the form of a film, powder, or fiber with the help of a carrier gas (e. g., He, Ar, and N2) and chemical reactions such as pyrolysis, hydrolysis, oxidation and reduction [50, 51]. It is known that the produced coatings are thinner than 10 micrometers [52]. It is claimed that the development of the CVD system took place between 1880 and 1890 with the help of studies conducted with the aim of strengthening carbon filaments [53]. There are also different types of CVDs. Among them, some methods are used in textile applications: plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) and initiated chemical vapor deposition (ICVD) methods [50, 54, 55].

CVD is used in various fields (microelectronics, electronics, ceramics, ferroelectrics, superconductors, etc.) due to its advantages [53]. The textile industry is one of these areas. The CVD process has the advantages of fast and pure film generation, deposition of difficult-to-evaporate materials, and reproducibility. However, in general, the CVD process has the disadvantage of requiring high temperatures, involving complex processes, and releasing harmful gasses (toxic and corrosive) as by-products [50–54]. These disadvantages are also problematic in terms of sustainability.

#### **2.7 Layer-by-layer**

In the layer-by-layer method, oppositely charged macromolecules are arranged one after the other on the surface to be coated [56]. This method was first started in 1966 with the work of Iler [57]. Later, LBL was further developed by the work of Decher in 1990 [58]. The coating thickness of the layer on the material can vary from 1 nm to 500 nm [57, 59]. This application is used in various fields (electronics,

medicine, textiles, machinery, and other technical fields). The literature reports that the mechanical, magnetic, optical, thermal, electrical, and macroscopic properties of the materials used are improved [58, 60].

In the studies conducted on textiles using the LBL method, it was found that the textile surfaces are provided with UV protection, antibacterial, hydrophobic, flame retardant, self-repairing, and antifelting properties and that the color and tear resistance is increased [56, 57, 60]. In addition to these benefits, the LBL method also offers sustainability advantages. These advantages are listed below [47, 56–60].


#### **2.8 Ultrasound treatment**

Ultrasonic waves are vibrations with a frequency of more than 20 kHz in a range that is imperceptible to humans [61, 62]. The chemical and biological effects of ultrasonic energy have long been known. In industry, it is used primarily for sterilization due to its cavitation properties [63]. Ultrasonic technology is used in pharmacology, chemistry, food, medical, polymer, textile, and metal industries for cleaning, cutting, drying, mixing, and combining [61]. It is well known that ultrasonic technology is used in the textile industry for desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, washing, compounding, printing, enzyme applications, wastewater treatment, and extraction of natural dyes [64]. In these applications, ultrasonic technology offers the following advantages thanks to its cavitation function [61–66].


In addition to these advantages of ultrasonic technology, its sustainable effects are listed below [47, 61–64].


#### **3. Biological-based surface modification methods**

The pressure on global consumption and the environment is increasing due to the growing world population and the developing economies of countries. The use of alternative technologies that can be produced with less consumption of natural resources to meet the needs of people is one of the most important steps that can be taken in terms of sustainability [67].

The use of bio-based materials and nature in production processes, known as industrial biotechnology, is one of the technologies that offer an alternative to conventional technologies for cleaner production [68]. The apparel and textile industry is considered one of the main polluters of surface and groundwater resources due to its excessive water and energy consumption, as well as the use and discharge of nonbiodegradable synthetic chemicals [69, 70].

Along with the environmentally and sustainability-conscious societies, textile and readymade garment manufacturers have also recognized the importance and need for eco-friendly products and processes that prevent the use of harmful chemicals [71]. The biological surface modification methods used in the textile industry are classified in this chapter as follows:


#### **3.1 Enzymes**

Enzyme processes are considered a promising and sustainable biotechnological alternative to conventional processes. The use of enzymes for human needs dates back to 2000 years ago. The use of microorganisms in processes such as bread baking and the

**Figure 2.** *Lock & key Model of enzymes [75].*

conversion of rice to sugar in koji production can be cited as examples of the use of enzymes [72]. Enzymes are biocatalysts consisting of metabolites derived from bacterial derivatives of living organisms. The substances that participate in chemical or biochemical reactions and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction are called catalysts [73].

Enzymes act like molecular machine that allows molecules to react with each other. Like a key fitting into a lock, chemical molecules fit into pocket-like structures on the enzyme. These pockets hold the molecules in a position where they can react with each other so they are close enough together and properly aligned. In this way, the enzymes speed up the reactions. When the reaction is complete, the enzymes release the products and are ready to assemble more molecules and catalyze more reactions [74]. Enzymes have active sites, which are sites to which the substrate molecule can bind. Just as a particular key fits the lock, a particular substrate molecule fits the active site of the lock enzyme. The substrate forms a complex with the enzyme [75]. The substrate molecule is then converted to the product and the enzyme is regenerated (**Figure 2**).

Enzymes are in demand in the textile industry, pulp, and paper industry, cosmetics industry, food and beverage industry, biodiesel industry, detergent industry, and leather industry in many industrial applications [67].

Enzymatic surface modification of textiles is a process that involves treating fibers or attaching functional groups to the surface to change their physical and chemical surface properties [76]. **Figure 3** shows the enzymes used in textile manufacturing processes [77]. Many enzymes can be used in textile processes and they provide some advantages as follows [78].


Enzymes, which are available from many sources, are of great importance for the sustainable development of the textile industry. The use of enzymes in wet processes of the textile industry is increasing day by day due to the following benefits [77, 79–81]. These are:


*The Role of Surface Modification Methods for Sustainable Textiles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112792*

#### **Figure 3.**

*The names of enzymes used in textile processes.*


There are some limitations to the application of enzymes in textile processes [25, 77, 78]. Some of them are listed below:


Therefore, enzyme-based biotechnology is one of the environmentally friendly processes that contribute to sustainability in the textile industry, but it is an area that still needs to be developed.

#### **3.2 Chitosan**

Chitin is the second most abundant natural polymer in the world. It is usually extracted from the exoskeleton of fungi and crustaceans. Chitin was boiled in potassium hydroxide and found to become soluble in organic acids. This observation led to the discovery of chitosan in 1859, and Hoppe-Seyler named this material chitosan in 1894 [82–84]. Reactive amino and hydroxyl functional groups in the chain structure of chitosan can make chemical bonding to the inorganic reinforcement network and processability even more efficient through various modifications [85, 86].

Chitosan is biodegradable, odorless, and nontoxic, which makes it a versatile green material that can contribute to environmental sustainability [87–90]. Due to its interesting properties, chitosan is considered one of the most promising bio-based polymers with a wide range of applications to solve numerous problems in fields such as biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, food, medicine, textile, environment, paper, and agriculture [88, 90, 91].

Today, purification of water by adsorption with low-cost adsorbents is considered an effective, economical, and environmentally friendly method. The natural and lowcost products to be developed are considered as popular alternatives to synthetic polymers [92].

In recent years, chitosan and its blends/composites have been intensively researched as they are excellent bioabsorbents with high adsorption properties [93, 94]. The solubility property of chitosan increases its usability and the effectiveness of the reactive sites. There are some limitations to the use of chitosan. Particle size, porosity, and crystallinity, that is, physical factors, can affect the adsorption properties of chitosan materials. Due to its low adsorption capacity, surface area, hydrophilicity, high crystallinity, nonporosity, and mass transfer resistance, the use of chitosan in applications is limited [95]. Due to its polycationic nature, chitosan can form strong ionic bonds with tissue materials. In addition, chitosan is widely used in textile dyeing and finishing [96]. Due to the nanofiber structure of chitosan, it is widely used in medical textiles, especially as wound dressing [97]. In addition, polysaccharide fibers coated with a chitosan film or modified chitosan can impart improved properties to textile products. Some of these properties include the following [85, 98]:


The biocompatibility, biodegradability, and bioactivity of chitosan are extremely important properties for human well-being. From textile finishing to wastewater treatment of textiles, the demand for eco-friendly biopolymers such as chitosan is increasing day by day in addition to sustainability in many sectors of the textile industry [94].

#### **3.3 Plant-based compounds**

Plants have some active compounds such as diketones, flavonoid and chalcones. These compounds may provide some functional properties: for example, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant [99]. The literature presents some studies that textile materials are tried to functionalized with some of these compounds [100].

In recent years, the textile industry in particular has come under a lot of environmental criticism. As a result, environmental and economic restrictions have been placed on the chemicals used, up to and including bans [101].

Specific concepts where plant-based compounds can be used in textile finishing that are environmentally friendly, biocompatible, low toxic, and sustainable have become very fashionable in recent years [102].

The exploration of natural products and plant substances for various finishing techniques is important due to their sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness [103]. Plant-based products used in the production of eco-friendly textiles are considered as one of the most important textile applications. The growing health awareness among people is mainly due to the frequent occurrence of infectious diseases worldwide. Therefore, antibacterial textiles are becoming more and more popular day by day [68]. Due to the sustainability and environmental friendliness of plant-based compounds, they are widely used to impart deodorizing/aromatizing, insect repellent, antioxidant, flame retardant, UV protective, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties to textile products [102].

