Managing Prior Converted Hydric Soils to Support Agriculture Production and Maintain Ecosystem Services: A Dedicated Outreach to the Agriculture Community

*Michael Aide, Samantha Siemers Indi Braden, Sven Svenson, Shakirah Nakasagga, Kevin Sargent, Miriam Snider and Marissa Wilson*

### **Abstract**

Hydric soils and prior converted soils are frequently used for agricultural production. Agriculture production and their associated agribusinesses are the chief economic sector; thus, agriculture is critical for rural prosperity. However, the continuous production of grain crops increases the risk of disease and insect outbreaks, which may lead to soil nutrient exhaustion or substantial usage of annual fertilizer amendments, loss of soil carbon, and soil structure degradation attributed primarily to tillage, decrease in biodiversity, and increased soil compaction. At the David M. Barton Agriculture Research Center at Southeast Missouri State University, our focus has been to support profitable agriculture production and environmental stewardship. We have developed a decade-long research program specializing in subsurface controlled irrigation with the gradual development of edge-of-field technologies. We further developed a constructed wetland to address nutrient pollution concerns with confined feeding operations. Pastures associated with the confined feed facility and the constructed wetland have initiated a soil health program. Our evolution has now permitted the David M. Barton Agriculture Research Center to become a regional center to showcase the relationships that support both profitable agriculture and environmental stewardship.

**Keywords:** prior converted wetlands, subsurface drainage, denitrification bioreactors, constructed wetlands, soil health

#### **1. Introduction**

Knowledge of water and nutrient flux in wetlands is integral to land management across southeastern Missouri. The region has the largest completed land drainage project in the USA [1]. The Little River Drainage Project converted 1.6 million ha (4 million acres) of marshlands into productive croplands. The economic development of the region is primarily vested in agriculture; however, the realization that the restoration of ecosystem services is important for water quality, soil health, nutrient management, habitat preservation, and advancing biological diversity is emerging. This vast region currently produces corn (*Zea mays*), soybeans (*Glycine max*), wheat (*Triticum aestivum*), rice (*Oryza sativa*), cotton (*Gossypium hirsutum*), and specialty crops. Livestock includes beef (*Bos taurus*), swine (*Sus domesticus*), sheep (*Ovis aries*), and chicken (*Gallus gallus domesticus*).

Nitrogen migration from croplands supports eutrophication of freshwater resources and results in hypoxia across the Louisiana and Texas continental shelf [2, 3]. Additionally, the United States Environmental Protection Agency established 10 mg NO3-N L−1 as the nitrate drinking water standard; however, 1.5 mg NO3-N L−1 may support eutrophication [2]. A significant portion of the Mississippi River nitrate discharge into the Gulf of Mexico is derived from 15 million ha of artificial drainage within the Mississippi River watershed [1, 2]. Aide et al. [3] demonstrated that the nitrate concentrations from tile drainage effluents were a function of rainfall after nitrogen fertilization involving corn. Soil analysis demonstrated that nitrate was effectively leached to the tile-drainage technology.

The objective of this article is to demonstrate how to develop and install infrastructure that supports both production agriculture and environmental stewardship.

#### **2. Research to limit Nitrogen transport from tile-drained agricultural lands**

Tile drainage is common across the US corn belt, providing removal of excess water. Much of the drainage is uncontrolled, implying that the producer may not have the capacity to limit the tile drainage. Advantages of tile drainage include: (i) creating soil aeration permitting optimal root and seed respiration; (ii) promoting soil warming, especially in the spring; (iii) timely field operations; and (iv) minimizing nitrogen loss because of denitrification. A key disadvantage of tile drainage is the leaching losses of nitrate and sulfate, which require additional fertilization and threaten water quality [4–7]. Faust et al. [7] evaluated management practices used in drainage ditches to reduce (i) total suspended solids and (ii) nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, especially for moderate rainfall intensities.

Agronomic approaches to limiting nitrogen losses from tile-drainage fields include: (i) appropriate the timing and rates of nitrogen fertilizers, (ii) anticipate the nitrogen supply arising from mineralization, (iii) establish appropriate yield goals, (iv) utilize urease and nitrification inhibitors, (v) monitor crop nutrient status, (vi) employ diverse crop rotations and implement cover crops, (vii) manage plant residues, (viii) utilize precision fertilization practices, and (ix) install riparian buffers and other edge-of-field technologies [8].

*Managing Prior Converted Hydric Soils to Support Agriculture Production and Maintain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110469*

#### **2.1 Edge-of-field technologies to limit Nitrate degradation of water resources**

Aide et al. [2, 3, 8] discussed the installation and evaluation of edge-of-field technologies primarily engineered to eliminate nutrient transport from croplands. Aide et al. [3] demonstrated that a denitrification bioreactor effectively reduced nitrate-N concentrations from 69 mg NO3-N L−1 to 21 mg NO3-N L−1 from May through June (2015). For the 2018 corn harvest, Aide et al. [4] reported that the mean tile-drainage nitrate concentration ranged from 1.5 to 109 mg NO3-N L−1. The influent drainage into the denitrification bioreactor ranged from 0.4 to 103 mg NO3-N L−1, whereas the outlet drainage from the denitrification bioreactor ranged from 0.3 to 5.2 NO3-N L−1. The smaller tile-drainage nitrate concentrations in 2019 were approximately 1.6 to 4.5 mg NO3-N L−1 because of soybean cultivation and the lack of nitrogen fertilization. Data for subsequent years corroborates the presented findings.

#### **2.2 Constructed wetlands to capture nutrient-laden overland flow**

Constructed wetlands are engineered soil infrastructures designed to capture overland flow and subsequently facilitate soil-vegetation pathways to convert water-bearing nutrients into plant materials. Constructed wetlands enhance ecosystems by enhancing hydrological, biological, geochemical, and pedogenic processes that improve water quality and other ecosystem services. Perceived advantages of constructed wetlands include: (i) on-site nitrogen and phosphorus conversions into plant materials, (ii) reduced biological and chemical oxygen demands, (iii) odor reduction, (iv) wildlife habitat, (v) esthetics, and (vi) potential economic benefits [9–16].

#### **2.3 Cover crops**

Cover crops are used primarily to (i) constrain wind and water erosion, (ii) enhance available water capacity, (iii) suppress weeds and reduce herbicide usage, (iv) become compatible with an integrative pest management system to limit the incidence of specific insect and pathogens, (v) augment soil porosity and maintain appropriate soil bulk densities, (vi) convert soil nitrate and phosphate to plant-based organic nitrogen and phosphate to reduce off-site nutrient migration, and (vii) increase soil organic matter contents. The choice of plant speciation of the cover crop annually is governed by crop rotation, soil nutrient concentrations, and economics concerning seed purchase. Wheat (*T. aestivum*) and rye (*Secale cereale*) are popular cover crop choices, frequently interseeded with forage legumes.

#### **2.4 Soil health and pasture management**

Proper rotational grazing is integral to maintaining a vibrant forage program. However, for most producers, forage production detractions occur because of weather, forage species competitiveness, weed and disease management, soil fertility programs, the intensity and oversight of the rotational grazing program, and other factors. The United Sates Department of Agriculture—Natural Resources and Conservation Service defines soil health as follows: "Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans" [17]. Soil health provides five key services: (i) regulating water, (ii) sustaining plant and animal life, (iii) filtering and buffering

potential pollutants, (iv) cycling nutrients, and (v) providing physical stability and support. Landowner management may support soil health by (i) maximizing the presence of living roots, (ii) minimizing the disturbance because of tillage and animal traffic, (iii) maximizing soil cover with living plant material, and (iv) maximizing biodiversity [17].

