**2. Literature review**

Internationally, literature on teaching strategies for linguistically diverse classrooms is a growing field of research. Most of the bilingual educational strategies, used globally, encourage a strict separation of the languages taught [7]. In this approach, bilingualism is treated almost as a double monolingualism [7]. The introduction of an interactional approach to bilingual teaching, such as translanguaging, is a more contemporary approach to teaching ([5, 7], p. 23).

The concept of translanguaging first appeared in the nineteen-eighties in Welsh Education when the separation between Welsh and English became evident as different languages [8]. In order to avoid English being the dominant language, the Welsh found it acceptable to merge both languages [8]. In the European and North American context, sociocultural and linguistic diversity has become a new focus in research as a result of the rise in immigrant populations in European and North American cities [8]. Researchers in the United Kingdom and the United States of America now look for examples of social interactions outside of classrooms that treat the linguistic

*Teachers' Practices for Supporting Students with Learning Difficulties in Linguistically Diverse... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113749*

diversity of students "as resources rather than as problems" ([8], p. 348), [9]. In South Africa and other African countries, however, challenges around socio-economic, cultural and linguistic diversity have long been prevalent ([8], p. 348).

Educational institutions in South Africa seek to combat these low literacy levels, as evidenced in the PIRLS study (2016), by introducing alternative teaching strategies using the 11 official languages ([2], p. 101). "Parallel monolingualism" is used to describe teaching strategies where two or more standard languages are used as the language of instruction while keeping the two languages separate ([8], p. 351). This can be seen in a study performed by Lara-Stephanie Krause and Mastin Prinsloo [8], where mathematics classrooms in township schools in the Western Cape taught most numbers in English. The isiXhosa prefix of each number was added before the English number name in order to mix the two languages ([8], p. 351). In contrast to this, Wildsmith Cromarty [2] describes a study that utilises two complementary languages for instruction, in a third-year humanities course. This use of both languages is what is referred to as translanguaging ([2], p. 103). The two languages utilised in the study are English and IsiZulu. The content of the work, in the Wildsmith Cromarty [2] study, was presented to students mainly in English, with IsiZulu being utilised to expand, explain and clarify key concepts ([2], p. 102). Both languages, in the course, were eventually utilised simultaneously for most functions.

Research has shown that if teachers do not understand the fundamental role that language plays in the classroom, then effective communication between the teachers and students is bound to break down ([10], p. 373). From the study, it is evident that teachers who are prepared for linguistic diversity in classrooms (through pre-teacher training as well as continual professional development on the matter) are needed in order to facilitate effective learning in linguistically diverse classrooms. Linguistic and cultural diversity in the classroom, as well as strategies to deal with the challenges this brings, is still in its research infancy ([10], p. 373).

International and national studies demonstrate that translanguaging is a common term and strategy utilised by teachers in multilingual classrooms in order to combat the challenges that arise from teaching in such a diverse environment. The extent to which translanguaging is being utilised in linguistically diverse classrooms is still limited. Heugh et al. [11] found that, in assessment, translanguaging was a useful strategy, in that, students' performance improved ([11], p. 202). Also, they experienced the assessment process more positively ([11], p. 212). Rosemary Wildsmith-Cromarty [2] also conducted a study in which the results highlighted an improvement in student understanding of coursework when translanguaging was utilised as a strategy in the classroom. Along with this, it was also found that students were able to better explain themselves in assessments ([2], p. 114). In South Africa, as it is still a new area of research, there was very little information regarding collated teaching strategies which can effectively be implemented in linguistically diverse classrooms. The problem that this poses, is that, without known effective teaching strategies, teachers still require training and support in order to facilitate effective learning in linguistically diverse classrooms.

This study draws on Vygotsky's social development theory which was created in 1962 ([12], p. 6). Vygotsky's social development theory applies to mental development which includes thought, language and the reasoning process. A major aspect of Vygotsky's social development theory is the influence of an adult or more able other in mediating learning and creating scaffolding for the learner. Mark Warford [13] highlights that scaffolding is utilised to help students reach their highest proximal level of development. Scaffolding is considered most effective when it has been designed and adapted for the student. In response to the student's development, scaffolding is adapted and, eventually, it is withdrawn ([14], p. 1551). Scaffolding in this instance

would, thus, be synonymous with the different approaches that teachers utilise in their classrooms (e.g. code switching and code mixing) that ensure that students are supported to reach their full potential.