The use of plant-based compounds in textile products has some advantages [104–107]. These are:


On the other hand, the use of plant-based compounds in textile products has some disadvantages [103, 104, 108]. These are:


The use of plant-based compounds in the textile industry is eco-friendly and sustainable. No harmful chemicals are used, and therefore no wastewater treatment is required, which reduces production costs.

#### **3.4 β-Cyclodextrin**

Nowadays, the production of functional textiles with environmentally friendly materials and processes is very popular in the textile industry. β-Cyclodextrin (β-CD) is bioconsistent, biodegradable, environmentally friendly, and clean. Many auxiliaries are used together with basic chemicals in textile finishing processes. Cyclodextrins

(CD) are one of these auxiliaries. However, excipients used in the textile industry today are expected to have properties such as lower fabric consumption, biodegradability, less waste, and multifunctionality, especially in textile auxiliaries. Biopolymers, biocompatible, sustainable, and clean cyclodextrin molecules have been the subject of numerous scientific studies [86, 109, 110].

The most commonly used and well-known cyclodextrins are α-CD, β-CD, and γ-CD. They are named after the number of glucose units and are the predominant examples of cyclodextrins with 6, 7, and 8 glucose units, respectively, and a hydrophilic surface and a hydrophobic cavity formed by enzymes [109]. They are watersoluble and insoluble organic solvents. β-CD is the least water-soluble CD. β-Cyclodextrin and its derivatives are the most popular cyclodextrins because they are easy to process, have a low price, do not cause skin sensitization and irritation, and are nonmutagenic [111]. The hydroxyl (-OH) groups of β-CD can scavenge water contaminants through adsorption. It can also capture β-CD metal oxides [106, 107]. In addition to the textile industry, b-cyclodextrin is used in medicine, other paint industry, chemistry, agriculture, food industry, etc. [110, 112, 113]

Cyclodextrin is generally preferred in printing, dyeing, and finishing applications in the textile industry. Cyclodextrins are used in textile applications for imparting functional properties such as UV protection, antifungal, odor properties, antibacterial activity, insecticidal properties, and dyeing [114, 115].

β-CDs can be used in the dyeing process to improve the dye uptake of textile fibers and minimize dye loss in wastewater, increase color uniformity, and prevent dye bleeding during cleaning [109]. The biocompatible cyclodextrin biopolymer used in the finishing process is one of the promising materials for the production of highvalue-added textile products.

#### **3.5 Sericin**

Silk is a natural polymer synthesized by silkworms and spiders. It is most commonly obtained from the silkworm *Bombyx mori* and some spider species such as *Araneus diadematus* and *Nephila calavipes* [116]. The ease of processing, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and high mechanical properties of silk fibers, which are available in natural and regenerated forms, make them a popular material for the production of functional materials [117]. Silk is composed of two main proteins, fibroin (fibrous protein) and sericin (globular, rubbery protein). The fibroin protein in silk is 70–80% crystalline and insoluble in water. Sericin, on the other hand, is 20– 30% amorphous and water-soluble. Sericin acts as an adhesive that holds fibroin filaments together [118].

Today, silk fibroin is recognized as a valuable textile material; on the other hand, it is also a remarkable biomaterial in various fields such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, electronic devices, and environmental restoration [116, 119, 120]. Sericin has received less attention than fibroin; however, this protein has been recognized as a potential biomaterial due to its biocompatibility, immunocompatibility, biodegradability, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, and photoprotective properties [116, 121]. Sericin is generally used in the textile industry for absorbing moisture in fabrics, improving antibacterial activity, producing nanofibers, creating self-cleaning, and improving UV protection [122]. On the other hand, sericin has the potential to improve some properties in textile material: tear resistance, antiwrinkle, dyeability, fiber strength, tensile strength, and fabric handle [123].

*The Role of Surface Modification Methods for Sustainable Textiles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112792*

Silk fibroin and sericin must be separated before processing because they differ greatly in appearance, solubility, amino acid composition, and number of reactive groups. In the textile industry, a process called degumming (also called washing) is required to obtain silk fibroin filaments with excellent handle, high luster, and high capillary height [120, 124]. Conventional degumming processes using soap, alkali, or both can cause environmental damage, high water and energy consumption, and damage to silk fiber. Today, the following environmentally friendly degumming methods are used [120, 125, 126].


In the textile industry, there are studies on the reuse of sericin as a bioactive excipient in the fields of medicine and cosmetics. Textile companies can generate revenue by selling waste sericin as part of environmentally friendly production and sustainability, thereby reducing wastewater treatment costs [127].

#### **4. Chemical-based surface modification methods**

#### **4.1 Foam application**

Foam application was developed in the early 1970s [128]. Foam is formed by inflating any liquid with a suitable gas, thus increasing the surface area of chemicals. This makes the application possible by using less water and chemical [129]. In addition, using less water also reduces the energy consumption required for drying [130]. By stirring at high speed, a large volume fraction of air is introduced into the solution. Thus, a small amount of finishing solution can be converted into a large amount of foam [131].

There are two types of foams: round-cell foams and angular-cell foams. Round foams are not used in textile finishing because they contain too much water. Another reason for using angular foams is that their durability is better than round foams. There are some important parameters for the foam application to be successful: The foam should remain stable until it reaches the fabric; it should decompose quickly when it reaches the textile; it should be resistant to other chemicals; and it should not contain too much water. In the textile industry, air is used as gas and application solution is used as liquid [132].

The foam application is as follows: liquor preparation, foam formation, foam application, foam destruction, drying, and fixation. Foam production is performed by two methods or a combination of them: air-blowing, stirring, or combining these two methods [133]. After surfactants are dissolved in water, surfactants cover the air bubbles that are formed in the bath by the rotation of the rotor around the stator in the foam generator. When air bubbles with low density rise toward the surface, they are

#### *Roadmap to Sustainable Textiles*

covered with a second layer of surfactants on the surface. Thus, the application liquid is trapped between the two surfactant layers, and the foam cell is ready to use [132]. After the production of the foam, the textile surface is treated with a foam applicator. The textile industry uses several methods to apply foam to the textile material. Some of them are doctor blade, roller coaster, slot applicator, pad mangles, kiss coating, knife systems, and printing [134].

Compared to conventional methods, it has the advantages of chemical cost, working time, and working flexibility. Foam application makes it possible to process with much lower water consumption by increasing volume of the foam. However, there is no need for defoaming chemicals. With rapid wetting and high penetration on the product surface, it increases the working speed and reduces the energy used [135]. Compared to classical methods, it provides lower water, chemical, energy consumption, and working time. In addition, both sides of the fabric can be coated with this method. In addition to its advantages in sustainability, it also contributes to the textile and production process as follows:


#### **4.2 N-capsulation**

'N-capsulation method provides the production of capsules that includes several functional properties such as antimicrobial, insect repellent, and anti-inflammatory [136]. The inner material that has functional features is called core, while the material covering the core is called shell [137]. Wall material choice depends on some parameters such as reactive groups of the core material and textile surface. The capsules are classified according to their size as nanocapsular (<1 μm), microcapsules (1–1000 μm), and macrocapsules (>1000 μm). However, dimensions of the capsules below 40 mm are recommended to avoid coating breakage in the finishing process [138].

Microcapsules can be produced in different shapes; different numbers of core; single or multi-shell layers; or in matrix structures [137]. In capsules with a matrix structure, the core material is evenly distributed within the wall [139]. This method allows for extending the service life of core material [140], bonding the surface of the *The Role of Surface Modification Methods for Sustainable Textiles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112792*

**Figure 4.**

*Some methods for microcapsulation, textile application, and wall degradation.*

material and core, and controlling releasing mechanisms [136]. Various methods are available for microencapsulation, textile application, and wall degradation. **Figure 4** shows some of these methods.

In the microencapsulation technique, it is used in many areas depending on the characteristics of the multi-core material. In the textile sector, this method allows many functional properties such as spreading odor, trapping bad odor, adding antimicrobial properties, adding antioxidant properties, releasing vitamins in wound healing can be added.

#### **4.3 Sol–gel application**

Textile materials and many different types of materials can be coated with sol–gel application. This method provides many properties such as water repellency, ultraviolet protection, and electrical conductivity can be added to the material separately or together. In this production, solvents could be recycled to reuse. In addition, the energy requirement in the drying step is low due to the organic solvents used in this method. Attention should be paid to the coating thickness since flexibility is inversely proportional to the thickness of the coating. In the textile sector, this value is below the micrometer. In some cases, materials such as polysiloxane and softener are used to provide softness [141].

Some terms used for the sol–gel method are explained below [141–143].


A sol–gel process consists of three basic components: Initiators (Metaloxides or Metal salts); Solvents [Water or Nonaqueous solvents (methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol)]; Catalysts (acidic or basic). Stable solutions are prepared with metal oxides in

aqueous or nonaqueous medium [142]. The size of the colloidal particles does not exceed 100 nm [143]. First of all, homogeneous solutions of the initiators are prepared. Then, alkoxides dissolved in alcohol are hydrolyzed by the addition of water at any pH range. Third, in the condensation step, it is seen that the hydrolyzed materials are connected by an oxygen bridge. In this step, the increase in condensation forms the polymers; polymer networks cover the entire solution; and gelation occurs. Different techniques used in the drying step result in the formation of different gels (**Figure 5**) [141–143].

