Mangrove Health Assessment Using Hemispherical Photography: A Case Study on Mangrove Ecosystem for Ecotourism at Tajungan-Bangkalan, Madura Island, Indonesia

*Maulinna Kusumo Wardhani*

#### **Abstract**

Mangrove health status indicates sustainable management and efforts to control forest damage. The hemispherical photographic method facilitates the observation and monitoring of forest health. This method is also more accessible, faster, and practical than the conventional method. Data analysis in this method requires Image J software. The selection of research sites aims to determine forest management for mangrove ecotourism. Thus, rehabilitation decision-making is right on target. The research results on the health status of mangroves in Tajungan-Bangkalan, Madura Island, Indonesia, showed moderate-to-good levels. The percentage of cover in the good category is at the MDRT01 station, which is 81.64 3.35%. The MDRT02 observation station has a closing percentage of 64.31% 20.41% and is in the moderate category. The suitability of tourism based on the percentage of closure is in the appropriate category at the MDRT02 station and very suitable at the MDRT01 station. The results of this study could be used for planning of mangrove ecotourism and also for education on planting of mangrove seedlings.

**Keywords:** mangrove, health, hemispherical photography, ecotourism, mangrove ecosystem

#### **1. Introduction**

Mangrove forest is a coastal ecosystem with a critical ecological role in the shallow water zone. This collection of vegetation forms an ecosystem with environmental services producing nutrients for aquatic organisms, helping the carbon cycle, and

protecting organisms and the coastal environment. In addition, mangrove ecosystems have benefits that are currently developing as conservation, rehabilitation, and educational areas to increase community welfare [1–3].

Coastal development, expansion of aquaculture, overfishing, and climate change threaten the existence of mangroves worldwide. As a result, the mangrove forest area decreased by 62% between 2000 and 2016 [4]. Research into the causes of mangrove loss over the last 20 years reveals that socioeconomic and biophysical factors account for most of the degradation, despite increasing mangrove cover in some areas [5].

A decline in the quantity and quality of mangrove forests has also occurred in Indonesia, particularly in Tajungan Village, Kamal District, Bangkalan Regency on Madura Island. The mangrove ecosystem in Tajungan Village is an area that controls coastal conditions from the threat of abrasion, land subsidence, and seawater intrusion. Cultivated land, housing, and others have changed the mangrove area through logging/deforestation. Preliminary observations in the field noted problems in managing mangrove ecosystems in Tajungan Village, Kamal District, Bangkalan Regency, based on environmental conditions, including tree felling, beach abrasion, garbage, and damage caused by local communities. This problem causes a decrease in the environmental quality of the mangrove ecosystem in this area. In addition, the technical problems in managing this mangrove ecosystem are the limited human resources in terms of numbers, education, management experience, service, and supervision.

One of the efforts to utilize and preserve mangrove ecosystems is through ecotourism activities. Appropriate and environment-based planning and management of coastal areas are necessary to protect the sustainability of mangrove ecosystems from achieving sustainable regional development [6, 7]. One of the efforts made by the village of Tajungan is the development of mangrove ecotourism as a conservation and educational effort.

The basic principle of ecotourism is to enhance conservation. However, few studies have assessed their effectiveness in meeting conservation objectives and whether the type of tourism activity affects outcomes. Small-scale tourist sites have more considerable social conservation outcomes, including conservation ethics, perceptions, attitudes, and behavior changes. The type of tourism, and the associated incentives, can significantly affect conservation outcomes [8]. The coastal ecotourism that is currently developing is mangrove ecotourism. One of the best opportunities is to ensure that mangrove-based tourism is carried out based on sustainable principles [9]. One of the criteria for due diligence on mangrove ecotourism is the percentage of forest cover [10, 11]. This closure percentage can also indicate the health of the mangrove ecosystem [12]. Using the hemispherical photography method, the mangrove health assessment technique based on the percentage of mangrove cover produces more accurate data with easy application. This technique uses a camera with a viewing angle of 180 degrees at one point of capture [13, 14]. The definition of canopy cover percentage is the vertically projected portion of the land surface that is overgrown with plants [13]. The result is the percentage of community canopy cover, which is one of the main components of the Mangrove Health Index (MHI) [15]. Current research rarely discusses mangrove ecotourism in Indonesia and its relation to health status. Therefore, this study aims to assess the health status of mangroves based on the percentage canopy cover and their suitability for tourism areas. The result of this research helps ensure the preservation of the mangrove ecosystem as a tourism resource in Tajungan Village.

*Mangrove Health Assessment Using Hemispherical Photography: A Case Study on Mangrove… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110819*

#### **2. Method**

#### **2.1 Stations and observation plots**

This research was conducted in Tajungan Village, Kamal District, Bangkalan Regency, East Java, Indonesia. The research locations are presented in **Figure 1** and **Table 1**.

#### **2.2 Research methods**

#### *2.2.1 Identification of potential station points*

The step to determine the observation station (To) begins with the interpretation of mangrove objects, namely identifying the distribution of mangroves in regional stations using Google Earth which provides an initial spatial picture of the existence of

#### **Figure 1.**

*Station and observation plots.*


#### **Table 1.**

*Station locations and observation plots.*

mangrove ecosystems. The determination of the number of stations takes into account regional representation, time availability, resources, and budget. Subsequently, potential stations were created as candidates for permanent monitoring sites and required verification for inclusion on a provisional thematic map. After the establishment of permanent monitoring plots, species identification was carried out based on Tomlinson's [16] reference. If there are doubts about the identification, the researcher takes photos of the parts of the mangrove plant, namely stands, roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit, and samples, for further identification in the laboratory with the help of literature or the help of mangrove identification experts. Researchers must record all data obtained using worksheets on waterproof paper.

#### *2.2.2 Data collection*

This study used the line transect method by making the plots perpendicular to the coast toward the land. Placement of plots is by using stratified random sampling in each stratum by considering the ease of access to the observation sites.

The number of research stations is two, with each station consisting of three and two2 plots, so there are five plots in this study. Observation plots were made parallel to the coastline, measuring 10 10 m<sup>2</sup> using a rolling meter and surrounded by rope.

#### *2.2.3 Cover percentage*

Collecting mangrove cover percentage data follows the steps of collecting mangrove community data. Analysis of the percentage of mangrove cover uses the hemispherical photography method, which requires a camera with a viewing angle of 180 degrees at one shooting point [13, 14]. This technique tends to be relatively new in Indonesia with its application to mangrove forests. The photos taken in this study used a 24 MP smartphone front camera with 1:1 frame mode. However, implementing this method is very easy and produces more accurate data. The steps for implementing this method are that each plot measuring 10 10 m<sup>2</sup> is divided into four (four) quadrants measuring 5 5 m<sup>2</sup> . The firing points are around the center of the small square; they had to get between one tree and another and avoid shooting right under the tree trunk. The position of the camera is parallel to the chest height of the researcher/team who took the photo and is perpendicular/facing straight to the sky. Photo numbers are recorded on a data sheet form to simplify and speed up data analysis. Minimum shooting is done at four quadrant points with each plot measuring 10 10 m<sup>2</sup> , without repeating and marking photos at the end of each shooting session in each plot. Taking photos in this study at least 20 points with the assumption that there are five plots, and each plot has four quadrants of shooting points. When shooting avoid taking multiple photos at each point to prevent confusion in data analysis [17]. **Figures 2** and **3** present illustrations of taking photos of mangrove cover.

#### **2.3 Data analysis**

The analysis of percentage cover data was done using Image J software by separating sky pixels and vegetation cover. Converting a photo to 8 bits is the first step to separate the canopy and sky into a single color line, namely from white (0) to black (255). Next, calculate the number of pixels of the sky (white) and canopy (black) in the histogram menu of the Image J software. Finally, the percentage of canopy cover is *Mangrove Health Assessment Using Hemispherical Photography: A Case Study on Mangrove… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110819*

#### **Figure 2.**

*(a) Illustration of the hemispherical photography method for measuring mangrove cover [13, 14]; (b) the results of shooting using a fisheye lens vertically [17].*


#### **Figure 3.**

*Shooting points in each observation plot [17].*

the ratio of the number of pixels of the canopy (P255) divided by the total number of pixels (Ptot) multiplied by 100% for each observation photo (Eq. (2)):

$$P\_{2\text{55}} = P\_{\text{tot}} - P\_0 \tag{1}$$

$$\mathbf{C} = \frac{P\_{2\text{55}}}{P\_{\text{tot}}} \times \mathbf{100\%} \tag{2}$$

Information:

*C* = percentage of canopy cover (%) *P*<sup>255</sup> = the number of pixels with a value of 255 (canopy). P0 = the number of pixels with a value of 0 (sky) *P*tot = the total number of photo pixels

#### **2.4 Interpretation of results and determination of mangrove community conditions**

The analysis results will produce a density value in units of trees/ha and the percentage of cover in percent units (%). These results can describe the status of the condition of mangrove forests which are categorized based on the Decree of the Minister of Environment No. 201 of 2004, as presented in **Table 2**.

