

*Composition of grinding fractions of N. ruscifolia fruit and whole fruit (dry basis) of N. ruscifolia, N. alba, N. nigra, N. alpataco, N. chilensis and N. flexuosa.*

of 10% to wheat flour to make cookies and fried flakes, increasing the contribution of available lysine, its protein and dietary fibre content, improving the soluble/ insoluble fibre ratio, without affecting its physical characteristics or sensory acceptability. "*Algarrobo"* flour does not have the binding characteristic of wheat flour. It has sweetening properties, natural flavouring and mineral and protein content, making it interesting for the food industry [20].

There are many other *Neltuma* which beans are used for flour. They have some differential characteristics: for example, *N. chilensis* flour contains fewer carbohydrates than *N. alba* flour, and together with *N. flexuosa* they have higher amounts of fibre and protein than *N. alba* flour (**Table 2**). **Table 2** also shows that the flours of *N. ruscifolia* and *N. alpataco* stand out for the high amount of carbohydrates, whilst that of *N. nigra* stands out in the amount of fats.

#### **5. Methods of elaboration of** *Neltuma* **flours**

These vary from precarious systems with some degree of technology to industrialscale projects.

The traditional production process involves the collection of the pods, drying by direct exposure to solar radiation (**Figure 4a**) and finally their manual grinding in mortar [25].

#### **5.1 Fruit collection**

When the fruits are ripe, they are collected by placing them in plastic burlap bags that allow aeration. Collection seasons are generally: December–January for *N. flexuosa* and *N. chilensis*; December to February for *N. alba*, late January to February for *N. nigra* and May–April for *N. caldenia*. If the collection is possible, it is done from the tree manually or by placing a mesh to catch the fruits at the time of shaking for phytosanitary reasons.

The collected bags should be stored in a dry environment with air circulation to avoid deterioration and proliferation of insects. The collected fruits are selected, separating the healthy fruits from others in poor condition, foreign matter and insects.

The fruits are generally attacked by insects belonging to the *Bruchidae* family [38]. One method to eliminate bruchids is to place the bags kept in dried conditions in the freezer at a temperature of −18°C for 10 days (**Figure 4b**) [21].

Silva *et al.* [39] conclude that the chemical and physical quality of fruits stored for animal feed is maintained with the use of closed bins with a capacity of 40 kg with the addition of dry insect repellent plants (*Capparis atamisquea* Kuntze and *Ocimum basilicum* L.) placed at the base, in the middle and at the top.

#### **5.2 Fruit washing**

The fruits are washed with 5% sodium hypochlorite to eliminate adhering substances and microorganisms with subsequent rinsing, draining and air-drying on meshes placed for this purpose.

#### **5.3 The grinding of fruits**

This varies according to the region. The Institute of Popular Culture [40] processes dry and healthy fruits with a 3000 rpm hammer mill with a 6 HP TEKNE 400 brand

*The Legumes of* Neltuma spp. *(ex* Prosopis spp*.) and Their Properties for Human and Animal... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110436*

**Figure 4.**

*Components of the "algarrobo" threshing machine (Cosiansi, 1991): a) pods hopper, b) shredder, c) threshing cylinder I, d) sieves, e) flour tray, f) knuckles tray, g) seed tray, h) hopper for knuckles, i) threshing cylinder II.*

gasoline engine [41], which processes 40 to 50 kg of fruits per hour. The granulometry of the grinding obtained goes through a 12 mm diameter sieve. If it absorbs moisture, it is necessary to dry it in a solar dryer. INCUPO [40] performs a second grinding by varying the sieve with a 2 mm diameter mesh. It is necessary to dry it again in the solar dryer, to then mechanically sieve with a 1 mm metal mesh. The product obtained is stored in plastic drums with hermetic closure of 220 litres (80 kg). In these drums the product lasts 1 year if it is kept hermetically closed with low moisture content in storage. The TEKNE 400 hammer mill is also proposed by Cornejo Becker *et al*. [42] who made a proposal to bring flour production to an industrial level, using rotary washers, vibrating sieve, tray dryer, conveyor belt and ground product packaging.