Sol–Gel method is used in many fields: Composites; Porous gels and membranes; Fiber production; Electronic materials; Powder, grain, and spheres; Glass and glass ceramics; Thin film and coatings, etc [142].

As the coating thickness increases, the possibility of cracks appearing in the coating during the evaporation of the solvent increases. Damage-free coatings up to 500 nm thick can be applied to the fiber surface with low water, energy and chemical consumption [141]. Some advantages of the sol-gel method are given below [141–143].


**Figure 5.** *Production of sol–gel [143].*

*The Role of Surface Modification Methods for Sustainable Textiles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112792*


#### **4.4 Grafting**

The grafting method can bring in different desired properties to a polymer. By grafting onto textile surfaces, we can obtain functional textiles such as antibacterial, water-repellent, or flame-retardant textiles. However, when we use grafting as a pretreatment, we can increase the efficiency of the subsequent processes and reduce the use of water, energy, and chemicals. The important point here is to ensure the formation of physical, chemical, or ionic bonds between the functional groups that are planned to be added and the macromolecule chain of the textile polymer. In order to achieve this, free radical areas are first formed on the macromolecule chain. Four methods are used for grafting textile surfaces: chemical grafting; vaccination with radiation; inoculation with plasma; and grafting with UV light. Free radical fields formed by these methods play a role as initiators in copolymerization [144].

Many different properties can be added depending on the type of monomer, as follows.


#### **4.5 Supercritical CO2**

The substances transform into supercritical fluids from on or higher critical temperature and critical pressure values. Supercritical fluids have properties of liquid and gaseous states [145]. Easier and more efficient dyeings are made because of the lower viscosity of supercritical materials compared to liquids, higher diffusion rates, and the swelling effect on the fibers. Carbon dioxide is the most widely used gas for this

method because of its advantages such as low critical temperature and pressure, nonexplosive and nonflammable, nontoxic, and inexpensive [146]. Long years the critical point, known as the Cagniard de la Tour point, was discovered in 1822 by Baron Cagniard de la. Hannay and Hogarth discovered in 1879 that solids could be dissolved by supercritical fluids. Many years of work made it possible to use supercritical fluids commercially in 1970. The use of supercritical fluids in textiles began in Germany in the 1980s [2].

Carbon dioxide gas turns into a supercritical fluid at a temperature of 31.1°C and a pressure of 73 atm [147]. Supercritical carbon dioxide can dissolve hydrophobic dyes such as pigment dyes and disperse dyes, and swell polyester fibers. In this method, dyestuffs show higher dissolution than in water. In this way, the diffusion of the dyestuff into the fibers becomes easier [146].

In this method, first of all, textile material and dyestuff are put into the dye boiler. Then the gas is fed to the boiler at the appropriate pressure. After the three components take their place in the boiler, the temperature is increased to the dyeing temperature by exceeding the critical temperature. In the third step, the critical temperature is exceeded, the dye begins to dissolve, and the fibers swell [148]. Ending the dyeing period, the gas is discharged by reducing the pressure below the critical temperature, and the fabric is taken as dry (**Figure 6**). This method does not require postwashing processes [2, 146].

Supercritical fluids are also used in distillation and extraction processes besides dyeing. Its usage areas are pharmacy, food industry, polymer science, materials science, environment, chemical processes, hydrocarbon processes, and textile. These methods have some advantages on sustainability such as zero water, zero auxiliary chemicals, low energy, low dyeing time, reuse of carbon dioxide, nontoxic, not harmful to the environment, no need for postwashing, reduced use of dyestuffs due to its high dyeing efficiency [148]. In addition, the advantages encountered in the production process are as follows [2, 146–148].

**Figure 6.** *Processes of supercritical CO2 dyeing.*

*The Role of Surface Modification Methods for Sustainable Textiles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112792*


#### **4.6 Electron beam treatment**

The functionalization of textiles can be achieved by processes such as chemical initiators, plasma treatment, and high radiation treatment. Gamma radiation and electron beam are the most common types of radiation. The electron beam offers short processing time, low penetration, and efficient energy use. Since the electron beam process does not require the use of solvents, it reduces the emission of organic compounds during drying. Compared to gamma radiation, electron beam radiation provides some advantages: high efficiency, low maintenance cost, high safety, short processing time, low cost, and high dosing rate [149–151]. Another advantage over gamma radiation is that the electron beam is applied in a single box [151].

In order to provide surface modification with the E-beam method, active sites are created on the surfaces by electron-electron interactions. The electron beam is produced with a high voltage, usually in the range of about 300 keV – 12 MeV. Curing of surface coatings requires low penetration, and electron beam accelerators with an energy range of 150–300 KeV are used [47]. These accelerated electrons interact with polymers physically, physicochemically, and chemically, respectively. In the physical process, short-lived reactive species are formed; In the physicochemical process, these species turn into polymer radicals; and finally, in the chemical process, polymer radicals initiate various reactions in the polymer [149].

#### **4.7 Electrochemical dyeing**

In the electrochemical dyeing method, it is made without the use of nonrecyclable chemicals for the reduction and oxidation processes needed in the methods that are widely used in cellulosic fibers such as cube and sulfur dyeing. In this way, there are no regenerated oxidized by-products in the dyebath, no sulfites and sulfates caused by the use of dithionite, and a decrease in chemical oxygen demand values that increase due to organic reductants [47].

In this method, the reduction and oxidation of dyes are done electrochemically by direct or indirect methods [135]. In direct electrolysis, after the dyestuff is partially reduced with a conventional reductant, it is completely reduced by electrochemical

reaction, thereby increasing the stability of the dye. Renewable reductants such as Fe2 Fe3 are generally used in indirect electrolysis. These reductants are oxidized after reducing the dyestuff and become reusable after being reduced at the cathode [47].

#### **5. Conclusion**

Surface modification techniques can transform textiles into functional materials. They can also make basic operations applicable or more efficient when used as preprocessing. These techniques can extend the service life of textile materials. In this way, it contributes to reduction, reuse, and recycling, which are valuable in terms of sustainability. Some alternative methods allow more "reduction" than conventional methods: oxidative and reductive reduction by electrochemical methods, water and chemical reduction by supercritical fluid method, energy reduction by electron beam method. In addition, some methods may indirectly contribute to sustainability. For example, fabrics treated with environmentally friendly, nontoxic, biodegradable antimicrobial agents prevent microbial contamination as well as prevent the formation of bad odors, thus reducing the use of energy, water, and detergent.

Our resources are running out day by day. We should integrate the concepts of reduce, reuse, and recycle into our daily lives. We suggest some points for a sustainable future: adopting environmentally friendly green production processes, supporting studies on the development of surface modification techniques, and accepting these techniques that support sustainable production as new conventional production methods after they are developed at a sufficient level.

#### **Acknowledgements**

We would like to express our gratitude to Cansu Korkmaz for the drawings in this chapter.

*The Role of Surface Modification Methods for Sustainable Textiles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112792*

### **Author details**

Gürsel Korkmaz<sup>1</sup> \*, Mehmet Kılınç<sup>2</sup> , Nur Kılınç<sup>3</sup> and Y. Dilek Kut<sup>4</sup>

1 Department of Textile Technology, Sivas Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey

2 Department of Fashion Design, Şebinkarahisar School of Applied Science, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey

3 Department of Fashion Design, Sebinkarahisar Vocational Schools of Technical Sciences, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey

4 Faculty of Engineering, Department of Textile Engineering, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to: gurselkorkmaz7@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## **Chapter 5** Textile Waste Management

*Amita Dahiya*

#### **Abstract**

Globally, the textile industry is a major source of waste generation causing harmful impacts on the environment. India is a major player in the textile arena and can play a significant and exemplary role in textile waste management, textile waste reduction and promote a circular economy through a combination of actions and policy initiatives such as strengthening the textile recycling infrastructure, awareness generation for sustainable consumption, and policy interventions such as extended producer responsibility for textiles to regulate the sector.

**Keywords:** textile waste, environmental sustainability, circular economy, conscious consumption, traditional handicrafts, extended producer responsibility

#### **1. Introduction**

The objective of this chapter is to deliberate on possible measures that may help protect the environment from the harmful impacts of the waste generated by the textile sector in India. The chapter will explore the feasibility of institutionalization of textile recycling infrastructure and if that could better channel textile waste by using the textile waste as a resource in the production process, which in turn can help manage the current textile waste generation, reduce the burden on the raw material supply and costs associated with it and also save landfills.

The chapter will explore if increased awareness of the harmful impacts of the textile sector can promote conscious consumerism and bring about a shift towards sustainable consumption. Lastly, if the extended producer responsibility (EPR) specifically for the textile sector can help accelerate the circular economy in the textile sector.

Textiles form part of the fundamental needs of humanity viz food, shelter, and clothing. The Industrial Revolution made textiles cheaper and more affordable due to mass production at a lower cost. In the last 45 years or so, worldwide demand for textiles has seen exponential growth, a whopping 400% increase from 30 million tons in 1980 to an estimated 130 million tons by 2025 [1].