#### **3. Results and discussion**

Observation of the mangrove community in Tajungan Village, Kamal District, Bangkalan Regency, East Java, was carried out at two locations designated as stations,


#### **Table 2.**

*The standard for damage to mangrove forests based on the decree of the minister of environment No. 201 of 2004.*


#### **Table 3.**

*The species of mangrove species at each station.*

namely MDRT 01 and MDRT 02. The mangrove forest ecosystem in the study area consisted of seven species spread across observation stations, namely *Avicennia marina*, *Avicennia alba*, *Avicennia officinalis*, *Avicennia rumphiana*, *Sonneratia alba*, *Rhizophora mucronata*, and *Rhizophora apiculata* (**Table 3**). The mangrove forests in the study area have varied types and conditions with a slightly sandy mud substrate. In addition, solid anthropogenic waste covers 40% of the observed area of the mangrove ecosystem at this location.

The process of analyzing the percentage of mangrove forest cover is shown in **Figure 4**. After separating the photo into two colors, calculate the number of pixels using the histogram menu on the analysis tab (**Figure 5**). This mode displays the number of black-and-white pixels.

The results of taking photos of the canopy cover using the hemispherical photography method and analysis using the Image J software structure in Tajungan Village,

*Mangrove Health Assessment Using Hemispherical Photography: A Case Study on Mangrove… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110819*


#### **Figure 5.**

*The histogram shows that the analyzed photos have almost 24 million pixels (count), dominated by canopy pixels (255) with 20,102,188 black pixels*.

Kamal District, Bangkalan Regency, East Java, are presented in the following. The percentage of canopy closure for each station is the average of all plots in **Table 4**. The percentage of canopy closure by category of mangrove damage is presented in **Table 5**.

The analysis results show that the highest percentage of canopy cover is at station MDRT01 (81.64%) and station MDRT02 (64.31%). The status of mangrove damage refers to Minister of Environment Decree Number 201 of 2004 concerning standard



#### **Table 4.**

*The results of hemispherical photography photo analysis using Image-J software.*


#### **Table 5.**

*Canopy cover percentage and damage categories.*

criteria and guidelines for determining mangrove damage. Based on the percentage canopy cover, the mangrove ecosystem in Tajungan Village, Kamal District, Bangkalan Regency is in the moderate-to-good category. The amount of mangrove ecosystem canopy cover at each station and the average cover, along with the standard deviation, can be seen in **Figure 6**.

As one of the suitability criteria for mangrove ecotourism in the research area, mangrove cover is in the appropriate category at the MDRT02 station and very suitable at the MDRT01 station. The category corresponds to the 50–75% coverage range and is very suitable in the >75% range [10]. The higher the percentage of mangrove canopy cover, the higher the level of health and suitability for ecotourism.

The tree canopy functions like an umbrella, dividing and breaking the penetration of sunlight and rain. Dominant mangrove species affect the percentage of mangrove canopy cover. Areas dominated by *Rhizophora* sp. with broad leaf morphology had a more significant percentage of canopy cover than areas dominated by mangrove species with small leaves. Stem diameter, density, and tree height also determine the level of mangrove canopy cover [18]. Global trends show that rainfall, temperature, cyclone frequency, and other geophysical factors that affect the maximum mangrove canopy height by 74% on a local and regional scale [19]. In addition, environmental damage due to sea waves, sunlight levels, and predation can affect the formation of


#### **Figure 6.**

*The average percentage of cover and standard deviation at each observation station.*

*Mangrove Health Assessment Using Hemispherical Photography: A Case Study on Mangrove… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110819*

mangrove canopy cover [16]. The large tree diameter with high-density supports canopy cover, influencing the mangrove cover percentage. Mangrove canopy cover can show the natural level of mangrove ecosystems and detect anthropogenic threats [17]. In addition, the tree density value supports the mangrove cover's relatively good condition [20]. Based on this, tree categories' density and environmental characteristics'suitability generally affect the percentage of mangrove canopy cover [20, 21]. The results of this study can be used as a guide in developing educational ecotourism planting mangrove seedlings.

#### **4. Conclusions**


#### **Author details**

Maulinna Kusumo Wardhani Trunojoyo University of Madura, Bangkalan, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to: maulinna@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 6**

## Mangroves and Ecosystem-Based Coastal Protection in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam

*Klaus Schmitt and Thorsten Albers*

#### **Abstract**

Development and the unsustainable use of natural resources in the coastal zone of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, as well as erosion are threatening the protection function of the mangrove forests which protect the land behind the dyke from flooding and storms and provide co-benefits and livelihood for people in the coastal zone. These threats will be exacerbated by the impacts of climate change. Tidal flats and mangrove forests are an energy conversion system that provides ecosystem-based coastal protection. In sites where the mangrove belt has been destroyed and the tidal flat eroded, restoration of the tidal flats is a precondition for mangrove rehabilitation. Permeable bamboo fences, arranged in a T-shape, are effective for reducing erosion, stimulating sedimentation and thereby restoring tidal flats and re-creating conditions for mangrove regeneration. This cost-effective approach is only feasible within specific boundary conditions. Mangroves need to be protected from future anthropogenic destruction. This can best be achieved though co-management with the local people.

**Keywords:** ecosystem-based adaptation, coastal protection, erosion protection, mangrove regeneration, co-management

#### **1. Introduction**

The coastal zone of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam is facing cumulative challenges including the unsustainable use of natural resources, pollution, development, population growth and increased consumption. These challenges are exacerbated by the impacts of climate change—increased intensity of storms, flooding and sea level rise—resulting in erosion of the muddy coastlines [1–7].

As a result, 15.5% of the population of Vietnam is exposed to high coastal flood risk [8]. The traditional response to erosion and flooding is coastal protection through dykes, revetments and seawalls. This is very expensive, does not work on soft soils of mud coasts [9] and the possibility of increasing the dyke height is also limited due to the load bearing capacity of the muddy soil. The construction of concrete coastal protection elements may lead to maladaptations, or path dependencies [10, 11]. Wave attenuation by mangroves is an effective use of ecosystem services that protects dykes from erosion and the land behind the dykes from flooding, storms and sea levels rise.

In sites where erosion has eroded the foreshore and destroyed the mangrove forest in front of the dyke, tidal flat management is required to restore the eroded tidal flat. This will create the pre-conditions for regeneration or rehabilitation of mangrove forests.

This can be achieved through appropriate and site-specific approaches to coastal protection. Over the last decade more and more literature has become available on this topic and authors use different terms to describe coastal protection systems that incorporate natural elements such as mangroves and tidal flats: area coastal protection [12], ecosystem-based coastal defence [13], ecological engineering [14, 15], building with nature [16, 17], engineering with nature [18], nature-based coastal defence structures [19]. All these solutions involve mangroves, which in 2011 [20] were described as important physical ecosystem engineers that can control sedimentation processes and coastal protection.

Coastal ecosystems provide cumulative benefits [21] and mangroves contribute to this by providing a wide range of ecosystem services [22, 23] which include shoreline stabilisation and protection of coastal areas from wave impacts and storms [24–29]. Using these ecosystem services can contribute to adaptation pathways that lessen cumulative pressures on coastal areas and livelihoods [30, 31]. Ecosystem-based (or area) coastal protection considers the whole area of the tidal flats and mangrove forests as an "energy conversion system" and is therefore a very effective ecosystembased system for coastal protection. Seagrass beds and/or coral reefs become part of the area coastal protection system in sites where they grow.