Soil quality is assessed individually for each soil and is documented and measured using indicators [18–26]. The relevant indicators in pastures that we employ to document soil health improvements include: (i) physical attributes (rooting depth, bulk density, and infiltrate capacity), (ii) chemical attributes (total organic carbon, total organic nitrogen, labile (active) carbon, and pH), and (iii) biological attributes (microbial carbon biomass, microbial nitrogen biomass, potential N mineralization, phospholipid fatty acids, and soil respiration).

### **3. Existing infrastructure at the David M. Barton agriculture research center to support profitable production agriculture and environmental sustainability**

Southeast Missouri State University is a regional comprehensive public university that provides student-centered education and experiential learning experiences across the curriculum. The David M. Barton Agriculture Research Center, located at Cape Girardeau County (Missouri, USA), is an experiential learning facility for the Department of Agriculture at Southeast Missouri State University. **Figure 1** illustrates the spatial distribution of the environmental technologies and the material transport pathways.

**Figure 1.** *Map of the infrastructure layout.*

#### **3.1 Study area climate**

The mean annual temperature is approximately 13°C (56°F), and the mean annual precipitation is approximately 1.12 mm (44 inches) [27]. The mean monthly temperature for January is 3°C, and the mean monthly temperature for July is 25°C. Peak temperatures typically occur in July, with some days having a maximum near 40°C (104°F). Rainfall is typically greater from March to May; however, Gulf of Mexico weather events may provide heavy rain events from June to October. The mean October rainfall is 7 cm, whereas the mean May rainfall is 13 cm. The growing season is approximately 210 days [27].

#### **3.2 The soil resource**

The Wilbur series (coarse silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Fluvaquentic Eutrudepts) is the dominant soil series in the Crop Science Unit (Bottomlands). The pedons are very deep, moderately well-drained, permeable soils formed in silt loam alluvium that display an Ap–Bw–Cg horizon sequence. Saturated hydraulic conductivity is 4.2 to 14.1 micrometer sec−1, and the permeability is moderate. The soil pH ranges from slightly acidic to neutral in the ochric epipedon and strongly acidic (pH 5.1 to 5.5) and very strongly acidic (pH 4.5 to 5.0) in the cambic and deeper soil horizons, respectively.

Upland landscapes contain soils formed in thick loess and exhibit 2 to 6 percent slopes. The Menfro series (fine silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Hapludalfs) consists of very deep, well-drained, moderately permeable soils exhibiting A–E– BE–Bt horizon sequences. The Winfield series (fine silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Oxyaquic Hapludalfs) consists of very deep, moderately well-drained soils exhibiting A–E–BE–Bt–Btg horizon sequences. Both soil series have argillic horizons, exhibiting moderately acidic to strongly acidic pH levels.

#### **3.3 Crop science infrastructure overview**

The David M. Barton Agriculture Research Center has a 40 ha (100 acre) crop science unit featuring a controlled subsurface drainage and irrigation technology. The subsurface controlled drainage system design involves parallel tiles having 10-meter spacing. Irrigation and drainage are monitored and regulated by using stop-log boxes fitted with adjustable baffles to permit irrigation/drainage water to be added/removed by gravity flow. Submersible pumps support the irrigation.

A 12 × 103 meter3 (3.3 × 106 gallon) tile-drainage water capture basin was constructed to store excess tile-drainage water collected during the off-season to be reapplied as subsurface irrigation water during the cropping season, thus reapplying nitrogen to support plant growth and development.

A denitrification bioreactor is connected to the controlled-subsurface irrigation and drainage technology to receive drainage effluent. The denitrification bioreactor was designed and installed to transform nitrate to inert nitrogen gas (N2), nitric oxide (NO), or nitrous oxide (N2O). The relative speciation of nitrate-N into the three nitrogen gaseous species is pH dependent. Notably, in spring and summer rainfall events, the denitrification bioreactor consistently receives tile-drainage influents having nitrate-N concentrations between 20 and 40 mg NO3-N L−1 and having effluent discharges from 3 to 10 mg NO3-N L−1 [2, 3].

A riparian buffer is an edge-of-field technology designed to limit nutrient-laden runoff from entering freshwater resources. The riparian buffer is designed as 22.9 meters (75 ft) of trees and understory, with 7.6 meters (25 ft) of warm-season grasses. The riparian buffer is along an order III stream, and all trees, shrubs, and grasses/forbs are native. Collectively, the riparian buffer and the denitrification bioreactors are designed to limit nutrient migration from the crop production area to freshwater resources.

#### **3.4 Animal science infrastructure overview**

The animal science unit primarily focuses on cow-calf production with dedicated infrastructures including: (i) a pavilion for animal care and breeding, (ii) a semiconfined feed facility, and (iii) a confined feed facility. A grazing paddock system consists of 56 ha (140 acres) primarily having cool-season hay/pastures (tall fescue or *Schedonorus arundinaceus*) and warm-season grass pastures (bermudagrass or *Cynodon* spp). Water is provided through underground conduit that is fitted with freeze-preventive hydrants.

#### **4. Research involving agriculture production and environmental Stewardship**

#### **4.1 Crop production**

The Crop Science Unit maintains a corn (*Z. mays*) and soybean (*G. max*) rotation. Research involving the corn–soybean rotation is conducted annually to better estimate the influence of agronomic practices on the concentrations of tile drainage nitrate. Research involving nitrate tile drain concentration variations were attributed to: (i) nitrogen fertilization timing and rates; (ii) nutrient uptake patterns over crop growth stages, harvest removal, and residue return; and (iii) crop yields and their contribution to farm profitability.

For the 2022 harvest season, soybean yields were spatially variable but averaged from 4036 kg ha−1 (60 bushels acre−1) when planted after wheat and 4372 kg ha−1 (65 bushels acre−1) for full season (planted after cover crop). For the 2021 and 2022 growing seasons, we estimated harvest loss and residue return for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, magnesium, and calcium (**Table 1**).

The data simply illustrates quantitative assessment of nutrient cycle components that are integral to assessing land management influences. Note that harvest removal and residue return concentrations influence soil fertility, the potential for nutrient leaching and water quality, soil microbial activity, and wildlife habitat.


#### **Table 1.**

*Harvest removal and residue return (kg ha−1) for key nutrients for 2021 soybean.*

*Managing Prior Converted Hydric Soils to Support Agriculture Production and Maintain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110469*

#### **4.2 Manure nutrient capture zones and a constructed wetland to inhibit Nitrogen and Phosphorus flux**

In 2022, we installed a land-graded constructed wetland to provide discrete zones having different water saturation intensities and durations. Nutrient bearing inflow into the constructed wetland occurs from the winter sacrifice pasture. Water overland flow is channeled by a terrace system. In spring 2023 we will seed native aquatic plants to document which plant species are most suited to the constructed wetland and its difference water saturation zones.

The research objectives for the constructed wetland must be visioned with the manure-laden winter sacrifice pasture and the associated confined feed facility. Our objectives are: (i) to evaluate a constructed wetland to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus transport and impact to freshwater resources, (ii) to assess the aquatic plant composition for augmenting ecosystem services and compatibility across different water saturation regimes, and (iii) to determine if selected aquatic plants may be harvested for resale. Associated with the constructed wetland is a series of grazing pastures. Our soil health program is designed to merge the benefits of soil health with advanced grazing practices [28].