The textile sector has been drawing a lot of attention as one of the biggest environmental polluters and a major contributor to climate change. As per a 2015 report textile sector emitted 1.2 billion tons of CO2 globally [1–3].

The surge in the textile sector has caused significant environmental impacts and has turned the textile industry from a circular economy [4]—from the pre-industrial times—to a linear production line with a harmful impact on air, water, and biodiversity making it very low in sustainability rankings. In a linear economy, the products usually land up in waste once they complete the consumption cycle. The circular

economy concept is based on the premise of sustainable consumption and no harm to the environment in the entire process of production and consumption [5].

It is predicted that the textile industry will consume about 26% of the world's carbon budget, up from 2% in 2015 [5]. Nearly 1 trillion kW hours of electricity is used to produce 600 billion kg of fabric annually. Almost a quarter of chemicals produced globally, are used in the textile industry and have severe impacts on public health, animals, marine life, and the environment [5].

Textile waste has become a huge concern for India too, as India is one of the largest producers of textiles [6, 7]. A 2020 World Bank report states that India is the largest producer of waste [8] (including plastic and e-waste). While textile consumption is very high, the rate of recycling is very low just about 13% out of which only about 1% is upcycled [8].

Due to the high volume of consumption and waste generation, lack of awareness and compliance, a huge amount of textile waste enters landfills, causing harm to the environment and the climate—soil, water, and air. Textile waste is posing significant environmental challenges and therefore, serious efforts including policies such as EPR for textiles would be a timely and crucial step.

#### **1.1 What is extended producers' responsibility**

According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) '*Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) as an environmental policy approach in which a producer's responsibility for a product is extended to the post-consumer stage of a product's life cycle*' [9].

#### **2. Methodology**

Secondary data was referred for this paper which mainly included reports articles, and research papers accessible on the internet. The internet search was conducted with keywords like textile waste, environmental sustainability, circular economy, conscious consumerism, traditional handicrafts, and EPR.

#### **3. Analysis**

#### **3.1 Textile waste**

Waste generated during the production process and disposal after usage constitutes textile waste. It may be defined as pre- and post-consumer waste. Preconsumption waste typically includes waste fibers, scraps, defective, damaged, and left-over fabric in the production process. Post-consumption waste typically includes the disposal of textiles by consumers [10]. Pre-consumer textile waste can further be classified into solid, liquid, or gas forms based on the type of waste generated during the process of production and the chemicals used [10].

Although the textile waste generated is yet to be fully captured, some estimates indicate that 3265-kilo tonnes of pre-consumer and 3944 post-consumer waste is generated annually in India, of which about 326 kilo tonnes of pre-consumer waste (1%) and about 1700 (43%) kilo tonnes of post-consumer waste finds its way in incineration or landfill [11].

#### *Textile Waste Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113129*

India has been at the forefront in textiles with a 4000-year-old handloom history with the skills generally passed on from generation to generation [12]. Currently, India has about a 5% share of the world trade in the textile and apparel sector [12] directly employing 45 million people and indirectly about 100 million including rural artisans (a large number of whom are women) [12].

The Indian government has several schemes and grants to support the handicraft and the handloom sector and has been promoting the textile sector with various schemes and training at local levels such as skill upgradation, design and product development, use of new techniques, and eco-friendly practices (such as eco-friendly fabric dyes), concept of craft villages to promote traditional textile practices and sustainable development. To highlight and preserve the rich handicraft and handloom heritage, the Government of India declared 7 August as National Handloom Day in 2015 [13].

In addition, there are many initiatives to encourage and promote women entrepreneurs. Women Global Development Prosperity Initiative (WGPD) is an initiative launched in February 2019 with an aim to reach 50 million women in developing countries by 2025 to help women prosper in the workforce, succeed as entrepreneurs, and contribute to the economy [14]. Another example is the Women in India Social Entrepreneurship Network (WISEN) formed to create a community of women entrepreneurs who help and support each other in their entrepreneurial journey and scaling up their businesses [15].

#### **3.2 Textile recycling infrastructure**

Utilizing textile waste to make unique products has been in practice for a long time in India. Traditionally, the rich, varied, and rural-based Indian textile industry produced beautiful and exquisite products out of used clothing to maximize utility. Over generations, these practices have developed many techniques giving new life and value to the fabric by making bags, dhurries, pouches, bags, mats, dolls, puppets, quilts, comforters applique work, etc.

These crafts were rural-based and practiced by local artisans (a majority of them being women) at the local level thus giving them livelihood opportunities from the comforts of their homes [16]. The products not only bring revenue but also a sense of pride and purpose to these artisans involved in the craft.

Even if this 1% pre-consumption waste which is left out of the recycling loop and lost during various processes such as yarn production, printing, and apparel-making can have the potential to create a huge market and prevent wastage as it consists of fabric mainly from cotton, wool, polyester, and nylon and can be used to create beautiful and diverse products.

Not only it will help save the landfill but also create livelihood opportunities [17, 18]. Similarly, many useful products can made using some of the 43% post-consumer waste that goes into the landfills based on the useability of the waste.

The textile sector employs a large number of people in India, yet they often lack access and skills to operate in the wider market and despite the huge number of women involved in the handicraft sector, only 22.3 participate in the labour market (creating a gender gap of about 72%) due to a lack of formalization of the sector [19].

Women especially from rural communities can be mainstreamed and play a huge role in textile waste management initiatives by creating products from textile waste creating beautiful patterns using stitches inspired by nature, tradition, and culture. It would give a boost not only to the sector but also generate livelihood opportunities and associated social, economic, and environmental impacts such as women empowerment and better environmental impacts. "Social enterprise is a really powerful force for women's empowerment and it's still under-utilized," says Mark Richardson who led research by the British Council on the role of social enterprise in supporting women's empowerment in India [20]. Rangsutra Crafts India [21] is a well-known social enterprise that works with women artisans, training, upskilling, creating marketing linkages, and promoting sustainable fashion.

Learning from such initiatives, social enterprise models for textile recycling infrastructure could provide many alternatives. The traditional textiles with their aesthetics, blended with the modern-day needs have a very good market potential for recycled products.

For instance, by making buttons from textile waste and cloth bags can offer an alternative to plastic and help reduce the environmental impacts of plastic. Buttons are commonly made of plastic, if some of them may be replaced with fabric buttons made from various types of textiles including recycled textiles, it would decrease the demand for plastic buttons and also minimize waste. Similarly, cloth bags are reusable and eco-friendly and can help minimize the impact of plastic bags that are harmful to the environment. Initiatives such as these not only can create thriving enterprises at the local level but also contribute to environmental sustainability in a big way.

In addition, the textile recycling infrastructure would also give a boost to handmade products and promote slow fashion which could play a significant role to contribute to revive the circular economy concept that seeped in the traditional Indian handicrafts.

Handmade production or involving handwork in the textile sector would promote carefully designed and highly customized products as they are labor and timeintensive and have almost zero waste and less inventory to manage. The production technique not only minimizes wastage but also overproduction and dead stock due to slow production. The point of fault can be easily detected and rectified during the process of production thus minimizing defects. For example, it would be easy to rectify the point of fault in making a crochet or a handmade woolen sweater, blouse, bag, etc. thus, minimizing the chances that it won't be used.

Handcrafted products rarely land in a landfill or incineration until they outlive their intended usage as they are not mass-produced and have an emotional value proposition for the user. Thus, they would match demand and supply by making only what is really needed as producing them in bulk requires more hands. In the case of bulk production, it would generate more livelihood opportunities and equitable distribution of wages. Due to lower production, they are easier to trace in the textile value chain.

Taking the lead with its 4000-year-old handloom industry India can play a leading role in promoting circular economy by reviving and promoting its rich and traditional textiles and their processing. The natural fibers and natural dyes are eco-friendly and sustainable and the waste generated during the process and post-consumption does not cause any harm to the environment. In terms of pressure on resources, concepts such as conscious consumption (refuse more than what you need), slow fashion (reuse and repair), and recycling post-consumption.

#### **3.3 Policy initiatives**

'National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business (NVGs)' were introduced by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs, India in 2011 in endorsement of the United Nations Guiding Principles on

Business and Human Rights (UNGPs) to encourage businesses to incorporate the guidelines in their annual reports, going beyond the regulatory business compliances [22].

Aligning with the NVGs, the Securities Exchange Board of India (a regulatory body under the Ministry of Finance, India) mandated Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) reporting the Annual Business Responsibility Reports (ABRR) for the 100 top companies listed with SEBI. Further, Sec 135 of the Company's Act 2013 by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs mandated companies to implement Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives for the welfare of the communities [22].

The UN General Assembly adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 and called on businesses to act in accordance with UNGP principles. To align the NVGs with the SDGs, global concerns on sustainable development, and ESG, the NVGs revision was initiated in 2015 and after several revisions, the National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct (NGRBC) were rolled out in 2019.

In response, SEBI replaced the ABRR with The Business Responsibility and Sustainability Report (BRSR) in 2021 [23] and in July 2023, mandated ESG metrics disclosure in the BRSR starting 2023–2024 by 150 top companies and 1000 by the financial year 2026–2027.