Muddy tidal flats are an important stabilising element of the coastal protection system. They decrease the incoming wave energy and thereby protect the coast from flooding and erosion. The higher the tidal flat, the greater the wave dissipation capacity. This results in a considerable decrease in the wave load at the dyke. The wave reduction effect is even bigger when mangrove forests grow on the tidal flats. The resulting decrease in wave height and length leads to a shortened wave run-up which decreases the dyke height needed and thereby lowers construction costs [32–35].

Vietnam is one of the six Southeast Asian nations where up to 80% of the 62% of global human-driven mangrove losses between 2000 and 2016 occurred [6]. The main anthropogenic drivers in Southeast Asia are conversion of mangrove forests to aquaculture and agriculture followed by logging. Once degraded or destroyed, the process of natural erosion is exacerbated [36]. Rates of mangrove loss have been slowing in recent years, suggesting that the importance of mangroves is becoming more widely recognised and that better management practices are being put in place [37, 38]. Nevertheless, good management practices are still often neglected in favour of mangrove planting to offset historic and ongoing mangrove loss. This can lead to malpractices in mangrove planting [39–42] and highlights the need for more effective mangrove conservation.

Conservation, in the sense of protection and management, of existing ecosystems and of managed land is more effective than rehabilitation.1 Protection and management contributes 80% of the potential for cost effective climate mitigation from

<sup>1</sup> The terms rehabilitation and restoration are often used synonymously, but they have distinct meanings and are used in this chapter accordingly. Rehabilitation means "to make suitable again" while restoration to rebuild, to re-establish. In an ecological context, rehabilitation refers to "return … degraded mangrove land to a fully functional mangrove ecosystem regardless of the original state of the degraded land", or in other words to convert a degraded system to a more stable condition ([43], p. 47).

*Mangroves and Ecosystem-Based Coastal Protection in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110820*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Eroded tidal flat. The dyke protection with concrete and Melaleuca fences failed to stop the erosion (Nopol, Soc Trang Province, Mekong Delta, Viet Nam, photo K. Schmitt 2010).*

Nature-based Solutions2 on land [45]. The most effective pathway therefore is to maintain the health of existing mangrove forests and reduce the rate of mangrove destruction or degradation. This can best be achieved though the participatory involvement of local people and co-management or shared governance [46–50]. Large-scale planting of mangroves in contrast, may increase the mangrove area in the short-term, but the long-term effectiveness is limited, and involves the risk of being used as an offset for the continued destruction of existing functional and diverse mature forests. Mangrove planting, using the wrong species in the wrong sites, may also result in collateral damage to existing or adjacent habitats, biodiversity trade-off and negative impacts on the local population [41, 51–53].

Over the last at least 75 million years [54], mangroves have developed unique characteristics to cope with shoreline evolution which do not necessarily follow succession of other forest types [55, 56]. Mangrove foresters therefore need a sound understanding of mangrove ecology but also of coastal processes (waves, tides, currents and sediment transport), hydrology and morphodynamics (spatial and temporal), and use it for conservation, planting and management decisions [50, 51]. Mangroves are well-adapted to dynamic tropical coasts that are subject to destructive storms and generally recover quickly from both minor and major periodic disturbances through natural regeneration, without the need for planting [57–61]. In contrast, human interventions, such as dykes, dams and upstream hydropower developments, usually lead to permanent changes which may create conditions which are unsuitable for natural regeneration of mangroves.

Along muddy tropical coastlines and estuaries where severe erosion or human impact has destroyed the mangrove belt, restoration of tidal flats and their fine sediment balance is a precondition for mangrove regeneration or rehabilitation [12, 16, 35, 62–64].

<sup>2</sup> Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are actions addressing key societal challenges through the protection, sustainable management and restoration of both natural and modified ecosystems, benefiting both biodiversity and human well-being [44].

This chapter will describe how eroded tidal flats (**Figure 1**) can be restored using bamboo T-fences as a cost-effective ecosystem-based solution which re-creates the site conditions suitable for mangrove regeneration or rehabilitation and, in addition, provides co-benefits, biodiversity conservation, and human wellbeing. The chapter also briefly explains how mangrove forests can be protected and sustainably managed and thereby reducing the risk of mangrove degradation or destruction in the future.

#### **2. The T-fences**

Systematic land-reclamation work using breakwaters has been carried out in the Wadden Sea in Germany, The Netherlands and Denmark since the eighteenth century [65, 66]. Restoration of tidal flats, with the aim of area coastal protection, using the same principles, namely T-shaped fences, was adapted to the situation in the Mekong Delta using local materials. The most effective design of breakwaters was tested and permeable, T-shaped bamboo fences filled with soft brushwood provided the best results [67]. In other areas of the Mekong Delta cost parallel Melaleuca fences were used [68] and a comprehensive overview of managing erosion of mangrove-mud coasts with permeable dams from 5 countries in Asia and South America is provided in [64].

In the Lower Mekong Delta, a total of 7500 m of permeable T-shaped bamboo fences were installed on the east coast in Soc Trang and Bac Lieu Provinces [34]. In addition, 925 m were installed in Ca Mau Province between 2015 and 2016 (**Figure 2**).

Before placing any structures in the sea, it is important to have a sound understanding of coastal processes, hydrology and morphodynamics. This, and monitoring

their impact on tidal flat restoration, will ensure that design specifications are appropriate for the site and that lee erosion can be minimised.

#### **2.1 Numeric modelling**

Numeric modelling of hydro- and sediment-dynamics provides the sound understanding and projecting of natural forces which are shaping the shoreline in order to plan the optimal placement as well as providing important boundary conditions for the design and construction of the T-fences. Information about the wave climate is essential when designing the bamboo fences. However, field measurements of waves cannot cover all weather conditions. Therefore, a numerical wave model SWAN (Simulating WAves Nearshore, www.swan.tudelft.nl) was setup, calibrated and verified to obtain the missing information using available data and data from field measurements from Vinh Tan. The numeric modelling was done in three steps. In a larger investigation area of approximately 250 km in north-south and 40 km in west-east-direction a wave model was set up from Vung Tau to Ganh Hao. The results were used as design parameters for the bamboo fences. The SWAN model was then coupled with the hydrodynamic model RMA-Kalypso (http://kalypso.wb.tu-harburg. de) to simulate currents and wave-induced currents. The results were used as input in the morphodynamic model GENESIS (Generalised Model for Simulating Shoreline Change) to simulate the shoreline changes [69] in the area of Vinh Tan based on the current and wave regimes. Structural measures such as conventional breakwaters but also the bamboo T-fences were integrated in the model and the resulting effects were simulated.

Boundary condition data on tides and wind from existing stations together with data on currents, waves, sediment concentrations and bathymetry recorded in the field were used to gain and improve the knowledge about hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes [4, 12, 67, 70].

The modelling showed that recreating the former coastline by connecting existing headlands as shown in **Figure 3** will minimise lee erosion. The idealised shoreline is a relatively stable morphologic situation which often indicates the former shoreline. Closing the eroded gaps in the mangrove belt will create a "close to natural" situation without significant downdrift erosion.

#### **2.2 Planning, design and construction of appropriate breakwaters**

When designing the most effective structures to restore eroded tidal flats, their design, positioning and arrangement needs to be tested. This process started with an experimental design test and was afterwards tested and modified in the field.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Placement of T-fences to minimise lee erosion (Bac Lieu Province, Viet Nam, photo Cong Ly and G.E. Wind 2013).*

The wave dampening effects of conventional breakwaters (rubble mounds) and different designs using bamboo were tested in a wave flume: 2 rows of spaced bamboo poles, 4 rows of densely packed bamboo poles, and 2 rows of bamboo poles with brushwood in between (the latter is shown in **Figure 4**). Bamboo was selected due to its strength, local availability and costs [71]. The densely packed design was based on bamboo fences constructed along the Upper Gulf of Thailand (**Figure 5**) since 2005 [72].

The design with 2 rows of bamboo poles with brushwood in between provided the best results (**Figure 6**) and was therefore tested in the field. Different installation techniques were used to find the most efficient construction method. This included the application of a manual head ram, pressure using the weight of several people and pressure combined with vibrations, at a later stage an excavator on a pontoon was used to push the poles with the excavator shovel into the mud. Tensile tests were carried out with single and groups of poles until failure to verify the material parameters used in the theoretical design of the bamboo fences. The optimum diameter was derived from the design approach and the tensile tests. Also the calculated depths of embedment could be verified. During the first field tests different tying materials (ropes, hemp rope, rattan and stainless-steel wire) and tying techniques were tested in order to find an optimised design and construction method [67].

