**2.2 Carbohydrates in relation to pulses**

Carbohydrates are energy-giving macronutrients, present in pulses up to 60% (dry weight). Leguminous starch is digested slower as compared with starch from cereals and tubers and considered as low glycemic index food for blood glucose control making them suitable for consumption by diabetic patients and those with an elevated risk of developing diabetes. Pulses are gluten-free, a very suitable option for patients suffering from celiac disease and persons who are sensitive to gliadin and glutenin proteins. Pulses are a valuable source of dietary fiber 5–37% including both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. The monomers of dietary fiber present in legumes are glucose, galactose, rhamnose, arabinose, fucose, xylose, and mannose. Pulses also contain significant amounts of resistant starch and oligosaccharides, mainly raffinose, which have been reported to possess prebiotic properties. These are fermented to short-chain fatty acids by probiotics, helpful for improving colonic health and reducing the risk of colon cancer [11].

### **2.3 Dietary fiber in pulses**

Pulses are an excellent source of dietary fiber and other complex carbohydrates. A wide variation is present in the amount of dietary fiber with a significant ratio of soluble and insoluble fiber. Depending on the specie, total dietary fiber ranges from 14 to 32% of dry weight [12]. Various types of dietary fiber present in pulses that include galacto oligosaccharides, long- and short-chain soluble and insoluble polysaccharides, and resistant starch. Insoluble dietary fiber is helpful in laxation while soluble dietary fiber is related to reducing the cholesterol levels and maintaining the post-prandial glucose level. Both types of fiber can act as prebiotics and are helpful in supplying nutrients to gut microorganisms. Fiber-rich fractions of pulses can be added to processed foods to increase their fiber content. Despite the nutritional and health-promoting effects, pulse fiber can also utilized to improve the textural properties by binding and retaining fat and moisture in food items [13].

Pulse fibers are important for individuals seeking a healthy, disease-free lifestyle. High-fiber and low-glycemic diets are important for preventing and treating many diseases/conditions including diabetes, constipation, heart complications, piles, and also some cancers. Furthermore, dietary fiber especially soluble dietary fiber has the ability to improve glucose tolerance and helps to lower the cholesterol by forming a gel lining along the intestinal wall that acts as a protective layer, thus decreasing the glucose and cholesterol assimilation into the blood stream while insoluble dietary fiber helps in increasing fecal bulk and stimulating normal laxation because it has low densities [14]. Pulses are an invaluable part of the human diet. Dietary fiber fractions of pules have found use in the bakery, meat, extruded products, and beverage industries as stabilizers, texturing agents, bulking agents, fat replacers, and emulsion stabilizers. Legume starch isolates have been employed as thickening agents in soups and gravies in the food industry [15].

#### **2.4 Fatty acids composition of pulses**

Pulses are generally low in fat, free from saturated fatty acids. The fat in pulses constitutes significant amounts of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The highest amount of poly unsaturated fatty acids of 71.1% in kidney beans and mono-unsaturated fatty acids of 34% in chickpeas are reported. The polyunsaturated fatty acids are present in legumes that include essential omega 6 linoleic acid and omega 3 alpha linolenic acid. These fatty acids must be included in diet because these are essential and cannot be synthesized in human body [16].

## **3. Antioxidant capacity of pulses**

Pulses contain non-nutrient bioactive compounds such as phytochemicals and antioxidants include isoflavones, lignans, protease inhibitors, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, saponins, alkaloids, phytoestrogens, and phytates. Most of these chemicals are termed "anti-nutrients" and although they are nontoxic. Most of these anti-nutrients are heat-labile, and since pulses are consumed after cooking, they do not pose a health hazard. These anti-nutritional substances can be removed by different procedures such as boiling, soaking, de-hulling, steaming, roasting, fermentation, and sprouting before consumption.

Different studies have shown that many of non-nutrient components are phytochemicals that exhibit antioxidant characteristics, which play an important role in human body to protect from different diseases such as cancers, osteoporosis, heart diseases, and other degenerative diseases. The antioxidant capacity of pulses is helpful to prevent or stop the oxidative process that leads to many degenerative diseases. As such, the incorporation of pulses into human diets all over the world could offer protection against chronic diseases. Therefore, legumes, especially pulses, should be explored for the development of innovative, value-added products [17].

## **4. Pulse proteins**

Pulses are well thought to be a good source having protein ranging from 20 to 40% d.m [18]. Proteins from different pulses vary in composition and structure and have different functional properties. The major proteins found in most pulses comprise globulins and albumins.

#### **4.1 Globulins**

Globulins are soluble in salt solutions, and albumins are soluble in water. Globulins accounts for 70–80% of seed protein. These are primarily storage proteins. These proteins are further divided into two types, i.e., Legumins and Vicilins, also called 7S and 11-12S globulins on the basis of their sedimentation coefficient. Molecular weight of legumins vary from 300 to 400 kDa. Legumins have higher amount of sulfurcontaining amino acids (methionine and cysteine) as compared with Vicilins [19] Molecular weight of viciline is 145–190 kDa. These proteins are trimers of monomers either identical or nonidentical. This globulin does not have cysteine residue and thus lacks disulfide bond.

#### **4.2 Albumins**

Albumins are most nutritive proteins in pulse seeds in terms of amino acid composition. Albumins are primarily composed of metabolic proteins including enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins. Only 10–20% seed proteins are made up of albumins. These proteins are generally low in molecular weight (MW; 5–80 kDa) and higher in cysteine and methionine content than pulse globulins [19] Albumins may also contain some anti-nutritional components such as trypsin or chymotrypsin inhibitors, amylase inhibitors, hemagglutinins, lectins, etc.

#### **4.3 Prolamins and glutelins**

Prolamins and glutelins are present in minor quantity. Prolamins are soluble in alcohol, and glutelins are soluble in dilute acid/base. Protamine has high

concentration of proline and glutamine, and glutelins have high concentration of methionine and cystine. Globulin is the major fraction of embryo and cotyledons of pulses [20].