#### **4.3 Connectivity of environmental Stewardship and farm profitability to support producer acceptance**

Wetlands provide benefits, including: (i) critical habitat and breeding grounds, (ii) feeding and resting grounds for migratory birds and habitat corridors, (iii) recreational and esthetic benefits, (iv) reduction of erosion and flooding, (v) moderation of groundwater levels and base flow, (vi) assimilation of nutrients, and (vii) protection of drinking water sources [29]. Expertly managed upland pastures also provide benefits, including: (i) forage for livestock, (ii) supporting rainfall infiltration and

**Figure 2.** *Illustration for modeling information flow.*

reducing overland flow to nearby streams, (iii) with vigorous vegetation growth encouraging nutrient cycling, (iv) reducing the quantity of fertilizer amendments, (v) distributing manure across a greater area, (vi) increasing carbon sequestration levels, and (vii) augmenting farm profitability.

Our outreach goal is to provide meaningful and informative learning activities to a diverse audience, wherein we concentrate on farm profitability and environmental sustainability. The outreach programing focuses on aligning agricultural production with viable and environmental-based cultural practices and incorporating applicable soil engineering structures (**Figure 2**). The topics that the faculty address to the agricultural community include: (i) controlled subsurface drainage/irrigation, (ii) edge-of-field technologies, (iii) modern pasture management, (iv) soil health, and (v) agronomic practices to augment economic and sustainable crop yields. Audiences include a single producer to producer workshops, agriculture educators and their students, and state and federal personnel. Social media is being developed for more distant interested individuals.

#### **5. Conclusion**

The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how to develop and install infrastructure that supports both production agriculture and environmental stewardship. At the David M. Barton Agriculture Research Center, the infrastructure development and installation include: (i) a controlled subsurface drainage and irrigation technology, (ii) a denitrification bioreactor to limit tile-drainage nitrate concentrations, (iii) riparian corridors, (iv) a drainage water capture basin to reuse drainage water for irrigation, and (v) a constructed wetland and a confined beef feeding facility. Collectively, these infrastructures permit the teaching and outreach capabilities to link production agriculture and environmental stewardship.

#### **Author details**

Michael Aide\*, Samantha Siemers Indi Braden, Sven Svenson, Shakirah Nakasagga, Kevin Sargent, Miriam Snider and Marissa Wilson Department of Agriculture, Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: mtaide@semo.edu

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Managing Prior Converted Hydric Soils to Support Agriculture Production and Maintain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110469*

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#### **Chapter 6**

## Monitoring the Properties of an Abandoned Depleted Peat Bog to Determine the Prospects for Use

*Anisimova Tatiana Yuryevna*

#### **Abstract**

Peatlands after drainage can be effectively used as highly productive agricultural grasslands. The preservation of the fertility of peat soils depends on the nature of their use in agricultural production. Irrational and illogical use of peat bogs leads to loss of organic matter and nitrogen and reduction of their reserves. Currently, these deposits are often in the form of abandoned and overgrown forests. The appearance of disturbed landscapes leads to negative changes in vegetation and soil cover, water and temperature balance of the area, composition of soil, waste water and development of water, and wind erosion. The results of monitoring changes in some soil properties of a peat bog over a 20-year period are presented. The results of the geobotanical survey of the peat massif, which was conducted for the first time, are presented. The influence of the action of biotic and abiotic factors on the change of agrochemical characteristics of anthropogenic-transformed peat soil is determined. Depending on the degree of development, it can be used for forage land (cultivation of perennial grasses), on plots (maps) with sufficient reserves of lowland peat for these purposes after clearing channels and diverting excess water, except for the cultivation of perennial grasses; peat extraction for the production of organic fertilizers (compost) is possible.

**Keywords:** peatland, monitoring, soil, depleted peat bog, vegetation type

#### **1. Introduction**

A peat bog is a complex ecosystem, the main components of which are water, vegetation, and peat. Experts consider the swamp as a group of interconnected biogeocenoses characterized by abundant moisture, specific moisture-loving vegetation, and peat formation [1]. The living conditions of plants here are different from the conditions of forests and meadows. Swamps are characterized by constant or periodic abundant moisture, insufficient aeration, poor nitrogen-mineral nutrition, and constant growth of peat substrate.

There are peat bogs and bogs in almost all natural areas. Grass bogs, for example, are found in all zones of the European part of Russia—from tundra to semi-deserts. Polygonal and bumpy swamps are common in the tundra, upper sphagnum swamps—in the coniferous forest (taiga) zone. The nature of the distribution of bogs, their size, configuration, species composition and structure of vegetation cover, the thickness, and structure of peat deposits are mainly due to climate and geomorphological conditions [1, 2].

The largest areas of peat bogs in the European part of Russia are concentrated in the north and northwest of the coniferous forest (taiga) zone. The dominant position is occupied by convex oligotrophic peatlands, for the development of which the most favorable conditions have been developed here: significant predominance of precipitation over evaporation, rather high relative humidity, proximity to the surface of groundwater and the lack of mineral nutrition in their elements; and flatness of the territory as well as a long history of the development of surface formations. This zone is characterized by intensive peat accumulation and makes up the bulk of Russia's peat reserves [2].

Swamps are also important for maintaining the water level in adjacent biocenoses. Complete drainage of the swamp can ruin the nearby area. If the sea is close, seawater will invade the groundwater used as drinking water in cities located on the coast. Many small rivers, streams, and tributaries of large rivers originate in the upper marshes, and if the marshes are drained, the rivers will lose their sources feeding them. Even when swamps do not share water with rivers, they slow down the surface runoff of water falling to the ground in the form of precipitation, and this is very important, since water should flow down the ground as slowly as possible to prevent erosion. After the campaign to drain the swamps, which was carried out in the past century in the Soviet Union, peat bogs begin to burn every hot summer in the Central Federal District. The main reason for this was the violation of fragile hydrological cycles [3].

In recent years, the marshes have become the object of close attention of scientists. This is not surprising because swamps are not only unique ecological systems but also valuable mineral deposits. The development of swamps is very rapid. The discovery of the richest deposits of oil and gas in the wetlands of Siberia and the Far North, the development of peat, as well as the increase in the area of arable land, all this requires the drainage of swamps. At the same time, there is a threat of their complete destruction. But as a natural landscape, swamps are an integral part of the biosphere. As noted above, they play a major role in the hydrological balance of a number of localities. At the same time, many aspects of the functioning of swamp ecosystems remain unknown until now. Therefore, swamps as a type of plant community require not only comprehensive protection but also fundamental research. Such studies are especially relevant in Russia because in terms of the total area of wetlands, our country ranks first in the world [4].

The peat deposit with its ecologically useful resources is of interest for agricultural production. A peat bog after drainage (reclamation) can be effectively used as a highly productive agricultural land. Peat soils of lowland and transitional bogs surpass chernozems in terms of potential nutrient reserves in a meter layer and, with rational use, are much more productive than sod-podzolic and gray forest soils. As the research results have shown, the highest payback of fertilizers and low cost of highquality products are achieved on cultivated peat bogs (Уланов).

The peat soils of fens and transitional mires on the potential reserves of nutrients in the m layer are superior to the black soil and the rational use of much more productive sod-podzolic and gray forest soils. Abandoned drained peatlands represent an environmental hazard in connection with a high likelihood of fires, the cause of which is mainly the failure to comply with fire safety in the temporary dry grass, kindling fires, etc. [5, 6].

#### *Monitoring the Properties of an Abandoned Depleted Peat Bog to Determine the Prospects for Use DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110631*

Drained and abandoned peat bogs pose an environmental hazard due to the occurrence of peat fires, the cause of which is mainly non-compliance with fire safety when burning dry grass, kindling fires, etc. The long-term preservation of the fertility of peat bogs depends on the nature of their use. With incorrect methods of use, rapid mineralization of organic matter occurs, which leads to a reduction in its reserves. Mineralization of organic matter leads to unproductive loss of mobile forms of nitrogen compounds [7, 8].