Two designs were installed at the coast in Soc Trang in 2011, a double row of bamboo fences filled with soft and one filled with stiff brushwood bundles. Wave height measurements were carried out for about 6 months to quantify the wave transmission effect of the fences during various storm and tidal conditions. Pressure transducers were installed 5 m from the fence on the sea- and landward side. The data were analysed and then summarised in significant wave heights of periods of 15 min [12].

The comparison of the results of the wave dampening effect of the physical model in the wave flume and field measurements are summarised in **Figure 6**. It shows the wave transmission coefficient kT in relation to a quotient of the freeboard RC and the initial significant wave height HS. The solid lines represent the best-fit through the measured values. The black triangles are the results of the physical modelling while the red squares and blue Xs are the results of the field measurements. Flexible bundles lead to smaller wave transmission coefficients than stiff bundles, and thus

*Mangroves and Ecosystem-Based Coastal Protection in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110820*

**Figure 5.**

*Bamboo fences in Khok Kha, Samut Sakhon Province, Thailand (photo K. Schmitt 2011).*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Three different scenarios of wave transmission coefficients of bamboo fences under various hydrological conditions (modified from [70]).*

have a larger wave dampening effect. They can reach up to an 80% reduction of the initial wave height. This was also confirmed by [73] who concluded that fence porosity drastically affects attenuation of both high- and low-frequency waves [74] applied the numerical model SWASH to simulate the wave transmission of bamboo fences.

Although the model showed transmission coefficients that were up to 30% higher than in the field study, i.e., lower wave reduction than measured, there are matching trends between the simulation results and the field measurements due to different input parameters.

The arrangement of the permeable bamboo fences consists of a long-shore and a cross-shore part. The long-shore parts dampen the incoming wave energy and the cross-shore parts decrease the long-shore currents as can be seen in **Figure 7**.

Flow and sediment transport patterns through the permeable fences and the gaps improve sediment input and accelerate the sediment consolidation process. The longshore fences break the waves and the cross-shore parts catch sediments suspended in long-shore currents. The gaps in the long-shore fences increase sediment input into the fields created by the fences during flood tide. During ebb tide, drainage is accelerated through the gaps, and this increases the speed of the soil consolidation process in the fields (**Figure 8**).

#### **2.3 Fence design, boundary conditions and monitoring**

The results of the field measurements and the numeric modelling, and the analysis of sediment accretion monitoring and natural regeneration of mangroves, as well as maintenance data from construction sites of bamboo T-fences were used to define the design and boundary conditions of the bamboo fences.

The fences consist of two rows of vertical bamboo poles with a mean diameter of 8 cm and brushwood bundles in the gap. The distance between the two rows is 0.40 m for cross-shore sections and 0.50 m for the long-shore sections. The distance between the vertical poles is about 0.30 m. A double row of horizontal poles is connected to the vertical poles on each side. The brushwood bundles consist of small, soft bamboo branches. Stainless steel wire is used to tie the joints. A double layer of *Nypa* palm leaves was installed to reduce scouring at the bottom of the fences (**Figure 9**).

#### **Figure 7.** *Wave dampening effect of bamboo T-fences, Ca Mau Province, Viet Nam (photo R. Sorgenfrei 2016).*

*Mangroves and Ecosystem-Based Coastal Protection in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110820*

#### **Figure 8.**

*Flow patterns and sediment transport in the fields protected by the fences (Vf = current velocity during flood tide, Ve = current velocity during ebb tide) (from [70]).*

**Figure 9.**

*Design of the permeable bamboo fences and resulting wave transmission (from [70]).*

However, scouring cannot be completely avoided and thus the depth of embedment of the vertical poles was chosen to be large enough so that local scouring does not affect the stability of the fences. In the case of the muddy coast in Soc Trang, this was 3.4 m with about 0.8 m embedded in mud and about 2.6 m in sand.

The breaking force of the bamboo was estimated based on a literature review and verified by the tensile tests. The calculation of the loads on the front row of the bamboo fence resulting from current forces and acceleration forces of the tidal current as well as waves was done based on the superposition method by Morison, O'Brian, Johnson and Schaaf [75]. The rear row of the bamboo fence is loaded by the horizontal current- and tide-induced forces transmitted by the brushwood wall. The calculation of the resulting loads was done with the Coastal Engineering Design and Analysis System (CEDAS—https://www.veritechinc.com/products/cedas) based on the approaches of Miche-Rundgren and Sainflou [76] also considering slamming forces of breaking waves. Abnormal forces can result from the impact of floating items like flotsam or vessels. To address this, an impact of a 300 kg item was taken into account. Additionally a man weight of 1 kN as a vertical load was assumed for each bamboo pile.

The bamboo poles transfer horizontal loads to the ground by an elastic clamping of the pole. Thus, the static system is a bending resistant pile backed by the surrounding soil. For the geotechnical design the subgrade reaction method was used [77]. It is inferred that the horizontal pressure between the bamboo pole and the soil is proportional to the horizontal displacement of the pole. The proportionality factor ks (bedding modulus) can vary with the depth. In this case the parable of Titze was applied, that offers a good description of the distribution of ks [78]. The characteristics of the sand layer were used for the geotechnical design. The embedment depth is thus the depth in the sand layer. The mud layer is considered as a buffer layer that can grow and shrink due to external factors such as increase or decrease of incoming wave energy and does not have load-bearing attributes.

Disintegrating bamboo structures in the Upper Gulf of Thailand release floating debris which damages mangrove tree stems [72]. This problem has not been observed in the Mekong Delta where much less bamboo is used for the breakwaters then in Thailand (see **Figure 5**). Furthermore, the embedment depths is more than 2 times the above ground fence height, the poles are connected with stainless steel wire and monitoring and life-cycle-management ensures proper functioning of the infrastructure component. This minimises the risk of mangrove damage through floating debris. In addition, the effect of floating items with an impact of a 300 kg was considered in the fence design.

The following boundary conditions must be fulfilled to ensure that the fences, as described above, can be applied successfully:


These five boundary conditions are summarised in **Figure 10**. The x-axis shows 2 parameters, namely significant wave height Hs and mean wave period Tm.

Only if all parameters measured are within the blue rectangle with rounded corners is the application of bamboo T-fences feasible. The colour gradient in the rectangle indicates that there is no clear boundary of applicability. If the limiting criteria are exceeded to some extent, adaptations, such as strengthening with concrete poles, must be considered. If the limiting criteria are greatly exceeded, an application of T-fences is not feasible.

There are additional limiting factors which should be considered. The thickness of the top mud layer indicates the amount of sediments in the system to restore the eroded tidal flats. In the Mekong Delta, > 0.50 m of mud layer has shown to be sufficient at providing enough sediment to restore sever erosion (**Figure 1**, the picture in **Figures 11** and **12**).

Further, it must be considered that bamboo attracts shipworms (wood-burrowing bivalves with wormlike bodies, *Teredo* sp. and *Bankia* sp.). In sites with steep shoreline *Mangroves and Ecosystem-Based Coastal Protection in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110820*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Five key boundary conditions within which application of bamboo T-fences is feasible (modified from https:// panorama.solutions/en/solution/ecosystem-based-coastal-protection-through-floodplain-restoration).*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Natural regeneration of Avicennia on restored tidal flats at Sluice Gate 4 in Soc Trang Province from the construction of the T-fences in October 2012 until January 2015 (photos: GIZ Soc Trang, R. Sorgenfrei).*

gradients and long submergence periods, shipworms affected or even destroyed the T-fence structure after a few months. The risk of shipworm attack can be minimised by building the fences within the appropriate boundary conditions.

The duration of submergence and exposure to waves also affect the effort required for maintenance. Long submersion weakens the construction material and larger wave forces influence the stability of the connections. The longer the duration of

#### **Figure 12.**

*The steps from eroded foreshore through flood plain restoration to mangrove regeneration/rehabilitation. Effective protection of the mangroves can prevent re-occurrence of erosion due to degradation or destruction of the mangroves (from [34]).*

submergence and the higher the degree of exposure to waves, the larger is the effort required for maintenance. Of course, both input parameters correlate, since wave heights can be larger in deeper water.