#### **3.4 Extended producer responsibility**

EPR discussions and developments began in the early 90s for improvement in plastic waste management and to make plastic manufacturers accountable for the environmental impact of their products. A majority of countries have now implemented EPR policies and regulations in plastic waste management [24]. EPR is now being deliberated in the textile sector too. Although it is in the nascent stage with regulatory measures under discussion by the European Commission and some serious efforts to regulate textile waste management by countries like the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK. As of now, France is the only country to have enacted a law on textile waste management [25, 26].

In India, EPR on Plastic Waste Management was introduced in 2016 under the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 'Guidelines on Extended Producer Responsibility for Plastic Packaging' by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India [27]. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India has developed a centralized online portal to monitor the accountability and compliance of the EPR Obligations. There have been revisions to the rules based on inputs and engagements with stakeholders at local, regional, and national levels to bring in diverse perspectives, challenges, bottlenecks in different regions and industries, transparency, accountability, and a sense of ownership.

With the increasing traction of EPR frameworks and a higher level of consciousness in businesses and consumers on environmental sustainability, India is bound to be impacted by global policies for the textile sector considering its significant role in the global supply chain. The textile sector in India would have to integrate and align with the evolving global regulatory EPR compliances and practices to meet international standards and comprehensive and responsible waste management solutions to continue its standing and market access.

Currently, textile waste management in India is integrated and regulated under the existing waste management framework under plastic waste management, which is a good starting point for incorporating the EPR principles into the textile sector. Plastic has become integral to the textile sector as synthetic fibers such as nylon, polyester, and acrylic are heavily used in the manufacturing process. Apart from fiber, accessories like buttons and packaging also heavily use plastic. Synthetic fibers do not easily biodegrade and release microplastics with harmful impacts on biodiversity when they end up in landfills.

EPR for the textile sector is proposed to expand and broaden the scope of work specific to the textile sector, textile waste management compliances, and reporting to cover the entire lifecycle and end-of-cycle management including collection and recycling infrastructure in the textile sector. The development of a timely framework would help better integration with the ESG goals and global compliances, and enhance India's role as a responsible global player in the textile sector.

Textiles have characteristics and challenges different from plastics as the fiber composition, dyeing processes, recycling, and consumer response to fashion pose their own unique challenges. A focused approach to textile waste management would initiate discussions specifically on the issues related to the textile sector leading to the formulation of specific and well-informed policies relevant to the textile sector and corrective measures on the textile industry's environmental impact can be addressed more systematically.

A separate EPR on the textile would allow separate resource allocation for the textile waste management sector. It would make the textile manufacturing industry more accountable and responsible for their actions and would promote tailored approaches to suit the industry's needs as well as a gradual transition towards an environmentfriendly manufacturing process. As the EPR on textile waste evolves, it would also help strengthen ESG goals and CRBS compliances by SEBI.

The standalone EPR in the textile sector would also drive innovation and collaborative efforts in manufacturing and waste disposal and management involving industry players, policymakers, environmentalists, researchers, and citizens to drive more effective engagement with various actors involved in the industry.

This would encourage research and innovation to further improve the frameworks and establish the explanations for the need for such a framework. As the discussions around EPR begin, a thrust for scientific research and its integration into social development projects should be given to generate robust and nature-based solutions.

Encouraging more research in the textile sector would promote working with scientists and involving stakeholders from the industry, educational institutes, and even citizens. Citizens can play a big role in helping the scientists by supporting data collection, monitoring, and providing inputs from a diverse perspective. This would not only strengthen scientific thinking and approaches but also generate awareness on the harmful impacts of textile waste on the environment but also prompt corrective measures and actions by citizens making them more conscious of their actions and their impact on the environment.

Scientists are increasingly recognizing the role of citizens in research and development plans and working with citizens for the generation of evidence-based research initiatives [28]. There is a huge scope of scientific research on textile waste management. Science-based targets could provide pathways for alignment of resource utilization by designing high-value and impact targets through research, innovation, and technology to redesign manufacturing aligned with the environmental sustainability goals. Research and innovation funding can enhance resource efficiency, eco-friendly materials, and production techniques.

For effective and efficient measures of textile waste management and reduction, it is essential to work on top-down and bottom-up approaches to complement efforts. The top-down approach can be promoted through a standardized framework such as the EPR framework in the textile sector aligned with national priorities and

#### *Textile Waste Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113129*

global guidelines such as the ESGs. The framework should provide clear procedures, guidelines, and compliances for sustainable production and consumption by textile manufacturing companies setting standards and reporting for waste disposal pre and post-consumption, and information sharing on the product labels to inform the consumers about the product's environmental impact, setting limits of waste generation, collection, and recycling targets to minimize wastage, minimizing plastic usage in production and plastic packaging, use of hazardous chemicals, water consumption in production.

#### **4. Conclusion**

A comprehensive approach is required for textile waste management, textile waste reduction, and circular economy by promoting resource conservation methods, waste reduction techniques, and environment-friendly practices in the textile sector. This would require collective actions involving multiple stakeholders.

The untapped informal textile sector can play an important role by creating the textile waste value chain, establishing markets for textile waste products, and reducing pressure on landfills. The textile waste data is yet to be fully captured as it is a vast sector with numerous players at all levels. The traditional tailoring units, boutiques, individuals owning individual tailoring setups, and customizing various products across cities and rural areas are yet to be accounted for in the textile value chain. The waste generated through these units often gets mixed up with household waste. A collection center for textile waste around such setups would help minimize the mixing up of the textile waste and help recycle it.

Manufacturing companies could support the formalization of textile waste collection centers and production hubs for manufacturing. Incentives and subsidies can be given for the regulated supply of textile waste and products made from this waste. Local artisans and community members, especially women can be involved in the production to create products using traditional handicraft techniques to bring in unique product value. This would not only close that gap in the labor market on women's participation but also help remove barriers, empower women [29] to promote entrepreneurship, generate business at the local level, and promote sustainability.

Promotion of the handicrafts sector and advocating eco-friendly practices such as the use of natural fibers would promote environment-friendly production as Indian handicrafts align well with nature conservation principles.

Indian handicrafts have traditionally used natural fibers like cotton, jute, silk, wool, etc. which are biodegradable. For color and print plant-based natural dyes were used that do not contaminate water, or soil and also do not pose any health hazards. The handicrafts were often hand-produced with high quality with the idea to make them long-lasting and to be reused. This is in contradiction to the fast fashion approach today with a focus on ever-evolving new fashion trends and customer preferences putting pressure on the sector with very tight timelines for the production cycle and encouraging irresponsible practices for the workforce as well as the environment.

Shifting consumer behaviour towards sustainable fashion would go to great lengths to encourage a higher push for environment-friendly and zero-waste manufacturing. Consumers have now started paying more attention to sustainable clothing with more research and information available to the consumers on the type of chemicals used in clothing and their harmful impacts on health. For example, a study was

conducted by Greenpeace International using April 2012 purchase data on 20 global brands to understand the use of chemicals in textile manufacturing and their impact on water. The study found high levels of potentially hazardous chemicals were found, that not only contaminate water during the manufacturing process, but their traces continue during garment use and disposal [30]. The promotion of Indian handicraft practices could play a significant role in encouraging conscious fashion choices globally.

Similarly, promoting the use of natural fibers would bring down synthetic fiber usage which is not environment friendly. Sustainable use of water, energy, and raw materials would ensure resource conservation in the manufacturing process. The use of eco-friendly chemicals and fibers would ensure safe working conditions and minimum harm to human health, water, soil, and the air ultimately contributing to positive environmental impacts. Sustainable consumption would lead to need-based production. Research in the handicraft sector could help substantiate the value created by the sector for positive impacts on local biodiversity.

Similarly, a well-thought-out policy specifically for the textile sector such as the EPR would immensely contribute to the ESG goals, and CRBS compliances, as well as the global comparability as India is emerging as a strong market fueled by the locallevel social enterprises can help accelerate the circular economy in the textile sector. The policy would also give a boost to the textile sector with innovative technologies in the production and supply chain with the potential for cost savings, process efficiencies, and a more sustainable future for future generations.