Shallow-lying and shallow-contoured peat bogs (up to 10 hectares) should be allocated for cultural hayfields and pastures. When developing methods of intensification of agriculture on peat soils at different stages of anthropogenic evolution, an objective assessment of the state of properties and the forecast of their possible changes over time under the influence of anthropogenic and abiotic factors is of utmost importance. The introduction of agricultural land plots with small-contour peat deposits into circulation is of practical interest for land users, which is associated with the fact that these soils are potentially highly fertile and can be successfully used for growing fodder crops. But at the same time, such peat deposits have a feature that is associated both with the specifics of the use of peat soils and with their periodic water logging, since they are mainly located at the edge of the forest and at the edge of fields with mineral soils [9–11].

There are 9260 small-scale (up to 10 ha) peat deposits on the territory of the Russian Federation, which occupy an area of 108.6 thousand hectares in the zero boundary of the deposit [12]. The largest number of shallow-lying and shallow-contoured peat bogs is located in the North-Western, Central, and Volga Federal Districts. So, in the Central Federal District, out of 7287 explored deposits, 2390 are small scale and 1298 are small scale and protected, that is, almost half. On the territory of the Vladimir region, where these studies were conducted, out of 723 peat deposits, 421 are deposits with an area of 1 to 10 hectares, where proven peat reserves in the sum of categories A + B + C1 and C2 (144 deposits) and forecast resources in category P1 (277 deposits) amount to 4277 thousand tons. Small-contour peatlands are often located on the edges of fields with mineral soils and adjacent to forests; their use in agricultural production has its own characteristics and is associated with the characteristics of peat soils. Currently, such deposits are abandoned and overgrown with forests. The degradation of landscapes entails a deterioration in the quality of vegetation and soil cover, water and temperature balance of the peat reserve territory, and soil composition, which provokes the development of water and wind erosion. At the same time, there is a transformation of the forest-meadow agricultural landscape with the dominance of meadow plant species into post-swamp forest-shrub-grass-sedge landscapes with significant participation of secondary forest phytocenoses [10]. In addition to negative changes in vegetation cover and water and temperature balance of the territory, soil degradation develops. With illiterate and irrational exploitation of the peat bog, rapid mineralization of organic matter occurs, which leads to a reduction in its reserves and unproductive loss of nutrients.

Soil physical, chemical, and biological properties collectively determine the quality of the soil. The biological properties of the soil are characterized by the presence in them not only of various microorganisms but also of the processes of plant growth. Dying plants and their parts, deposited in the soil, are enriched with nutrients in forms resistant to leaching. The root system of plants moves minerals from the lower layers to the upper ones. The biological process is, thus, a factor in the concentration of nutrients in the soil. Both mineral salts and synthesized organic substances containing a lot of nitrogen are concentrated in the upper layer [7, 8].

Agrochemical surveys are carried out in order to obtain information about the content of plant nutrition elements in the soil and as a consequence of the level of its fertility. Agrochemical examination allows more rational use of fertilizers and to minimize their negative impact on the environment. As a result, agrochemical cartograms of the content of elements, agrochemical essays, and application maps of fertilizer application are created. We determine the basic properties of the soil, which in one way or another can affect the growth and development of plants. One of the most important indicators determined by agrochemical analysis is the reaction of the soil solution (pH), the content of mobile phosphorus and potassium required by plants [7, 8].

The importance of different plants in soil formation is not the same. Under the forest, if there are no herbaceous plants, organic substances do not accumulate. Due to the constant presence of fulvic acid here, salts are washed out of the upper layer, and the soil formed on the carbonate rock acquires an acid reaction (podzol formation process). Under herbaceous plants, due to their gradual death, organic residues are formed, which accumulate mainly in the thickness of the soil. The reaction of the soil solution here is more often neutral or close to neutral. Against this background, bacteria settle. Under the action of bacteria, the organic remains of plants turn into humus (humus), which gradually accumulates in the soil and improves it (the sod process) [7, 10].

The purpose of our study is to monitor changes and the state of agrochemical and other characteristics of anthropogenically transformed peat soils, depending on the directions of use of the developed peat bog to obtain data used to develop the most promising and rational ways of using the peat bog.

#### **2. Monitoring the properties of an abandoned depleted peat bog**

#### **2.1 Materials and methods**

The research was carried out at the Baigush peat deposit, located 1.5 km northeast of the village Baigushi (Sudogodsky district, Vladimir region, 56°078111 N, 40°493809E). This territory belongs to the middle peat-swamp region [2], the geomorphological conditions of which are represented by moraine and alluvial landscapes with the presence of pronounced traces of the last glaciation in the form of finite moraine formations that have undergone severe erosion. In 1943, the peat bog was assigned category C2 (assessed)—the field was intended for agricultural use. In 1963–1965, the massif was used for peat extraction for fertilizers. Until 1963, the thickness of the peat layer averaged 109 m−1 (maximum 140 m−1) and in 1975, no more than 40–50 m−1 cm, so after 1975, the peat began to be used as hay or pasture. According to the Geological Survey of 1977, the type of peat deposits was defined as transitional, closer to lowland peat (A-15%, R-45%) [12]. The total area of the peat massif was 13.8 hectares and peat reserves—30 cubic meters (or 6 thousand tons at 40% humidity). Reclamation (drainage) was carried out in 1985; the drainage basin was a ravine.

From 1986 to 2014, the area of the peat bog was in the land use of the experimental production facilities of the Institute; on a small area of the peat bog (I and II peat charts), where the peat was almost completely worked and which was almost not flooded, grain and fodder crops were cultivated. On the remaining maps, peat was extracted for compost production; peat on maps III, IV, and V was partially worked.

*Monitoring the Properties of an Abandoned Depleted Peat Bog to Determine the Prospects for Use DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110631*

Currently, the territory of the peat bog is completely abandoned. In 1998, a soilagrochemical survey of the territory of the peat massif was carried out; the layout of peat maps and conventional reference points are shown in **Figure 1** and **Table 1**. Monitoring of changes in some agrochemical properties of the soil on peat charts of the Baigush peat deposit (**Figure 1**) was carried out 20 years after the first survey of the peat massif. The research was carried out by the route expedition method at the same survey points as in 1998 (**Table 1**).

In 2017–2018, to determine the change in the basic agrochemical properties of the fine-contour shallow peat bog, a soil-agrochemical and field geobotanical survey of the peat massif was carried out using the methods [13–16].

Geobotanical description, determination of agrophysical, and biological properties of the soil by survey points were carried out for the first time in 2018. A geobotanical survey was carried out in biogeocenoses of 15 locations within the boundaries of five peat charts, which consisted of determining plant species and their abundance on the Drude scale [17]. Agrochemical parameters of the soil of the object were determined in accordance with state standards, nitrifying ability by the Kravkov method, cellulolytic activity by the application method, density, and density of the solid phase of the soil by the weight method.

#### **2.2 Results and discussion**

During the research, an expeditionary geobotanical survey of the peat massif was carried out, during which 80 plant species and their abundance were determined according to the Drude scale in biogeocenoses of 15 conditional reference points (locations) on five peat maps. At the moment, the geolocations of the points are fixed in the coordinate system. The vegetation cover of the surveyed territory is represented

#### **Figure 1.**

*Layout of peat charts on the Baigush peat deposit: Sudogodsky district, Vladimir region, 56°078111 N, 40°493809E (used app "Google earth").*

#### *Wetlands – New Perspectives*


#### **Table 1.**

*Location of peat charts and survey points on the Baigush peat deposit.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Vegetation types on peat charts.*

by meadow and forest phytocenoses. According to the results of the geobotanical survey of the object, the predominant types and types of vegetation were established (**Figure 2**).