T-fence monitoring and maintenance ensures proper functioning of the infrastructure component. During the first year after construction visual inspections should be carried out at monthly intervals and maintenance should be carried out where necessary. After that, visual inspections and maintenance should be carried out as a minimum after every storm season. Seasonal GPS (Global Positioning System) surveys of the shoreline at low tide can provide information if the T-fences have impacts on the shape of the nearby coastline.

#### **2.4 Effects of T-fences**

The reduction in wave height and thus in orbital velocities under waves and the flow and sediment transport in the fields created by T-fences leads to accelerated sedimentation rates [4, 70]. The reduction of wave action on the landward side of the fences also accelerates the consolidation of the mud and thus increases the stability of the sediments against erosion. The resulting restoration of the tidal flats creates the precondition for mangrove regeneration (**Figure 11**).

The 4 fixed-photo pictures in **Figure 11** were taken between 2012 and 2015. In November 2012 the coast parallel elements of the T-fences and the gap are still visible. In the foreground gabions are visible, placed at the front of the dyke to protect it from erosion and overtopping. In February 2013 the beginning of the sedimentation can clearly be seen on the left side of the picture. In November 2013 consolidation of sediments has started from the edge towards the gaps in the T-fences. This is indicated by the change in mud colour which is darker on the right were natural regeneration of *Avicennia* is already occurring. The photo taken in January 2015 shows the growth of

mangroves, that are not disturbed by wave action (due to the high/restored tidal flat) and that are protected from destructive human impacts.

#### **2.5 Costs and benefits**

The costs for the construction of bamboo T-fences were about US\$ 50–60 per meter in 2008, the costs per meter for a 3.5 m high concrete dyke were US\$ 2270 [79], based on an average exchange rate in 2008 of 16,300 Vietnam Dong per US\$.

The lifespan of bamboo fences (5–7 years, pers. comm. Worapol Douglomchan 2011, Khok Kha, Samut Sakhon Province, Thailand) is sufficient for the restoration of tidal flats at coasts with adequate supply of fine-grained sediment. If sedimentand morphodynamics change over time, bamboo T-fences—in contrast to concrete construction elements of coastal protection—can easily be adjusted.

A comprehensive review of economic values of mangrove ecosystem services is provided by [21]. In northern Vietnam, for example, an initial investment of USD 1.1 million in mangrove planting saved an estimated USD 7.3 million a year in sea dyke maintenance [80]. A study from Soc Trang compared the values of mangrove planting with a dyke upgrade based on saved wealth and saved health3 [81]. The saved wealth index per USD invested for mangroves is about 19 times higher than for the dyke upgrade. In addition, mangroves are able to provide health benefits of 243 Disability-Adjusted Life Years in 20 years whereas the dyke upgrade does not deliver any positive health impacts [82].

#### **3. Mangrove management**

After successful restoration of sites suitable for mangrove growth, natural regeneration of mangroves will occur if environmental conditions are below key biophysical thresholds [12, 83]. If rates of natural regeneration are insufficient, supplementary planting of mangroves may be necessary. In such cases, appropriate species need to be planted at the right sites and at the correct time [12, 41, 84]. It is, however, essential to address the underlying factors leading to mangrove deforestation and degradation. This can best be achieved through effective protection and management of mangroves otherwise the cycle of anthropogenic degradation/destruction and expensive restoration will continue uninterrupted (**Figure 12**). Involving local people through co-management has shown to achieve this in an effective way which, in addition, provides co-benefits for the local population [46–49].

Mangrove co-management is based on participatory negotiation, joint decisionmaking, a degree of power-sharing, and a fair distribution of benefits among all stakeholders. It empowers local people to negotiate with local authorities and take over the management of mangroves. A partnership agreement between the resource users and local authorities will give the user group the right to use natural resources sustainably on a defined area of state-owned land (in the case of Vietnam Protection Forest) while being held responsible for the sustainable management and effective protection of those resources.

<sup>3</sup> Saved Wealth covers the monetary value of public infrastructure, private property and income loss; Saved Health covers avoided disease, disability and live loss, it is a concept to quantify the burden of disability and death, expressed as the number of years lost due to disability and early death.

In Au Tho B village in Soc Trang Province, mangrove co-management resulted in enhanced biodiversity, improved coastal protection and enhanced livelihoods through more income from fisheries as well as better collaboration between local people and local authorities [49]. The mangrove area under co-management in front of the village increased between 2008 and 2022 from about 70 to almost 280 ha without any planting.

#### **4. Summary**

Coastal areas are complex and dynamic ecosystems that face cumulative challenges and uncertainties due to human impacts and climate change. To address the uncertainties, complexity and adaptive capacity, a number of adaptation strategies should be used. These should contain different site specific and appropriate solutions to coastal protection and mangrove rehabilitation to avoid maladaptation, path dependencies and ultimately a reduction in adaptive capacity [31, 85, 86].

A diverse strategy which does not rely on concrete structures and which combines appropriate site-specific elements can respond in a flexible way to future scenarios about flow regimes and sediment patterns. The dynamic coastline of the Mekong Delta, for example, is largely influenced by sediment transport from the Mekong River which is predicted to diminish by 50% in 2050–2060 mainly due to hydropower development in the catchment area [87]. The need for a coastal defence strategy which is viable over time has also been identified as the solution for the dynamic mudbank mangrove system along the coast of Guyana [88].

Knowledge of the main drivers of coastline changes and the way they influence the coastline and mangrove cover and of historical processes and coastal dynamics is also important for the development of adaptation strategies [5, 36, 89].

Fore shore management, including the stimulation of sedimentation using bamboo T-fences, is a cost-effective and sustainable approach, which does not cause any major interference with natural coastal morphodynamics if the placement of the T-fences more or less recreates the original coastline. The application therefore requires measurements of currents, waves, sediment concentrations and bathymetry as well as a sound understanding of mangrove ecology and coastal dynamics.

The wave transmission effect of bamboo T-fences is sufficient to significantly reduce wave heights and stimulate sedimentation on the landward side. The construction is cost-efficient and often more feasible than massive concrete structures on soft soil.

However, the application of T-fences has clear limits. It is only feasible within specific boundary conditions and T-fences must be sustained through a sound life-cyclemanagement including a maintenance strategy. If the site exceeds the amount of exposure to waves and duration of submergence, the effort for maintenance increases a lot and ultimately the use of T-fences becomes impractical. The applicability, design and layout of the T-fences, therefore, must be checked for every site and modified if required. For sites which exceed the limiting criteria to a large extent alternative solutions must be put in place.

It is essential that the mangroves are protected from human impacts once natural regeneration has occurred or mangroves have been planted otherwise the cycle of anthropogenic degradation/destruction and expensive restoration will continue. This can best be achieved by involving local people in effective protection and management of mangroves through co-management. Mangrove conservation can also supports the process of natural regeneration without the need for planting.

#### *Mangroves and Ecosystem-Based Coastal Protection in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110820*

Ecosystem-based coastal protection using mangroves delivers a wide range of benefits. Mangrove forests provide co-benefits and livelihood for people living in the coastal zone. They contribute to protection from erosion, flooding, storms and rising sea levels. Furthermore, mangroves sequester greenhouse gases, protect biodiversity, provide a more economical solution to address coastal threats and can adapt to changing conditions.

#### **Author details**

Klaus Schmitt1 \* and Thorsten Albers2

1 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Manila, Philippines

2 Ostfalia—University of Applied Sciences, Suderburg, Germany

\*Address all correspondence to: klaus.schmitt@giz.de

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 7**

## Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach

*I. Ketut Ginantra*

#### **Abstract**

The chapter we propose includes the following: The uniqueness of the mangrove ecosystem, the mangrove ecosystem is a unique ecotone, which connects the life of land and marine biota. Its diversity of plants and fauna is typical, namely, true mangrove plants, associated mangrove plants, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, reptiles and birds. The existence of mangrove flora and fauna is an attraction for ecotourism, scientific interpretation and educational materials for the community for mangrove conservation. Principles in conservation include preservation, protection and sustainable use. Ecotourism is the sustainable use of mangroves, which combines three main aspects, namely, ecology, economy and evaluating community opinion. Examples of the use of mangrove ecosystems are for ecotourism in Bali, Indonesia. The manuscript has a valuable contribution on the importance of the mangrove ecosystems in ecotourism.