### **Author details**

Amita Dahiya Centre for Gender Equality and Inclusive Leadership (CGEIL), XLRI Delhi-NCR, India

\*Address all correspondence to: dahiya.amita1@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[17] Lau YL. Reusing pre-consumer textile waste. Springerplus. 2015;**27**(4(Suppl. 2)):09. DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-4-S2- O9. Available from: https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4796196 [Accessed: 09 June 2023]

[18] Shukla T. Where does textile waste go? [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://circularapparel.co/ blog/2020/07/13/where-does-textilewaste-go [Accessed: 09 June 2023]

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[20] Richardson M, Sappal B, Tsui J, Woodman P. Activist to Entrepreneur the Role of Social Enterprise in Supporting Women's Empowerment [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https:// www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/ files/social\_enterprise\_and\_womens\_ empowerment\_july.pdf

[21] Rai U. Owning a Share of their Craft [Inernet]. 2018. Available from: https:// www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/ variety/owning-a-share-of-their-craft/ article20321068.ece1 [Accessed: 28 July 2023]

[22] Ministry of Corporate Affairs, India. National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https://www.mca.gov.in/Ministry/ pdf/NationalGuildeline\_15032019.pdf [Accessed: 09 June 2023]

[23] SEBI. BRR Vide Circular No. CIR/ CFD/DIL/8/2012 Dated August 13, 2012 [Internet]. 2012. Available from: https:// www.sebi.gov.in/legal/circulars/nov-2015/format-for-business-responsibilityreport-brr-\_30954.html [Accessed: 09 June 2023]

[24] OCED. Global Forum on Environment: Promoting Sustainable Materials Management through Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). Issues Paper. The State of Play on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Opportunities and Challenges [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/environment/ waste/Global%20Forum%20Tokyo%20 Issues%20Paper%2030-5-2014.pdf [Accessed: 09 June 2023]

[25] Stacey Bowers. Squaring the Circle: Textiles EPR in France & Beyond

*Textile Waste Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113129*

[Internet]. 2022. Available from: https:// www.complianceandrisks.com/app/ uploads/2022/09/WP-Squaring-the-Circle-Textiles-EPR-in-France-beyond. pdf [Accessed: 12 June 2023]

[26] EUCircularTalk 'Exploring EPR For Textiles: Taking Responsibility For Europe's Textile Waste" [Internet]. 2021. Available from: https://circulareconomy. europa.eu/platform/en/news-and-events/ all-events/exploring-epr-textiles-takingresponsibility-europes-textile-waste [Accessed: 15 July 2023]

[27] Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. 'Guidelines on Extended Producer Responsibility for Plastic Packaging' in the Schedule II of the Rules [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https:// cpcb.nic.in/uploads/plasticwaste/PWM-Amendment-Rules-2022.pdf [Accessed: 15 July 2023]

[28] Loiselle SA, Frost PC, Turak E, Thornhill I. Citizen scientists supporting environmental research priorities. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;**598**:937. DOI: 10.1016/j. scitotenv.2017.03.142

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[30] Greenpeace International. Toxic Threads: The Big Fashion Stitch-Up. JN 429a [Internet]. 2012. Available from: https://www.greenpeace. org/static/planet4-internationalstateless/2012/11/317d2d47 toxicthreads01.pdf [Accessed: 28 August 2023]

#### **Chapter 6**

## Sustainable Education Empower Large-Scale Revolution for Fashion Industry

*S.M. Minhus, Ziqing Wang and Tao Hui*

#### **Abstract**

To overcome the mainstream fashion system, which is the major unsustainable factor in the fashion supply chain from design thinking to product end-use. Educators can play an activist role, and the fashion education system can be challenging as a medium for large-scale change. This chapter will explain the constructive model of the fashion system to make a strategic sustainability revolution by discussing China's fashion industry and education initiatives. To drive the model, this study intends to illustrate (1) the aspects of sustainable fashion education, (2) the collaborative approach of education and the fashion industry, and (3) the implementation of "design thinking" to transform the concept of fast fashion. Keep an emphasis on "design thinking" for a sustainable mindset; this study will explain the potential factors that can significantly impact sustainability. This chapter will conclude by analyzing the influence of the education system in a contemporary sustainable approach. It will provide insights and recommendations to achieve a significant change in the fashion supply chain for the development of the textile sector.

**Keywords:** fashion industry, sustainable education, design thinking, sustainable mindset, fast fashion, large-scale development

#### **1. Introduction**

The emergence in today's fashion consumption getting influenced by sustainability concerns to minimize the environmental impact. In 2022, Vogue Business discussed the interconnection among the fashion industry, product supply chain, carbon emissions, and sustainability measurements. They observed that a significant number of initiatives had been planned, and a notable awareness arose for the equity of environmental changes, but the ratio of implementations is significantly less [1]. It analyzed that the fashion industry has a large-scale effect on biodiversity that threatens human existence because the industrial supply chains are interconnected with natural resources, ecosystems, and human life [2]. The realization of fashion industry supply chains and the measurements of the threat ratio on human life due to the destructive biodiversity of each phase in the value chain highlights the extreme necessity of maintaining sustainability (see **Figure 1**). The negative impact

#### **Figure 1.**

*Impact of the fashion industry's supply chain on biodiversity. Source: McKinsey Insights [2].*

of biodiversity has been shown from raw material production to product end use, and the "design thinking" of clothing including material uses, production process, and lifecycle can play a crucial role in root-level sustainable production [3]. Therefore, it is essential to develop a strategy for the fashion industry that will remodel the way clothing is made with significant innovation and change, which can be possible by establishing sustainable education systems and industrial implementation worldwide. This sustainable education system intends to develop a mindset to generate interest by providing encouragement and support to investigate, discover, and create an innovative approach to design thinking [4, 5].

From the concern of global climate risk, the mission of the fashion industry is to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, keeping global warming below 1.5°, which was reported in the UN Climate Change Report [6]. According to the news of China Briefing published on October 20, 2022, the Chinese government is supporting sustainable business practices throughout sectors and taking action to decrease waste and pollution in the nation. The Chinese government, in particular, committed to reaching peak carbon emissions by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality before

#### *Sustainable Education Empower Large-Scale Revolution for Fashion Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112170*

2060 [7]. Given this commitment, increased sustainability in the fashion and clothing sector could soon stop being the exception and start being the education. Also, the fashion industry significantly influences environmental threats because of its massive worldwide scope and the significant amounts of natural resources and labor needed to produce and consume clothes.

Additionally, the present trend of fast fashion manufacturing has resulted in an unthinkable reduction in the production time, cost, and lifetime of clothing, leading to excessive usage and the desire to spend the least money on the most significant number of clothing. Considering the crucial role of designers as the first decision-makers in the product creation procedure, researchers advise fashion designers to learn about the essential stages throughout the lifecycle of clothing [8, 9]. As designers and educators progressively appreciate the need to implement sustainable design concepts into the fashion curriculum, we can gradually grasp how clothing design influences sustainability, which should be prioritized in fashion education. It demonstrates the responsibility to include these topics in the learning stage and provide a fashion education that identifies and discusses ethical fashion and environmental aspects.

Thus, sustainable fashion education can significantly impact the clothing supply chain with a mass manufacturing concept that will facilitate a strategy for costeffective production to change the fast fashion system. It matters to think about the best ways to include students in these concerns and create an educational system that involves more than just disseminating facts, information, and viewpoints about how fashion and textiles affect life [5, 10]. So, this study discusses the constructive aspects of the fashion system to accelerate a sustainable mindset in fashion creation during the learning stage. Therefore, to explain the potential factors, this research examines the elements of sustainable fashion education, the collaborative approach of education and the fashion industry, and the implementation of "design thinking" to transform the concept of fast fashion.

#### **2. The emergence of sustainability in fashion education**

Education on sustainable fashion may incorporate a wide range of subjects, including the ethical design process, the sustainable economy and industrial implementation, and social liability. The significance of minimizing waste and environmental threats through fashion products and the effects of the fashion industry on the change of biodiversity may also be discussed. It is a subject of study that focuses on design ideas and practical implementation for sustainability [11]. It seeks to instruct students on how to design clothes that are both commercially and socially responsible without compromising fashion trends. Sustainable materials, energy-efficient design, and waste minimization may all be included in sustainable design education. So, sustainable education can play a vital role in the fashion industry, as designers are responsible for providing initial ideas and specifying products for clothing construction with raw materials selection. According to Tim C. McAloone and Niki Bey, about 80% of the product composition is determined at the design stages of the product development process, which can calculate the rate of environmental impact [12]. Every decision made during the product design thinking and development process throughout the industrial supply chain will have social and environmental effects on human life and existence.


#### **Table 1.**

*Learning through fashion education about sustainable design (resulting from the Sustainable Fashion Education of Wuhan Textile University, China).*

Sustainable fashion design education is essential for every level of design development, but it is necessary for higher education, where students are learned, educated, and trained before entering design careers within the fashion industry. However, there have been several studies on sustainable fashion design education and its implementation via different approaches; most researchers have concentrated on particular institutions or specific course ideas [11, 13]. This research analyzes the design values, designers' responsibility, and educators' participation by explaining the importance of sustainable education for the long-term development of the fashion industry from the root level. The significance of sustainable fashion education can be shown in many meaningful contexts that highlight how well-versed students are in the fashion industry's supply chain (see **Table 1**).

#### **3. The aspects of sustainable fashion education**

Fashion education's approach and structure are changing and evolving in line with sustainability. The traditional fashion education model is coming to an end, and new systems are developing that concentrate on the socioeconomic, human beings, and

*Sustainable Education Empower Large-Scale Revolution for Fashion Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112170*

**Figure 2.**

*Conceptual diagram for the initial aspects of sustainable fashion education. Source: Author's elaboration to draw the overall research concept.*

ecological issues associated with the fashion industry [14]. Therefore, higher-level fashion education provides a distinctive environment for trying out innovative ideas, opposing conventional thinking, and putting cultural, interpersonal, and sustainable development values into practice. This educational environment encompasses progress towards a career path and creating an awareness of individuality in society. Thus, a sustainable mindset is a concept that students can comprehend by following an approach provided by a structure for education that gives a variety of perspectives to think about the context and objectives of fashion (see **Figure 2**). At the same time, it delivered practical evidence of the positive impacts of awareness and its related compassion-building skills on concerns essential to the advancement of sustainability. The given aspects outline several ways fashion education could empower sustainability in the fashion industry.