On I chart, the composition of the herbaceous tier is diverse; the total projective cover degree (TPCD) of grasses is >70%: Veronica oakwood (*Veronica vulgaris L.*), ground vane (*Calamagróstis epigéjos L*.), bonfire without a tail (*Bromopsis inermis L*.), clovers, bluegrass, sharp sedge (*Carex acuta L*.), common tansy (*Tonacetum vulgare L*.), fine vole (*Agrostis capillaris L*.), creeping wheatgrass (*Elytrigia repens L*.), meadow timothy (*Phlum pratense L*.), common yarrow (*Achillea millefolium L*.), and horsetails. Shrubby vegetation type (TPCD >20%) is represented by shaggy willow (*Salix lanata L*.) and holly willow (*Salix acutifolia L*.) (**Figure 3**).

*Monitoring the Properties of an Abandoned Depleted Peat Bog to Determine the Prospects for Use DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110631*

**Figure 3.** *Vegetation on the I chart.*

**Figure 4.** *Vegetation on the II chart.*

On II chart, the proportion of herbaceous vegetation has decreased; the TPCD is >60%: field grass (*Cirsium arvense L*.), field cornflower (*Centaurea jacea L*.), common goldenrod (*Solidago virgaurea L*.), bonfire (*B. inermis L*.), clovers, bluegrass, acute sedge (*C. acuta L*.), sedge, thin vole (*A. capillaris L*.), creeping wheatgrass (*E. repens L*.), meadow timothy (*Phlum pratense L*.), and horsetails. The shrubby vegetation type (TPCD ~40%) is represented by shaggy willow (*S. lanata L.*), holly willow (*S. acutifolia L*.), and dog rose (*Rosa canina L*.) (**Figure 4**).

On the territory of III–IV charts, shrubby vegetation type prevails, (TPCD >50%): shaggy willow (*S. lanata L*.), holly willow (*S. acutifolia L*.), and common hazel

**Figure 5.** *Vegetation on the III chart.*

(*Corylus avellana L*.). Variegated grasses (TPCD ~25%) are replenished with moistureloving vegetation: field grass (*C. arvense L*.), wood angelica (*Angelica sylvestris L*.), common goldenrod (*Solidago virgaurea L*.), clovers, bluegrass, forest cupyr (*Anthriscus sylvestris L*.), acute sedge (*C. acuta L*.), bubble sedge (*Carex vesicaria L*.), tenacious bedstraw (*Galium aparine L*.), vaginal fluff (*Eriophorum vaginatum L*.), and horsetails. The woody type of vegetation (TPCD ~25%) is mainly represented by rhombic alder (*Ansys rhombifolia L*.) and scots pine (*Pinus sylvestris L*.) (**Figures 5** and **6**).

On the territory of V chart, the predominant vegetation type is woody (TPCD >50%): mainly it is hanging birch (*Betula pendula L*.), mountain ash (*Sorbus aucuparia L*.), and common pine (*P. sylvestris L*.). Shrubby vegetation type (TPCD ~25%) is represented mainly by shaggy willow (*S. lanata L*.) and holly willow (*S. acutifolia L*.). Motley grasses (TPCD ~25%): ground weiner (*Calamagróstis epigéjos L*.), bluegrass, sharp sedge (*C. acuta L*.), bubble sedge (*C. vesicaria L*.), tenacious bedstraw (*G. aparine L*.), vaginal fluff (*E. vaginatum L*.), horsetails, sod pike (*Deschampsia cespitosa L.*), and acute sitnik (*Juncus acutus L*.) (**Figure 7**).

Thus, the overgrowth of the surface of the developed peat bog with woodyherbaceous vegetation largely depended on the capacity of the residual peat. On the plots that were completely and heavily processed (peat thickness from 0 to 50 cm) and retired from agricultural use in the mid-90s (point № 8, 9, 10, 15), a forest with its inherent tiering was formed: the bulk of woody vegetation is hanging birch (15–22 m), common mountain ash (2–4 m), and common pine (up to 3 m); shrubs are mainly represented by willows; the herbaceous vegetation is described in detail above (charts III–IV).

With the thickness of the residual peat layer of 70 cm or more, the growth and development of woody vegetation occurred slowly (point № 4, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14). The *Monitoring the Properties of an Abandoned Depleted Peat Bog to Determine the Prospects for Use DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110631*

**Figure 6.** *Vegetation on the IV chart.*

**Figure 7.** *Vegetation on the V chart.*

multi-tiered nature of the forest is poorly expressed: there are single birches (up to 5−6 m), aspens (2–3 m); shrubs are represented by willows, rose hips, and raspberries. Since these areas are under water until the end of spring, the herbaceous vegetation is mainly represented by moisture-loving plants: ground weinik (*Calamagróstis epigéjos L*.), swamp horsetail (*Equisétum fluviatile*), sharp (*C. acuta L*.) bubbly sedge (*C. vesicaria L*.), and fluff (*Erióphorum vaginátum L*.).

The data of the soil-agrochemical survey of a shallow-contour shallow-lying peat bog on 15 reference points, depending on the cultivation and intensity of the use of peat-boggy soils according to the maps, are presented in **Table 2**. As a result of observations, the change in the content of the main biogenic elements over a 20-year period (from 1998 to 2018) has been established. The content of mobile phosphorus and exchangeable potassium has changed to the greatest extent. So, on the I map, in the soil layer of 0–80 cm, the content of mobile phosphorus and exchangeable potassium changed slightly, which can be explained by the fact that the territory of the map was in agricultural use for a long time. The areas of the remaining charts have been abandoned for more than 20 years; in the spring, they are mostly under water; and in dry years, the territory of the II chart was partially used in the agricultural production.

On map V, an increase in the content of mobile phosphorus was found in soil layers from 0 to 80 m−1, which can be explained in the absence of fertilizers by its biogenic accumulation, since phosphorus, as shown in the studies of T. Kulakovskaya et al., has an extremely weak migration ability, and no more than 3–5% of its total


#### **Table 2.**

*Changes in some agrochemical indicators over a 20-year period (average by charts).*


*Monitoring the Properties of an Abandoned Depleted Peat Bog to Determine the Prospects for Use DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110631*

#### **Table 3.**

*Biological and agro-physical soil properties peat.*

reserves is washed out [7, 8, 18, 19]. In addition, it was shown that in shallow, weakand medium-azole peat bogs, with commercial water regime and high groundwater aquifer, they can penetrate into the subsoil and underlying layers [5, 6, 19], which our observations also showed. Unlike mobile phosphorus, an increase in the reserves of exchangeable potassium in the soil of maps IV–V in layers from 0 to 80 m−1 was not observed, since its high mobility and intensive use are increasing, especially in the soil layer 30–50 m−1, where the bulk of the roots are located. The pH values in the peat bog soil have not changed much.

The difference in the data on the biological and agrophysical properties of peat soil presented in **Table 3** can be explained by the difference in the degree of cultivation of the studied soils and the residual peat layer on the charts. A direct relationship has been established between the thickness of the residual peat layer and the cellulolytic activity and porosity of the soil; an inverse relationship is established between the thickness of the peat layer and the nitrifying ability and density of the soil.