**Keywords:** mangrove flora and fauna, conservation, attraction, ecotourism in Bali, mangrove tourism

#### **1. Introduction**

Mangroves are ecosystems that provide productive habitat and can support coastal fisheries including crabs, shrimp and fish, and have a high diversity of biota species. The fauna diversity includes arboreal, terrestrial, semi-aquatic fauna, mollusks, crustaceans, fish and other aquatic fauna. Mangroves are an excellent habitat to support growth and reproduction for the preservation of species in ecosystems. Mangroves are also a feeding ground, spawning ground and nursery ground for various associated marine biota [1, 2].

Ecotourism is a tourism activity that combines 3 main aspects, namely ecology, including the existence of the types that make up the mangrove ecosystem and also its conservation efforts. The second is Economic, the economic value generated from ecotourism activities in sustainable mangroves and part of the proceeds is returned to maintain the ecosystem and the third is the empowerment of the local (local) community as the initiator, manager and guide in the ecotourism business [3]. In principle, ecotourism is an activity in which the physical/chemical, biological/ecological and economic functions of mangrove forests continue to run well. Ecotourism in mangrove areas contains three main pillars, namely ecology, which is a vehicle for nature conservation, sustainable economy and empowerment of local (local) communities [3, 4].

The diversity of species and unique characteristics of mangrove plants and the diversity of fauna (birds, crustaceans, mollusks, fish) can be an attraction for ecotourism attractions, including plant species with unique roots, fruit shapes, and the adaptability of mangrove plants on muddy and able to live on land with high salt content. The benefits of plants for treatment, the benefits of mangrove plant species as mosquito repellents, or the benefits of plants for religious ceremonies in Bali can also be an attraction for ecotourism [5, 6].

The feasibility of mangrove forest ecosystems for ecotourism activities can be seen from the diversity of mangrove plant species (number of species), mangrove density (number of individuals/m2), mangrove thickness (mangrove diameter from coast to land), above-tree biota (insects, birds), biota in water (fish, crabs, mollusks), perceptions of local people and also the condition of mangrove forests [7].

The forms of ecotourism activities in Mangrove can be quite varied. Sports and recreational tourism activities, attractions can be in the form of kayaking, fishing, canoeing, camping. The facilities needed are kayaks, canoes, rafts, camping ground. Educational and research tourism, the attractions can be in the form of an introduction to mangrove vegetation, birth watching, an introduction to the characteristics of mangrove plants. The required facilities can be natural, canoe, raft, observation post/ ecotower, resting point. Health tourism, attractions can be in the form of meditation, rehabilitation, therapy and the facilities needed are shelter, shade [3].

Mangrove forests with a diversity of unique flora and fauna are very attractive as a tourist attraction. Many mangrove areas have been developed as tourist attractions, including the Nusa Lembongan mangrove area for mangrove tours, the TAHURA Ngurah Rai mangrove area for ecotourism attractions, ecotourism areas in Kampoeng Kepiting mangrove forest, Pejarakan Buleleng village mangrove forest as an educational tourist attraction, mangrove forests in Perancak developed as an ecotourism attraction. The Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove forest is part of the Tahura Ngurah Rai mangrove forest area, which was developed by the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang Pemogan fishing group. The mangrove forest in Segara Batu Lumbang is also a tourist attraction based on the conservation of the diversity of mangrove flora and fauna. Mangrove tourism that has been developed is a mangrove tour with canoes, traditional boat "jukung", fishing tours, volunteer tourism.

Several other mangrove forest areas were also developed by local community groups including the Nusa Lembongan mangroves by the Sari Segara group, the mangrove forests on the coast of Pejarakan Buleleng by the Nature Conservation Forum Putri Menjangan and the Perancak mangrove forests by the Village-Owned Enterprise (BUM-Desa) Perancak Jembrana Bali [8].

#### **2. Mangrove forest conservation**

Conservation of natural resources and their ecosystems in principle consists of 3, namely (1) Protection of life support systems. In this case, it is important for the existence of flora and fauna and their ecosystems to receive protection, whether in a National Park area, nature reserve, wildlife reserve or community forest, customary forest; (2) preserving the diversity of plant and animal species and their ecosystems; (3) sustainable use of living natural resources and their ecosystems, which can play a role in the interests of science, research, education and training, culture, recreation

#### *Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*

and nature tourism and ecotourism. Flora and fauna conservation efforts aim to: (a) prevent plant and animal species from being endangered; (b) maintain genetic purity and species diversity; and (c) maintaining the balance and stability of the existing ecosystem; so that it can be used for human welfare in a sustainable manner (Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5 of 1990 [9]; Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry No. P.106 of 2018 [10]).

Mangrove ecosystems have three main functions, namely physical/chemical functions, biological/ecological functions and economic functions. The economic function of mangrove forests is more directed at recreational tourism activities, educational tours and research tours. Furthermore, mangroves are managed for ecotourism activities. Mangroves play an important role in protecting coastal areas and maintaining habitat for a large number of species of animals/fauna (fishes, crustaceans, mollusks, reptiles, birds, to mammals), endangered species and endangered species, all of which play an important role in maintaining biodiversity.

The diversity of mangrove plant species plays an important role for the existence of mangrove fauna. The diversity of mangrove plants consists of two groups, namely true mangrove species and associated mangrove species. True mangrove species are plants that grow exclusively in mangrove habitat, including *Rhizophora* sp., *Bruguiera* sp. *Sonneratia* sp. *Xylocarpus* sp., *Avicennia* sp. and species of mangrove associations are terrestrial plants that are able to grow adaptively in mangrove areas, including *Hibiscus tiliaceus*, pescapre (*Ipomoea pes-capre* [1]).

Various types of fauna associated with mangrove ecosystems, namely various types of birds, insects and primates that live in the tree canopy as well as various types of fauna that live at the bottom of the mangroves such as wild boars, monitor lizards, crocodiles, snakes, shrimp, fish, shellfish, snails, crabs are an ecotourism attraction in mangrove ecosystems. Some of the bird species found in the mangroves of the Perancak Estuary include great egrets (*Egretta alba*), small egrets (*Egretta garzetta*), egrets (*Ardeola speciosa*) which are interesting attractions for ecotourism visitors [11].

Biodiversity conservation is important for several reasons, namely; (1) Ecological reasons. Individual species and ecosystems have developed over millions of years into complex dependencies. The greater the loss of habitat and species, the greater the danger of total collapse; (2) Economic reasons. Loss of biodiversity in general also means that species with economic and social potential may disappear before they are discovered; (3) Ethical reasons. When forests and other habitats are lost or degraded, so are the traditions and livelihoods of local people based on these habitats; and (4) esthetic reasons. Everyone would agree that a vegetated area with all its life content would be more interesting than a burnt, degraded landscape or large concrete buildings. Human existence is linked to the natural world. Every type of plant and animal is different from each other and this gives beauty to nature in different ways [12, 13].

The development of development in various sectors (including the tourism sector) has an impact on the environment, both the geophysical-chemical environment, the environment and the socio-culture of the surrounding community. This requires humans to always act wisely towards the environment so as not to cause negative or damaging impacts. In supporting programs to improve the management of living natural resources and their ecosystems in a harmonious, balanced and sustainable manner, various conservation efforts are required both in-situ and ex-situ to flora and fauna, especially to species that have been protected or are experiencing population

decline. Flora conservation efforts are not only the responsibility of the government but also the wider community, non-governmental organizations, private institutions including entrepreneurs in the tourism sector.

Mangrove forests developed as mangrove tourism objects by governmental or nongovernmental institutions based on ecotourism. Ecotourism activities are in principle beneficiary mangrove area while maintaining the biological/ecological functions of mangrove forests, there is a sustainable economic value and empowerment of local communities. The concept of ecotourism can be described in more detail in the principles of ecotourism, namely: (1) Minimizing physical, social, behavioral, psychological impacts; (2) Build environmental awareness, culture and respect; (3) Provide a positive experience for visitors and hosts; (4) Providing direct financial benefits for environmental conservation or preservation; (5) Generate financial benefits for local communities, private industry (6) Provide impressive interpretive experiences for visitors to increase sensitivity to the political, environmental, social climate of the tourist destination; (7) Build, operate facilities or infrastructure by minimizing environmental impact; (8) Recognizing the rights, spiritual beliefs of indigenous communities and empowering them [3, 4, 14].

