**9. Conclusion**

Internationalization of Indonesian universities can address personal and national developmental objectives. There are many elements and dimensions to internationalization. To date, there has been limited internationalization of the Indonesian HE sector. There have been political objections to processes of internationalization, especially involving overseas universities establishing campuses in Indonesia. These may be seen as threats to Indonesian culture and traditions, and agents of cultural imperialism, especially if the institutions were former colonial powers in Asia—the UK, France, and the USA [40]. However, as with other forms of direct foreign investment, Indonesia can impose licensing conditions on foreign university investment and require that universities meet local accreditation and quality standards. Other objections to internationalization could be the costs, the necessity, and the barrier imposed by Bahassa not being an international language of research and learning. On the costs, it is possible for low-cost approaches to be taken to internationalization that are regional and institutional specific, and in accordance with local circumstances [9]. Improving the quality and access to tertiary education are important priorities, and internationalization can be part of these important national programs.

Technological change will globalize the HE sector and offer opportunities and challenges to the sector. Globalization and internationalization do not require traditional processes of direct investment and campus delivery of programs. MOOTs can transform the industry and undermine the local competitive advantage of Indonesian universities. The challenge for universities is sustaining competitive advantage and realizing broader non-commercial objectives such as research and community engagement. Through online delivery, an international program can be created without requiring offshore campuses.

Indonesia can learn from and benchmark off other countries in the region and internationally that have extended international programs and international presence. Malaysia is an example of a neighbor at a similar development stage, with similar natural resources, and similar cultural and language conditions that have

internationalized its HE sector. Within the region, wealthier economies such as Singapore, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan have extensive international programs including exchanges, training, collaborative research, and international campuses. China has actively and successfully developed an internationalization agenda for the HE sector that has led to the recognition of several world-class universities [50]. As previously reported, universities in Hong Kong were assessed as being among the most internationalized across the globe [35]. There are many examples of countries at different stages of development, with different histories and cultures, that have been able to successfully achieve some degree of internationalization. Benchmarking can be applied throughout the different levels and stakeholders in the HE sector. Sutrisno [40] suggested that Indonesia can learn from its neighbors, benchmark internationalization programs against countries and universities in the region, and extensively engage and collaborate regionally and internationally.