The nitrifying ability of the upper soil layer decreases with increasing peat thickness (point № 7, 10–15), cellulolytic activity, and porosity; on the contrary, it increased at these points in the soil. With an increase in peat thickness, soil density indices decreased from 1,18-1,8 (point № 1-6, 8-10) to 0,68−0,81 g m−3.

#### **3. Conclusion**

During the soil-agrochemical survey of five peat bog maps, a change in the content of mobile phosphorus over a 20-year period was detected, which noticeably increased

in the soil layer 0–80 m−1 on the fifth map, and the content of exchangeable potassium significantly decreased in the soil on the fifth map and the fourth and fifth cards. During the monitoring of the condition of the developed fine-grained marsh peat, a direct relationship was established between the thickness of the residual peat layer on the maps and the cellulolytic activity and porosity of the soil as well as an inverse relationship between the thickness of the peat layer and the nitrifying ability, soil density. In depleted territories, vegetation is mainly represented by various grasses and shrubs, which can be explained by the rather long use of maps in agricultural production; in medium-developed territories, shrubby-woody vegetation prevails, with a peat layer thickness of more than 30 cm; and sedge and fluff dominate in flooded areas.

#### **Author details**

Anisimova Tatiana Yuryevna

All-Russian Research Institute of Organic Fertilizers and Peat—A Branch of the Federal State Budget Scientific Institution «Upper Volga Federal Agrarian Scientific Center», Vladimir Region, Russian Federation

\*Address all correspondence to: anistan2009@mail.ru

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Monitoring the Properties of an Abandoned Depleted Peat Bog to Determine the Prospects for Use DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110631*

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[2] Tyuremnov SN. Peat Deposits. Moscow: Nedra; 1976. p. 488

[3] Sirin A et al. Issues of re-waterlogging of peatlands in the climate reports of the Russian Federation. Earth. 2021;**10**(11):1200. DOI: 10.3390/ land10111200

[4] Minaeva T, Sirin A, Kershaw P, Bragg O. Arctic peatlands: Entry in the directory "alive". In: In the Book of Wetlands: II: Distribution, Description and Conservation. Netherlands: Springer; 2017. pp. 1-15

[5] Abel S, Haberl A, Joosten H. A Decision Support System for Degraded and Abandoned Peatlads Illustrated by the Example if Peatalands of the Russian Federation. Germany: Published by Michael Succow Foundation; 2011. p. 48. Available from: www.succow-stiftung. de/tl\_files/pdfs\_downloads/Buecher%20 und%20Broschueren/DSS-Brochure\_ final\_2012\_lowres.pdf [Accessed: December 12, 2020]

[6] McNicol G, Knox SH, Guilderson TP, Baldocchi DD, Silver WL. Where old meets new: An ecosystem study of methanogenesis in a reflooded agricultural peatland. Global Change Biology. 2020;**26**(2):772-785. DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14916

[7] Kulakovskaya TN. Optimization of the Agrochemical System of Soil Nutrition of

Plants. Moscow: Agropromizdat; 1990. p. 218

[8] Glazovskaya MA. Geochemistry of Natural and Technogenic Landscapes of the USSR. Moscow: High School; 1988. p. 328

[9] Wahyunto W, Supriatna W, Agus F. Land Use Change and Recommendation for Sustainable Development of Peatland for Agriculture: Case Study at Kubu Raya and Pontianak Districts. West Kalimantan; 2020. pp. 32-40. DOI: 10.21082/ijas.v11n1.2010

[10] Ulanov AN, Shelmenkina HH, Smirnova AV. Environmental aspects of reclamation the disturbed wetland ecosystems (Экологические аспекты рекультивации нарушенных болотных экосистем). Subsoil Use Problems. 2017;**2**(13):56-61. DOI: 10.18454/2313-1586.2017.02.056

[11] Wijedasa LS, Page SE, Evans CD, Osaki M. Time for responsible peatland agriculture. Science. 2016;**354**(6312):562. DOI: 10.1126/science.aal1794

[12] Peat deposits of the Vladimir region as of January 1, 1977. Ministry of Geology of the RSFSR. Moscow: Geoltorfrazvedka Trust; 1978. p. 368

[13] Maksimov AI et al. Research Methods of Bog Ecosystems of the Taiga Zone. Science, Leningrad; 1991. p. 110

[14] Sukachev VN et al. Fundamentals of forest typology and biogeocenology. Science, Moscow. 1972;**V.1**:424

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#### **Chapter 7**

## Towards Collaborative Cluster Management for Fire-Resilient Peatlands in Indonesia

*Johan Kieft*

#### **Abstract**

Wildfires on peat lands in Indonesia have been a major cause of globalGHG emissions and has had an irreversible impact on the health of millions, in 2020, the goi decided to introduce the so-called fire protection association or so called's which is seen globally as best practice in terms of integrated fire management governance and in Indonesian named clusters. In 2020., a pilot involving three districts in fire prone landscapes introducing fire protection associations was commenced to understand if FPA could be employed in the Indonesian context could deliver similar results, the results and developed approach lead to a decline in fire incidence in the target districts as opposed to the district in the province. Hence the cluster approach indeed proved by better alignment of private and public fire capacity in addition to improved early warning capacity. The results underline that the necessary processes that are gender sensitive and socially inclusive can be adapted to all jurisdictional levels and enable effective collaboration of relevant government agencies. Cluster maintains the core principles of fire protection associations and integrated fire management, in line with international best practices in disaster risk reduction. Furthermore, Changes allow for improved local livelihoods of communities depending on peat lands, as hydrological restoration and reafforestation enables local communities to again rely on swamps for their livelihoods.

**Keywords:** integrated fire management, peat, haze, governance, fire-resilient peatlands

#### **1. Introduction**

The 2015 fire crisis in Indonesia was an economic and environmental disaster. With 2.6 million hectares of land burned, it cost the country an estimated US\$16.1 billion (IDR 221 trillion), equivalent to 1.9% of GDP. Smoke pollution also contributed to irreversible impacts on the lives of 100,300 people across Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore [1], with more than 500,000 cases of acute respiratory infections. Immediate health costs were estimated at US\$151 million [2]. Up to 90% of the smoke pollution came from fires on peatlands, which release 3–6 times more particulate matter than fires on other soil types [2].

Quick and effective rewetting and restoration of peatlands are essential to prevent further degradation through wildfire incidence. In response to the 2015 fires, the Indonesian government introduced the concept of peat hydrological units (Regulation 57/2016). In 2016, the government started working through a south-south exchange with South Africa with the support of UNEP to establish clusters of fire protection associations, normally covering a peat hydrological unit [3].

Best practices are emerging in the global literature on integrated fire management in tropical peatlands (e.g. [4]). These include the establishment of fire protection associations and effective collaboration between land users, high levels of public awareness, a holistic and integrated approach, functioning public-private partnerships, government resources and a regional approach that enables resources to be pooled and better matched to threats.

