**2.2 Occupational safety and health (OSH) hazards in the P-hailing sector**

The digital food delivery services sector involves orders received, packaging, and delivery to customers. The gig courier or rider job requires few skills and is easily obtained but they are precarious, physically demanding, and mentally stressful, especially for motorcycle and e-bicycle riders, who are more exposed to hazards. Therefore, besides addressing the road-accident issues, this research also determined other related OSH hazards faced by the P-hailing riders. According to a report released by the International Labour Organization (ILO) (2000) and another study by Lee [19], these are the OSH hazards associated with the P-hailing sector:

a.Smoke from other vehicles

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b.Direct exposure to UV rays (from the sunlight)
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c.Extreme environment/climate temperatures (i.e., heat/cold stress)


Research [19] explained in detail that deliverers need to carry the ordered items throughout their delivery journey, which can be extremely long, potentially leading to work stress, and exhaustion due to a lack of rest. In addition, food and beverage deliverers often find themselves facing the same situation with lack of rest due to their working time requirements [21].

Besides those references, Ibrahim et al. [15] outlined the hazards that carry a risk of accidents among the delivery riders. The hazards are as follows:


d.Limited driver/rider vision