The use of mangroves for ecotourism is in accordance with the development directions of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), namely goal 12, regarding sustainable patterns of consumption and production; goal 13, on urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; goal 14, regarding the conservation and sustainable use of sea, ocean and maritime resources for sustainable development; goal 15, on Protecting, restoring and promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, managing forests in a sustainable manner, combating desertification, and halting and reversing soil degradation and halting the loss of biodiversity; and goal 17, on strengthening implementation measures and revitalizing the global partnership for sustainable development [15].

#### **3. Use of mangrove ecosystems for ecotourism in Bali: case study**

This section describes the distribution and mangrove forests area in Bali and some examples of mangrove areas that have been developed for ecotourism by nongovernmental organizations or the local government. Based on data from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, the area of mangrove land in Bali Province reaches 2143.97 hectares (3067.71 Ha), which is distributed in southern Bali (TAHURA Ngurah Rai) covering 1373.5 ha, Mangrove Nusa Lembongan covering 202 Ha, The Perancak Estuary, which is located in Jembrana Regency, Bali has mangrove forests with an area of 177.09 ha, Gilimanuk bay covering an area of 265.92 Ha and Buleleng Regency covering an area of 1291.40 Ha [16] (**Figure 1**).

The use of mangrove forests for ecotourism activities in several areas in the mangrove areas of the Province of Bali is based on management by local community groups/communities around the mangrove area and continues to maintain the conservation of biodiversity, landscapes and their ecosystems. Ecotourism activities carried out by this community group are fostered by the relevant agencies in their area and or state-owned enterprises which are part of their CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) program.

Data on the diversity of flora, fauna and ecotourism attractions in the study area is the result of the author's observations and from several sources of articles that have been published in journals or books including [5, 17–22].

*Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*

**Figure 1.** *Map of mangrove distribution in Bali (2021).*

#### **3.1 Mangrove ecotourism of Segara Guna Batu Lumbang**

The Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove forest is part of the Grand Forest Park (TAHURA) Ngurah Rai mangrove conservation area, which was developed by a community group, namely KUB Segara Guna Batu Lumbang. Geographically it is located at coordinates 8°44<sup>0</sup> 4.02"S and 115°11'17.15"E. Ecotourism activities by this community group are fostered by the Forestry and Environment Service TAHURA Ngurah Rai and PT. Indonesia Power (Bali Power Generation Unit).

The mangrove forest in Segara Guna Batu Lumbang is a tourist attraction based on the conservation of the diversity of mangrove flora and fauna. Mangrove tours that are being developed are mangrove tours with canoes/jukung, fishing tours, volunteer tour, and spiritual tours. Mangrove tourist facilities in the Lumbang stone area, namely canoes, "jukung", boats, post/canoe base hall, fishing lines. The Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove tourism object combines spiritual tourism and conservation tourism (Voluntourism). In this area, the *Penyawangan Melasti* temple, Pemogan traditional village, Denpasar, Bali, canoe, boat route, stilt houses, posts for fishermen group facilities and facilities for tourists to be able to explore existing spots or objects (**Figure 2**).

Biodiversity in this mangrove area mainly consists of mangrove vegetation and mangrove association plants, bird fauna, mollusks, crustaceans, fish, reptiles, amphibians and some insects. Several species of plants and fauna are endangered species based on the IUCNRedlist, most of them are in the LC (Least Concern)

**Figure 2.** *Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove tourist object (photos 2022).*


#### **Table 1.**

*Diversity of mangrove plants in Segara Batu Lumbang.*

category. This shows that the mangrove area of Segara Guna Batu Lumbang has high conservation value (**Tables 1** and **2**). Expanse of mangrove forest and interacting fauna become an interesting sight for tourists visiting the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove tour (**Figures 3** and **4**).

Tourists visiting this area can travel around the mangroves by canoe, get to know the diversity of flora and fauna, research, bird watching, fishing, environmental education, become volunteers in mangrove conservation. The economic value


#### *Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*


*Scarcity, LC: Least Concern, base on IUCN Red List, version 2022 [23]; L: protected status according to Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry No. P.106 of 2018 [10].*

#### **Table 2.**

*Diversity of fauna in the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove area.*

*Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Fishing and traveling around the mangroves at the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang, mangrove tourism attractions (photos: 2022).*

**Figure 4.** *Birds in the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove area (photos: 2022).*

generated from mangrove tourism activities is partly utilized for the welfare of the managing community group and partly for mangrove ecosystem recovery funds due to the impact of utilization (among them activities of planting mangrove seedlings, repairing facilities, funds for cleaning plastic waste).

#### **3.2 Mangrove tourism of Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang**

The Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove forest is part of the Tahura Ngurah Rai mangrove forest area. Geographically it is located at coordinates 8°43<sup>0</sup> 33.86"S and 115° 12'1.27"E. This mangrove ecotourism was developed by the Simbar Segara group and the Manager of the Dalem Temple of Luhur Segara Batu Lumbang, Pemogan Village, Denpasar Bali. Ecotourism activities by this community group are fostered by the Forestry and Environment Service UPTD TAHURA Ngurah Rai. Guidance is carried out to ensure that the use of mangroves for tourism activities still prioritizes the conservation of flora and fauna and mangrove ecosystems.

The mangrove forest in Segara Batu Lumbang is one of the tourist attractions based on the conservation of the diversity of mangrove flora and fauna. The Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove tourism object combines spiritual tourism and conservation tourism (Voluntourism). An alternative type of tourism that has the opportunity to be developed in the Batu Lumbang Mangrove Forest is Voluntourism. This type of tourism combines volunteer activities and tourism. Because this area has beautiful natural potential [22] (**Figure 5**).

In this area, Pura Luhur Segara Batu Lumbang was built, by the traditional village of Pemogan, Denpasar, Bali. Mangrove tours that are being developed are mangrove tours with canoes, fishing tours, volunteer tours, and spiritual tours. Mangrove tourist facilities in this area, namely canoes, traditional boat "jukung", boats, post/canoe base hall, and fishing lines (**Figure 6**).

The diversity of flora and fauna in the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove tourist area is almost similar to the flora and fauna in the Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove area, because it is still a TAHURA Ngurah Rai area. The flora and fauna consist of mangrove vegetation and mangrove association plants, bird fauna, mollusks, crustaceans, fish, reptiles, amphibians and some insects. Several species of plants and fauna are endangered species based on the IUCN Redlist, most of them are in the LC (Least Concern) category, there are several bird species which are protected species based on the Decree of the Minister of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia no P106 of 2018. This shows that the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove area has a high conservation value. The expanse of mangrove forest and interacting fauna is an interesting sight for tourists visiting the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove tour. Tourists exploring mangroves using canoes are presented with a unique view of mangrove vegetation and several types of animals that interact with mangrove habitat (**Figure 7**).

**Figure 5.** *Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang tourism object (photos: 2022).*

**Figure 6.** *Tour around the mangroves by canoe in the Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangroves (photos: 2022).*

*Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*

**Figure 7.** *Flora Fauna in the Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove (photos 2021 and 2022).*

#### **3.3 Mangrove ecotourism of Kampoeng Kepiting**

The Kampoeng Kepiting mangrove ecotourism area is part of the Tahura Ngurah Rai mangrove forest area. Geographically it is located at coordinates 8°44<sup>0</sup> 38.62"S and 115°11'0.03"E. This mangrove ecotourism was developed by the Nelayan Wanasari Group, Tuban Badung Village, Bali. Ecotourism activities by this community group are fostered by the Ngurah Rai Pertamina Depo (CSR Program) and the Forestry and Environment Service Tahura Ngurah Rai. Coaching is carried out for business development and ensuring that the use of mangroves for tourism activities still prioritizes the conservation of flora and fauna and mangrove ecosystems (**Figure 8**).