This article reports on a UNEP project supported by the USAID Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance (BHA) initiated 2-year program for 2019–2021 in partnership with Kemitraan and Working on Fire/Kishugu1 from south Africa and Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB)—centre for climate risk and opportunity management in Southeast Asia Pacific (CCROM - SEAP), which was extended due to the impact of the covid pandemic. UNEP has had intensive consultation with the Ministry of Environment and Forestry and the Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs to support the implementation of the following project two outcomes:


#### **2. Landscape selection**

As part of the project through the FRS fire vulnerability maps, project locations were identified through an assessment of fire risk and fire vulnerability based on these maps as shown in **Figure 1**. Four categories of variables—biophysical, socioeconomic, exposure and adaptive capacity—were used in this assessment of fire vulnerability. For each of the selected 10 provinces and eight districts, 11 key variables were included. These were: (i) peat depth, (ii) land cover/use, (iii) distance to road, (iv) distance to the river, (v) distance to the village centre, (vi) land system, maps. Land system data is derived from the land system map provided by the Regional Physical Planning Project for Transmigration (RePPProT). For more information, see [5]. (vii) percentage of timber plantation concession area per sub-district, (viii) percentage of

<sup>1</sup> See:https://kishugu.com/working-on-fire/

<sup>2</sup> See: http://kebakaranhutan.or.id/

*Towards Collaborative Cluster Management for Fire-Resilient Peatlands in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110811*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Fire risk vulnerability map of Barito Selatan (data from 2015). Source: Ipb-ccrom (Bogor agricultural university—Centre for climate risk and opportunity management in Southeast Asia pacific, fire risk monitoring system (see: http://kebakaranhutan.or.id/).*

palm oil concession area per sub-district, (ix) percentage of logging concession area per sub-district, (x) population density, and (xi) regional gross domestic product.

The number of satellite-detected fires per km<sup>2</sup> was used as the main measure of spatial and temporal occurrence of fires, using only high confidence locations were applied, with more than 50% certainty of fire activity (based on the official Indonesian fire data), which has data sources from four satellites, namely Terra Aqua, NOAA, SNPP, and Landsat 8, as well as weather data from BMKG. The data in SIPONGI is also more accurate because it contains information about the location at the village level and the status of the land. Vulnerability was calculated from scores and weights of vulnerability indicators, using composite mapping analysis (CMA) [6], resulting in vulnerability maps (e.g. **Figure 1**). The above-described fire risk monitoring system was verified following stakeholder consultation with key land users, mainly smallholders, who had lost perennial crops to fires in previous fire

episodes (1997/98, 2002, 2006, 2009 and 2012) [5]. Using fire risk and vulnerability mapping, an area of around 20,000 ha was identified, where during recent years, fires affected more than 100,000 people and which has been emitting close to 90,0000 mt CO2 eq/year.

#### **3. Local collaboration**

To sustain impactful, bottom-up water governance structures at the landscape level, it is fundamental to effectively engage land-use managers and communities in damming and rewetting efforts. The project used small grants as incentives, to improve community welfare through the development of horticulture, fisheries and other livelihood activities, paid when people were actively involved in rehabilitation activities such as canal blocking. UNEP-led peatland rehabilitation efforts support community involvement in peatland forest fire control through provision of alternative and sustainable and profitable environmentally-friendly activities. In this way, it is also hoped that targeted communities will desist from illegal logging or slash-and-burn farming.

In close collaboration with the district government and the National Peat Restoration Agency (*Badan Restorasi Gambut*, BRG), dams were constructed in the canal between Sungai Mentangai and Sungai Purun in south Barito district, central Kalimantan Province in 2018, aimed at rewetting higher fire risk areas. Dam construction started as far inland as possible to limit environmental damage by heavy equipment used in construction, following an external environmental assessment. The project constructed compacted peat dams in 2019—2022 and plans to construct them in the next 2 years. Compared to other dam types, these are less expensive (US\$500–1000 each), last longer, and have long been used by the plantation industry, with many thousands having been already built in central Kalimantan. The local government has financed most of this work with the project financing the design costs and building smaller structures for secondary channels.

Reforestation was also a key initial part of the project and is being continued by communities with government support, with nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) planted in large numbers during the project, which produces excellent timber, fruit and medicinal honey.

#### **3.1 The cluster approach**

Vegetation management and maintenance of stable and correct groundwater levels are both critical to limit fuel availability and prevent peatland fires. Government Regulation 57/2016 recommends maintaining groundwater at no more than 40 cm deep, but ideally near the surface. Effective execution is also required and that considers all local interests. Collaboration between land users enables improved land use planning, specifically regarding drainage, which requires collaboration of land users, which is also required to ensure effective integrated fire management.

The project worked with clusters of fire protection associations to develop arrangements for integrated fire management that were agreed upon with land users and coordinated through incident and command systems. **Figure 2** below shows how policy is guiding the initial piloting, which then should result in national rollout. As UNEP is in the process of both working on the financing and working towards nationwide implementation of the Klaster approach. Within the current project design, UNEP is preparing for a next phase to work towards a nationwide implementation

*Towards Collaborative Cluster Management for Fire-Resilient Peatlands in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110811*

#### **Figure 2.** *Flow diagram with key activities for cluster establishment (UNEP, 2020).*

of these clusters. At the institution level, currently, Kemitraan as SIAP partners are conducting a study on which model is best suited, either through a so-called special district service agency called BLUD or other forms like a special district government entity or a UPT. The process that has been tested and proved to be effective is presented below (**Figure 2**).

These steps go hand in hand with guidelines for Klaster establishment in line with established GoI legislation and procedures. This includes:


The government decided to apply to use such clusters to improve collaborative landscape management, particularly in peatlands. Using fire protection associations

#### **Figure 3.**

*An example of a cluster for Oki district, South Sumatra (Source: UNEP, 2018).*

as a basis for peatland management also provides the necessary scale and resources, as a participatory mechanism for preventing wildfires. Currently, the project is based on pilots to support the development of guidelines (**Figure 3**).

### **4. Results**

Supported by UNEP, the SIAP Project implementing partners (Kemitraan and CCROM IPB) organized two-phased training on how to use the FRS application for early risk detection and in combination with the cluster members' capacity better aligned through standard operating procedures at cluster levels increased efficiency in fire suppression was achieved. The training conducted in Pulang Pisau was attended by 33 people representing the military, police, FMU/cluster companies, communitybased fire brigade and local government offices, while 12 companies attended the training in Pelalawan in addition to the local disaster management agency, fire

department and government offices. In Ogan Komering Ilir, the training trained 24 people from local government offices, Klaster-affiliated companies, the military and the police to increase their capacity to determine fire risks and plan basic preventive measures. In both cases, cluster worked towards increasing alignment in terms of land use planning.

#### **4.1 Clear benefits**

This shows that fire-resilient landscapes can be realized by including water management as an essential element of fire prevention, supported by clusters, and aligning land and forest use planning across management units, districts and communities. Improved water management has impacts on reducing greenhouse gas emissions from peat decomposition and subsidence but improving land use adjusted to drainage depth also requires a reduction in fires [7].

Based on these experiences, UNEP and its partners have developed clear procedural guidelines on how to establish clusters as described above. These detail the necessary processes that are gender sensitive and socially inclusive, can be adapted to all jurisdictional levels and enable effective collaboration of relevant government agencies. Cluster maintains the core principles of fire protection associations and integrated fire management, in line with international best practices in disaster risk reduction.

Furthermore, changes allow for improved local livelihoods, as hydrological reafforestation enables local communities to again rely on swamps for fish (kerapu and others) and products from native tree species such as sago (*Metroxylon sago*), jelutung (*Dyera polyph*) and gemor (*Nothaphoebe coriacea*). Other benefits are reduced fire incidence, and subsidence leading to subsidence [8] that improve overall human wellbeing, including for other land users, in particular indigenous communities through empowering of indigenous institutions like *Handils, which* are indigenous land-use systems, as practices in the cases of barioto Selatan. And as well as in some areas in Sumatra [9]. The term *handil* refers to the hand-dug, man-made waterways to gain access to farming fields in these areas as well as to the associations that manage the natural resources of the *handil* area, consisting of the *handil* canals and the surrounding agricultural land.