#### **3.1 Raw materials in fashion design thinking**

According to Vogue Business, most clothing raw materials are obtained in processes that have affected the environmental condition, with the contaminating and draining of water resources, the destruction of the environment, and the harvesting of forests to make commercial cotton and viscose [15]. The industrial supply chain for sustainable fashion selects biodegradable materials produced by natural processes or reused textiles. Designers are gradually shifting to eco-friendly raw materials for animal- and petroleum-based fabrics, such as bamboo, hemp, organic cotton, recycled polyester, and linen [16]. Conventional fashion education focuses less on raw materials production and compositions, which can provide in-depth knowledge for fashion material selection during design thinking and production supply chain. At the same time, sustainable fashion education teaches design students about the composition

#### *Roadmap to Sustainable Textiles*

of clothing raw materials and producing lifecycle, which can show the knowledge of the necessity of sustainability from design thinking. Also, it encourages implementing eco-friendly raw materials while designing fashion with long-time development values for the fashion industry. Therefore, the sustainable education system raises consciousness that allows design transformation toward the positive environmental impact of the fashion industry, and the knowledge of eco-friendly raw materials have great importance, such as:


#### **3.2 Zero-waste design practice**

The study adopts the idea of "zero-waste fashion design practice" to make the most effective utilization of fabric possible to minimize financial losses and environmental degradation brought on by fabric waste generated by the fashion industry [17]. In zero-waste design thinking, the creative mind works within the confines of the fabric width to pattern-cut an item of clothing. This method impacts fashion design since cutting patterns is an important stage in the design process. Designers are embracing the process and using a variety of forms, resources, and tools to create the ideal zero-waste clothing [18]. With this pattern, fashion designers may cut the fabric from a two-dimensional surface to make three-dimensional clothing without wasting material. Fashion education plays a vital role in the emergence of learning zero-waste design techniques on a large scale to serve sustainability in the fashion industry. Sustainable fashion education allows experimenting and developing zero-waste fashion and encourages students to find a different practice-based method with challenges to create new patterns and to lessen the use of fabric [19].

This research aims to construct and assess educational values that students practiced when thinking of zero-waste fashion to ensure that students will become mindful of the textile waste produced throughout the designing approach and also increase students' awareness of sustainability practices. It might be anticipated that as students become more familiar with sustainable design ideas, such as zero-waste design, they

will choose to be forward-thinking instead of responsive when developing sustainable strategies during industrial implementation.

#### **3.3 Multi-functional design thinking and practice**

When a piece of clothing has two or more useful and attractive alternate techniques, it is called multi-functional. It is a design thinking in which a dress can be altered into multiple shapes using various manipulation techniques, such as binding, wrapping, tumbling, bending, attaching, folding, and assembling. With the use of multi-functional design, a piece of clothing may be worn in a variety of ways to suit various demands and objectives, including behavioral, functional, and decorative ones [20]. In order to minimize entire apparel usage, multi-functional fashion design may be used to shift out, rearrange, or replace clothing pieces. By effectively including academic design practice in the alternative design creation process and encouraging sustainable thinking, it may act as a driving force for ecological change. This design practice will produce many creative designs because of the adaptability and flexibility of fashion. So, this design thinking would embrace: (1) the awareness of wearing multi-functional fashion; (2) the increasing lifetime of clothing; (3) the reduction of clothing behavioral expiration; and (4) the reduction of dumping fashion wastage [18].

Thus, sustainable fashion education encourages upcoming designers to utilize multi-functional, cutting-edge design thinking approaches to promote awareness of the value of creating affordable designs for consumers of every level through higher education. Throughout the educational context, fashion students are trained to think about how their design output fulfills the fashion requirements of persons with a sustainable approach and the possibility of expanding their creativity in the fashion industry supply chain.

#### **3.4 Understanding the ethical fashion design process**

The knowledge of ethical fashion comes from the life cycle of raw materials and the product supply chain, including the overall transparency of a fashion product. The ethical fashion design process is a crucial focus to maintain in the industrial supply chain that includes material resourcing by considering social responsibility. The main fundamentals in the fashion industry are establishing sustainability throughout clothing production, offering transparency of clothing materials and design process, verifying labor standards, and using sustainable materials. Introducing students to these concerns in the context of sustainable fashion is an emerging approach to academic achievement. The objective of sustainable education is to demonstrate the fashion design students about real problems in the context of the fashion industry and, in particular, to provide an understanding of clothing design that considers ethical fashion throughout the design supply chain.

From the perspective of the ethical fashion published in the UNESCO Courier, clothing design, material collecting, and manufacturing, known as "ethical fashion," aims to provide the most significant advantages to individuals and communities while reducing environmental damage [21]. Thus, sustainable mindful fashion produces ethical products combined with socially and ecologically responsible practices with creative design thinking. However, through sustainable design education, students develop critical thinking, inventiveness, accountability, interaction, and communication skills for ethical fashion thinking.

#### **3.5 Sustainable awareness creation**

Along with instructing how to implement sustainable fashion design, sustainable design education trains students to investigate the underlying concepts and prospects of sustainable development, determine societal challenges, and propose approaches to challenges. By introducing innovative concepts concerning sustainable design and widening the context, effective instruction on sustainability may transform the mindset of students who will eventually work as designers, leading to better-developed design abilities [22]. Consequently, this study aimed to raise sustainability awareness, establish educational factors for sustainable fashion design, and propose the industrial application of sustainable design. Therefore, research on sustainable fashion design and design thinking became the basis for developing an educational program for fashion design students.

According to McKeown, the four key components of sustainable fashion design education are consciousness, ability, integration, and implementation. These components work together to influence students' behavior toward sustainability [23]. Therefore, when it comes to education related to sustainability, the topics, amount of challenge, and study focus may vary depending on current issues and future development. In this context, Lee (2017) recommended a sustainable education structure based on the educational targets at different levels of implementation [24]. Thus, for this study, to create awareness the sustainable fashion design education can explain with five aspects: (1) developing the sustainable mindset; (2) integrating knowledge; (3) using strategic design thinking (4) interpreting the idea of sustainability, and (5) executing practice-based fashion design.

#### **3.6 Development of minimalistic fashion concerns**

In fashion, minimalism is the practice of concentrating on what is really important in life, minimizing unnecessary clothing consumption, and upgrading living standards by staying away from materialism. In the context of fashion education, minimalistic concerns create awareness to reject the flow of fast fashion and make an influence through creative multi-functional design toward fashion sustainability [25, 26]. Creative design thinking with sustainability considerations for the clothing's longevity and multi-purpose use might encourage people to embrace minimalist fashion much more [27]. Whereas giving priority to fashion without compromising the trend, the minimalistic design incorporates the fashion industry supply chain considering the sustainable economy. Sustainable education enables students to learn about problem-solving techniques using creative ideas by increasing minimalistic awareness campaigns with practical implementation. This practice is not only about fashion; it can potentially lessen the widespread usage of fast fashion, balancing the worldwide need for more garments at less and lower costs.

#### **3.7 Understand the responsibility toward sustainability as a future fashion designer**

Through a sustainable education system, it is fundamental to understand in-depth ideas about the role of design thinking in developing large-scale sustainable change in the fashion industry. A sustainable fashion designer's responsibilities include creating environmentally friendly and socially responsible designs [28]. Therefore, the sustainable supply chain of the fashion industry includes using sustainable materials,

#### *Sustainable Education Empower Large-Scale Revolution for Fashion Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112170*

reducing waste and pollution, and ensuring workers are treated fairly and paid a living wage. The designer should also be aware of their designs' environmental impact throughout the product lifecycle. It also includes the clothing production process, transportation, use, and disposal. In addition to the perspectives which considered it beneficial to classify sustainable fashion design strategies using materials and manufacturing processes, the use of a sustainable design approach that incorporated biodegradable resources and minimalistic manufacturing processes allows in-depth knowledge of different approaches to sustainable fashion design, also the knowledge of critical thinking is an essential way for broadening the concept of sustainability. Additionally, researchers acknowledged that planned, responsible design implementation and education might be achievable for the development of the fashion industry if sustainable design approaches and design procedures incorporate eco-friendly materials and manufacturing techniques.

#### **4. The emergence of collaborative education for large-scale fashion sustainability**

Looking back at the history of design, we can see that most of the contemporary design ideas that have a significant influence on the field of international design education can be found in the second half of the twentieth century, and their emergence and expansion of influences that are often closely related to design education [29]. From another perspective, design education, the important approach to developing design talents, has contributed to the growth of these design trends' influence toward sustainability. Therefore, through investigating outstanding international design schools, design development aspects, and academic publications, this part of the study aims to illustrate the emergence of collaborative design education tendencies and how this perception will enhance future sustainable design education growth. The following factors describe the necessity of collaborative education for fashion sustainability with global interaction by giving the example of Chinese educational exchange.