The uniqueness of the mangrove flora and fauna and the ecosystem in the Kampoeng Kepiting area is an attractive attraction for ecotourists. Ecotourism

**Figure 8.** *Mangrove ecotourism of Kampoeng Kepiting (photo: 2021).*

**Figure 9.** *Voluntourism in Kampoeng Kepiting mangrove (photos: 2021).*

attractions in Kampoeng Kepiting include mangrove tour packages using traditional boats, mangrove tours using canoes, fishing mangroves with traditional boats, crab aunt release tours, volunteer tours (planting mangrove seeds and cleaning mangroves from plastic waste), educational tours of mangrove ecosystems (**Figure 9**).

#### **3.4 Mangrove tour tourism Nusa Lembongan**

The mangrove forest in Nusa Lembongan which covers 202 ha [24] has been utilized by the community for mangrove tour tourism activities. Several tourism organizations that have developed a mangrove tour program in Nusa Lembongan include the Bali Tours Club, the Jungut Batu village mangrove tour group, Travelfish. org, the Tangjung Sanghyang tour group. In this activity, traveling tourists explore the mangrove forest by using rowing canoes, motorized canoes, some are via a trail. Throughout the tour, tourists are accompanied by local guides to enjoy the beauty of the expanse of mangrove forests.

*Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*

**Figure 10.** *Mangrove tour in the mangrove forest of Nusa Lembongan (photos: 2022).*

One of the community groups developing a mangrove tour in Nusa Lembongan is the Sari Segara Mangrove Tour Group. The mangrove area developed by this group is located at coordinates 8°40<sup>0</sup> 1.25"S and 115°28'1.79"E. This group utilizes several parts of the mangrove forest area in Nusa Lembongan, specifically the mangrove forest in the northern part of Nusa Lembongan. The facilities used for the mangrove tour are canoes, traditional boats or canoes. Tourists can go around the mangroves while observing the diversity of flora and fauna (**Figure 10**).

Nusa Lembongan's mangrove forests support a diversity of mangrove plants, bird fauna, crustaceans, mollusks which are very interesting for tourists to enjoy. At least 11 species of true mangrove plants, 27 species of birds, 22 species of mollusks and 11 species of crustaceans have been recorded in the mangroves of Nusa Lembongan [5, 17, 25]. Most of the mangrove plant species are included in the rare LC, Vu and NT categories according to the IUCN Redlist. Likewise, most of the bird species found are endangered species, especially the LC category (**Tables 3** and **4**).

#### **3.5 Ecotourism in mangrove ecosystem Pejarakan Buleleng**

The coastal mangrove forest of Pejarakan Village covers 160 Ha, located at coordinates 8° 7<sup>0</sup> 32.16"S and 114°34'19.89"E, managed by the Nature Conservation Forum Putri Menjangan (NCF Putri menjangan). Management of the area includes efforts to conserve mangroves and develop educational tours, ecotourism. The diversity of mangrove plants, growth zoning patterns, diversity of birds, mollusks, crustaceans that interact with mangrove ecosystems is an attraction for ecotourism [26].

The Nature Conservation Forum, which is a local community organization, is developing this area for ecotourism-based tourism. Facilities developed: office,


*Scarcity:* LC: Least Concern, VU: Vulnerable, NT: near threatened, base on *IUCN Red List, version 2022, [23];* L: *protected status according to Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry No. P.106 of 2018 [10].*

#### **Table 3.**

*Mangrove plant species on Nusa Lembongan.*



#### *Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*

#### **Table 4.**

*Fauna species richness in the Nusa Lembongan mangrove.*

information center, tracking/trail, resting point. Ecotourism activities can be in the form of education on mangrove ecosystems, mangrove conservation (nursery, planting), introduction to the diversity of flora and fauna, and research (**Figure 11**).

The diversity of mangrove plants and associated plants, the diversity of birds, mollusks, crustaceans and the typical landscape of mangrove ecosystems is an attraction for ecotourism attractions. Several true mangrove plant species have been recorded with particularities in root type, fruit shape, growth form and growing zoning in mangrove habitat. The species of mangrove species found include *Rhizophora apiculata, Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, aviccenia* sp*.* and *Rhozophora stylosa.*

In the Putri Menjangan mangrove area, 39 species of birds were found. The dominant species found were from the families Ardeidae and Alcedinidae, which are water bird species, including the gray herons (*Ardea cinerea*), sea herons (*Ardea sumatrana*), little silver egrets (*Egretta sacra*), silver egrets (*Egretta intermedia*), great egret (*E. alba*), kingfisher (*Halcyon chloris*), and blue shrimp (*Alcedo coerulescens*). The presence of these birds is an interesting attraction for bird watching ecotourism. The existence of mollusk and crustacean species is also an interesting attraction for ecotourism, several species of mollusks found include the canal monodont (*Monodonta canalifera*), giant mangrove whelk (*Terebralia palustris*), tropical periwinkle sea snail (*Planaxis sulcatus*), telescope snail (*Telescopium telescopium*), sea snail (*Cerithidea obtusa*), mud snail (*Cerithideopsilla alata*), periwinkle (*Littoraria strigata*). Several species from the crustacean group include sesarmid crabs (*Sesarma robert*i), Fiddler crabs (*Uca anulipes*), fiddler crabs (*Uca vocans*) and *Uca tetragonon* (**Figure 12**)*.*

#### **3.6 Perancak mangrove ecotourism**

Coastal mangrove forest area of Perancak Jembrana village, which covers 10 hectares. Located at coordinates 8°23<sup>0</sup> 55.16"S and 114°37'17.22"E. This mangrove

**Figure 11.** *Mangrove ecotourism facilities in Pejarakan mangrove (photos: 2017).*

*Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109253*

**Figure 12.**

*Some interesting fauna that can be observed in pejarakan mangroves (photos: 2017).*

ecotourism is managed by the Perancak Customary Village-Owned Enterprise (BUM-Desa) and under the auspices of the Jembrana Regency Government and the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, for Ecotourism. Ecotourism activities are based on three concepts, namely the preservation of the flora and fauna of the mangrove forest is maintained, there is a sustainable economic value and the local community plays a role in its management. In this area several facilities supporting ecotourism activities were built, including a wooden trail for tracking, an office for ticket reservations, ecotourism information boards and toilets. All facilities are built with an environmentally friendly concept [27] (**Figure 13**).

The expanse of the coastal mangrove vegetation of Perancak and the existing biota is an interesting attraction. Mangrove plant species with a distinctive root type (stilt

**Figure 13.** *Perancak mangrove ecotourism object. (photo source: Bali tripon.com. Accessed: 2022).*

root, pneumatophor, knee root), various fruit shapes (ball-like, chili-like, heartshaped, bean-shaped), unique growing habitat, namely in the intertidal area (tidal).

#### **4. Conclusions**

The conclusion is that by utilizing mangrove forests for ecotourism activities, there are several important things, namely:


#### **Acknowledgements**

I would like to thank the heads of the mangrove tourism groups, namely Segara Guna Batu Lumbang, Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang, Kampoeng Kepiting, the heads of the NCF Putri Menjangan and the Sari Sagara Lembongan Group for their permission and facilitation during the field survey. We hope that the information in this book chapter will benefit the development of ecotourism, especially mangrove ecotourism in Bali.

### **Conflict of interest**

I declare that what I wrote in this book chapter is purely for the benefit of developing positive information for sustainable mangrove management and there is no conflict of interest with other parties.

### **Author details**

I. Ketut Ginantra Biology Study Program, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to: ketut\_ginantra@unud.ac.id

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### *Edited by Orlex Baylen Yllano*

Mangroves are considered the "wonder flora" distributed in the tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate latitudes. Aside from protecting the coastal marine communities, mangroves also serve as a haven for aquatic and terrestrial fauna, actively participate in energy dynamics, recycle nutrients, filter waste, and support the livelihood of coastal communities. This makes the mangrove ecosystem crucial to the well-being of the planet. This book, written by experts, provides invaluable insights into mangroves of the Niger Delta, the relationship between mangrove recruitment and thrombolytic development, deforestation and sustainability, mangrove health assessment, ecosystem-based coastal protection, and conservation through ecotourism. This book on mangrove biology, ecosystem, and conservation is an invaluable resource for every mangrove enthusiast.

### *J. Kevin Summers, Environmental Sciences Series Editor*

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen © Jian Fan / iStock

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