The cost implications based on a financial assessment [5] suggested that adopting the cluster approach would allow the government of Indonesia to make significant fiscal savings. However, a more in-depth study of actual expenditure on wildfire prevention and suppression between all agencies and departments, including at the provincial and local levels, would provide further insights.

#### **4.2 Next steps**

UNEP is preparing for a second phase of nationwide implementation of these clusters, and Kemitraan is conducting a study on which model is best suited, either through a special district service or district government agency, and ideally including indigenous institutions like Handils as members. As such, institutions in Kalimantan have similarities with Dutch water boards and are generally recognized as good managers of collective natural resources. They are relatively autonomous, effectively managing their area and its waterways, and have a form of democratic governance to guard members' interests. They, therefore, have potential to function as institutions for regional, peat dome-based water management, similar to water boards. The social assessment of the project also recognized that the Handil model could be adapted as

a peatland conservation management framework. Strengthening such institutions to cover water governance and community-based land use jurisdictions can ensure the sustainable use of peatlands through meaningful community engagement.

In addition. Water boards should be considered as an entry point for improved water governance. There are existing institutional structures in Indonesia, such as Handils, that can facilitate improved water governance. Handils are indigenous land use systems, as practised in parts of Central and South Kalimantan, and Sumatra [9]. Such water boards would ensure sustainability and reduce the chances of leakage through poor governance and lay the groundwork for fire-resilient landscapes addressing both subsidence and emission of GHG emissions [7, 8].

#### **5. Conclusions**

This case shows that the use of fire vulnerability as a tool for REDD+ activity selection on peatland can enable local policymakers and planners and reduces fire incidence and can hence deliver tangible greenhouse gas emission reduction and significant livelihood co-benefits. It also lays the foundation for community-driven sustainable development. As water channels are dammed in line with Dohoong et al., [10], the project has been paying out small grants to improve community welfare through the development of horticulture, fisheries and other livelihood opportunities. More recently, the government of Indonesia has also been providing village development grants to communities. In return for grants, people are obliged to be actively involved in peatland restoration. The project also trained four communitybased fire brigades in Dusun Hilir that are now able to protect re-vegetated peatland, which has led to good results in the area. The results of rewetting and re-vegetation show that the fire risk system developed by the project allows for improved targeting of ecosystem restoration activities and so reduces the impact of smoke pollution that has affected tens of thousands of people in the last few years [1, 2].

To, significantly, reduce fire risk in Indonesian peatlands requires the establishment of land user associations in hydrologically defined areas [11]. These should be supported with the use of risk-based mapping tools to produce drainage-based land use plans that include forest, non-forest and community land uses. Communities must agree on joint planning objectives regarding rehabilitation, restoring peatlands through hydrological restoration (by raising groundwater level), and rehabilitating peatlands with paludiculture crops. In this way, and building on indigenous practices, fire-resilient landscapes can be co-created, and the cluster approach has proved to be a useful institutional vehicle for collaborative peatland management in particular against a baseline of increased risk due to climate change [12].

*Towards Collaborative Cluster Management for Fire-Resilient Peatlands in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110811*

### **Author details**

Johan Kieft Land Use and Green Economy, UN Environment Programme, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to: johan.kieft@un.org

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Glauber AJ, Moyer S, Adriani M, Gunawan I, Mileva E, Harimurti P, et al. The Costs of Fires: An Economic Analysis of Indonesia's 2015 Fire Crisis. World Bank, Jakarta. 2015. Available from: https:// openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/23840#:~:text=In%20 a%20five%2Dmonth%20period,no%20 means%20a%20singular%20event

[3] Kieft, J, van Oosthuizen N. BUKTI - A framework for Integrated Fire Management in the fire prone peat districts of Indonesia, unep/kishugo group, internal document. 2016

[4] Kieft J, van Oosthuizen N, Wison t. Fire protection associations as a collaborative mechanism for a landscape-based approach to integrated fire management for reducing haze and greenhouse gas emissions in Indonesia. Biodiversidade Brasileira-BioBrasil. 2019;**1**:292-294

[5] Kieft J, Smith T, Someshwar S and Boer R. Towards anticipatory management of peat fires to enhance local resilience and reduce natural capital depletion. In: Renaud F, Sudmeier-Rieux K, Estrella M, Nehren U, editors. Ecosystem-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Adaptation in Practice. Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research. Berlin, Germany: M.N.U. Springer; 2016;**42**:361-377.

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-43633-3\_16. ISBN 978-3-319-43633-3

[6] Hoha AS, Siddik A, Saharjo BH, Boer R, Ardiansyah M. Spatiotemporal distribution of peatland fires in Kapuas district, Central Kalimantan province, Indonesia. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. 2014;**3**(3):163-170

[7] Wösten JHM, Clymans E, Page SE, Rieley JO, Limin SH. Peat–water interrelationships in a tropical peatland ecosystem in Southeast Asia. Catena. 2008;**73**(2):212-224. DOI: 10.1016/j. catena.2007.07.010

[8] Hooijer A, Page S, Jauhiainen J, Lee WA, Lu XX, Idris A, et al. Subsidence and carbon loss in drained tropical peatlands. Biogeosciences. 2012;**9**:1053- 1071. DOI: 10.5194/bg-9-1053-2012

[9] Lubis ZB. Social mapping of access to peat swamp forest and peatland resources. In: Working Paper. Indonesia: Kalimantan Forest and Climate Partnership (KFCP); 2013. Available from: https://iopscience.iop.org/ article/10.1088/1755-1315/58/1/012030

[10] Dohong A, Cassiophea L, Sutikno S, Triadi BL, Wirada F, Rengganis P, et al. Community-Based Peat Rewetting Infrastructure Construction with Canal Blocking. Training Module. Jakarta, Indonesia: Peatland Restoration Agency; 2017

[11] Miettinen J, Hooijer A, Vernimmen R, Liew SC, Page SE. From carbon sink to carbon source: Extensive peat oxidation in insular Southeast Asia since 1990. Environmental Research Letters. 2017;**12**:024014. Available from: https://iopscience.iop.org/

*Towards Collaborative Cluster Management for Fire-Resilient Peatlands in Indonesia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110811*

article/10.1088/1748-9326/aa5b6f/meta [assessed september 23 2022]

[12] Yadmiko SD, Murdiyarso D, Faqih A. Climate changes projection for land and forest fire risk assessment in West Kalimantan. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2017;**58**:8. Available from: https://iopscience.iop.org/ article/10.1088/1755-1315/58/1/012030

### *Edited by Murat Eyvaz and Ahmed Albahnasawi*

Wetlands are some of the most important ecosystems on our planet, providing a range of essential services from biodiversity conservation to water purification. *Wetlands - New Perspective*s is a comprehensive collection of seven chapters that presents the latest research and insights on wetlands from various perspectives. This book covers a range of topics, including the impacts of climate change on wetlands, the economic benefits of using wetlands for water retention, and the collaborative management of fire-resilient peatlands. It also provides insights into the prospects for the use of degraded wetlands and the management of prior converted hydric soils to support agriculture production. The authors of this book are experts in their fields and offer new perspectives on the management and conservation of wetlands. The book provides valuable insights and information for researchers, policymakers, and wetland managers who seek to promote the sustainable management of these vital ecosystems. *Wetlands - New Perspectives* is a must-read for anyone interested in the future of wetlands and the role they play in sustaining life on our planet. It is an essential resource for understanding the challenges and opportunities associated with the management and conservation of wetlands.

### *J. Kevin Summers, Environmental Sciences Series Editor*

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen © Jian Fan / iStock

Wetlands - New Perspectives

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Wetlands

New Perspectives

*Edited by Murat Eyvaz and Ahmed Albahnasawi*