#### **4.1 Multi-national educational exchange and design practice**

Integrating Sustainable Development Goals into international education will not only enable us to understand better and understand the challenges of global sustainable development and contribute to future sustainable development [30]. While the agenda is broad and does not focus solely on education, education is recognized as one of the most important drivers of transformational change for sustainable development. In 2015, the report of the relevant United Nations conference pointed out that "education is considered to be one of the most powerful means to promote the transformational change necessary for sustainable development but to realize this potential, the education system needs to be flexible, culturally sensitive, relevant and applicability, capable of changing people's values and behaviors" [31]. Under the guidance of the National Committee of UNESCO, the opportunity to initiate and host the first Beijing International Forum on Education for Sustainable Development opens the road of cooperation and exchange between China and foreign countries on education for sustainable development [32]. Consequently, in 2021, the Fashion Institute of Manchester Metropolitan University and the School of Fashion of Wuhan Textile University carried out a joint teaching project on sustainable fashion

development [33]. Thus, the multi-national sustainable education exchange has widened the large-scale development aspect and design thinking for sustainable practice.

#### **4.2 Industrial collaboration for practice-based sustainable education**

Professional fashion education training is crucial to satisfy the fashion industry's and society's demands. However, challenges like the industrial implementation of fashion design and sustainable practice can be resolved through university-industry collaboration. As an example, cooperation between the two organizations, strong interaction, and a common awareness of sustainability support the success of collaborations [34, 35]. The successful implementation of such multiple types of cooperation depends on factors such as the industry, the context of the design practice, and the collaboration objectives. Integrating the fashion industry and education is an area of practice-based sustainable design focusing on collaboration between educational institutions to align with the fashion supply chain. This approach emphasizes practical training and real-world experiences, which can sustainably enhance the application of design thinking at a large scale. To further promote the integration of industry and education, many educational institutions have implemented various programs and initiatives to strengthen ties with industry partners. Given an example from China, the cooperation between Lunyi and Kering began in 2014, a significant opportunity to realize the collaboration of both organizations and recognize that achieving sustainable development is the biggest challenge. Since the cooperation between the two organizations, the following activities have been carried out: jointly creating course modules for master students, setting up incentive programs for undergraduates and master's, and exploring new directions in sustainable design [36].

#### **4.3 Collaborative sustainable project implementation**

The research on sustainable design and knowledge exchange between education and the fashion industry promotes the exploration of essentials for a better life, using design thinking to initiate change, build a sustainable future, and improve our way of life. In addition, sustainable education dares to question and challenge unsustainable fashion culture, expand the connection between fashion and other fields, and enhance the ability to identify individual and collective values. Educators and students cultivate an ethical understanding of sustainable fashion design by participating in diversified critical discussions, exploring sustainable fashion projects, and developing project-based design collections. For example, in 2022, the Wuhan Textile University-Manchester Metropolitan University School of Fashion Union Teaching Project developed a collaborative fashion show designing sustainable clothing with the theme of "New Silk Road" [37]. The cultivation of innovative talents has become the focus of everyone's attention, so choosing such a theme, bringing together the top fashion experts at home and abroad to have a brilliant confrontation of ideas, and gathering professional fashion scholars to discuss the future of fashion.

#### **5. The importance of design thinking for sustainable fashion**

The field of fashion design is expanding quickly, and to be competitive in this environment, fashion designers must be inventive and playful. Design thinking evolved with an innovative perspective on fashion design that empowers designers to develop sustainable products. Despite this, fashion designers are shifting their focus to design thinking largely due to growing environmental consciousness and the necessity to create clothing that serves a variety of customer needs. This section explains how to incorporate design thinking in fashion design to adopt the following sustainable ideas.

#### **5.1 Creative mindset design thinking on sustainable fashion**

The fashion industry's overconsumption approach has caused designers to produce clothes in concerning amounts with large quantities, reducing the measures for creative design thinking and the social interaction necessary for effective sustainable design. The issue of altering the industry using design requires establishing the creation-development-use-waste cycle, discovering additional methods to give customers what they want, and determining if the clothes must be manufactured at all [38]. Putting aside the importance given to clothes by the fashion industry, clothing is essential for the human body. Design thinking is an approach to making decisions different from the more conventional and analytical methods used in the fashion industry, but sustainable education attempts to make it with a more creative mindset. It is founded on putting people first within a specific environmental setting. There has been rising debate on design thinking as a philosophy that management experts may embrace, focusing on its potential applications in a larger organizational environment.

#### **5.2 A contribution to growing global sustainability initiatives**

For the fashion industry, the significance of COP27 is crucial. During this conference, the fashion industry, non-profit organizations, and government agencies issued sustainable initiatives [39]. They focused on important issues such as supply chains, standardized reporting systems, and impact investing. Also, it formulated practical environmental protection policies and promised to take practical actions to slow down climate change and unite to contribute to the global sustainable development process. Thus, fashion education can significantly focus on design thinking to develop sustainable education as part of global sustainable initiatives that can contribute from the root level of the fashion industry supply chain.

#### **6. Discussion**

Sustainability initiatives are promoted on a large scale globally, whereas fashion design is now a fundamental topic for industrial implementation rather than an approach featuring a particular aim or function. The future design is a form of environment-friendly ethical design that considers the need for sustainable development. Instead of focusing on the distinctive qualities of a specific procedure, sustainable fashion design should constantly incorporate the implementation of eco-friendly materials that work with the concept and the idea of minimal waste. Besides, education and industrial applications on a large scale can serve multiple purposes for sustainable development and should also be given priority.

This study illustrates a more significant, showing transformation in how knowledgeable and practice-based fashion education is approached in the fashion industry, moving away from initially concentrating largely on the design thinking

#### **Figure 3.**

*The conceptual framework of sustainable fashion education focuses on design thinking for the long-term development of the fashion industry's supply chain. Source: Author's elaboration as a constructive model of this research.*

aspect of fashion education with a more incorporated and diversified study area and instruction that places equal emphasis on practical skills and expertise, along with understanding the necessity of including innovative and implementation challenges. A positive sign of sustainable development in the educational approach for students is the growing concept of integrating various skills in fashion education. Throughout time, students are educated on the practical and applied abilities required for advancement in the fashion industry with the design and sustainability challenges throughout all phases of the fashion supply chain. Additionally, it is essential to emphasize every phase of integrating sustainability into design thinking and creation that is apparent in the fashion education initiatives could potentially be linked to the advancement of the fashion sector.

Most fashion design approaches should focus on contemporary issues to provide creative thinking that minimizes the problems for the future. In recent years, sustainability concerns have arisen globally at a large scale. Fashion education institutions focus on those concerns to solve them from the initial stages, which will also positively impact the fashion industry and its sustainable economic development. By analyzing all the aspects discussed to show the importance of a sustainable education system, this study illustrates a link between sustainability initiatives and the fashion industry, where fashion education and a collaborative approach catalyze design thinking to develop a sustainable mindset (see **Figure 3**). Therefore, the given factors can play a significant value in developing the sustainability practice for the large-scale fashion industry revolution from the root level of the industrial supply chain.

#### **7. Conclusion**

This chapter offers insight into the sustainability aspects of the large-scale implementation in the fashion industry supply chain. Sustainable education is becoming a focal point to encourage students, provide awareness about the change in biodiversity and factors that involve environmental crises, and take challenges from that knowledge. It also involves students in finding out the social issues that arise from fashion and practicing possible solutions with creative design thinking cooperating with industry and project implementation that also helps to create mass awareness.

*Sustainable Education Empower Large-Scale Revolution for Fashion Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112170*

The necessity to modify and adapt the aspects of fashion design education at higher education institutions is brought on by sustainable development concerns and the changing in structure of the present fashion industry. These changes are essential if current fashion students develop the expertise, skills, and abilities required for sustainable design, implement design thinking, manufacture clothing, and influence customers' attitudes. The clothing products with their creative ideas should be well-designed and trendy, which can attract consumer focus and support the fashion industry sustainably and financially. Therefore, sustainable fashion education aims to give students a "sustainable mindset" to be socially responsible and well-trained fashion designers.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This research is supported by the Major Projects of Philosophy and Social Science in Hubei Province (Grant No. 19ZD033).

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

S.M. Minhus1 , Ziqing Wang2 and Tao Hui1 \*

1 School of Fashion, Wuhan Textile University, Wuhan, China

2 Department of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

\*Address all correspondence to: maggietao24@126.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### *Edited by Ayşegül Körlü, Muhammed İbrahim Bahtiyari and Seher Kanat*

This book examines the relationships between sustainability and textiles in terms of environmental, social, and economic development. It includes six chapters that address a variety of subjects, ranging from green chemistry to digitalization in the textile industry.

Published in London, UK © 2024 IntechOpen © Brilt / iStock

Roadmap to Sustainable Textiles

Roadmap to

Sustainable Textiles

*Edited by Ayşegül Körlü,* 

*Muhammed İbrahim Bahtiyari and Seher Kanat*