In the Monte region, the company "*El Resurgir del Algarrobal* S.A." collect *N. flexuosa* directly from trees devoid of shrubs and grasses below. When collecting impurities are also collected. Inclined planes and fans are used to clean light remains of fruits. To separate heavy remains they perform immersion in water, so the pods come out clean. The pods are sun-dried and hand-selected. To obtain "*algarrobo"* flour, they use a hammer mill with interchangeable sieves and obtain the desired granulometry by reducing the step. The flour is collected in hermetic jars after sifting and packaging. The destination is human consumption [43].

The community of *Santa María de Catamarca* presented the use of an individual solar dryer and a medium-scale solar dryer as an improvement in the traditional process of drying *Neltuma* fruits to obtain flour [25].

Mom *et al.* [44], studying two species of *Neltuma*, argue that the milling process to obtain flour by dry milling demands the use of previously dried fruits. One of the critical factors is the high sugar content (40%), which requires drying to very low

moisture (<6%) to avoid stickiness. In *N. alba* a reduction of 80% was observed in the drying time at 60 and 70°C. A grinding more homogeneous and with very fine granulometry of all the components (soluble in water and insoluble in ethanol) is observed in *N. alba*, whilst that the highest granulometry of *N. flexuosa* is found in the flour and not in the water-insoluble fraction.

Freyre *et al.* [33] for the separation of different fractions of the (N. ruscifolia) used a concentric disc mill that retains the endocarp, and allows the exo-mesocarp mixture to pass through. The endocarps enter in a disc mill with radial grooves that open the endocarp and release the seeds. The separation will be implemented using a pneumatic separator, sieves and manually. In this process three different products were obtained: fraction H or pulp meal (MF), fraction S of pure seeds (SF) and the residual fraction (R), made of the residues obtained in each step. The particle size of each of these fractions was reduced and homogenised using a Cyclotec mill. The proximal composition of these fractions is observed in **Table 2**.

Escobar *et al.* [32] obtained cotyledon meal from pods of *N. chilensis* harvested in April in Chile. To obtain them, the pods were dried in a tunnel with forced air at 60°C until a residual humidity of 8–10%. They extracted the cotyledons from the pods manually and peeled them with a 0.75% w/v solution of sodium hydroxide according to the method of Escobar *et al.* [45]. The cotyledons obtained are thermally treated with moist heat (cotyledon: water ratio of 1:3) at overpressure (1.57 atm) for 9 minutes for the inactivation of heat-sensitive antinutritional compounds. The cotyledons were dried at 35°C until a residual humidity of 8% and they were ground in two stages, a pre-milling until a granulometry of 250 μm (Mill Arthur H. Thomas. C.O.) and a milling.

Peru has established technical standards for the production of products originating from the pods of the "*algarrobos*" and guidelines for the implementation of standards to establish quality and aptitude requirements for the product, process and service, contemplating various aspects of production in a manner to provide sustainable economic development [46].

The BNGP in the threshing process uses the machine designed by Ing. Agr. (M Sc.) Jorge Cosiansi [47], which allows to obtain flour as well as seeds. The machine has a power of 6 HP, a weight of 380 kg, a hopper capacity of 40 kg of pods and a threshing capacity of 20 min for that amount of fruit (**Figure 4**).

#### **5.4 Threshing process**

The pods collected in plastic burlap bags by the BNGP go through a cleaning and drying process before the threshing (**Figure 4c**). Cleaning is done by emptying the bag on a table, where with the help of a fan the pods are separated from other elements (grass, branches and insects and other materials). Once clean, the pods are placed in ovens for 48 hours at a temperature of 40°C with forced air circulation for drying until the moisture content drops to approximately 9%. Before being threshed, the fruits are broken into pieces of about 2–3 cm manually using a bucket and a stick as a pylon.

The dried and split pods are incorporated into the pod hopper of the thresher for indehiscent fruits (**Figure 4a**). In the lower part of the hopper there is a shredder (**Figure 4b**), which continues the process of breaking the material and allows the passage of the crushed pods to the threshing cylinder I (**Figure 4c**). The threshing cylinder I is in charge of opening the material and releasing the seeds. All the material falls to a set of sieves (**Figure 4d**), which classifies and transports to three output compartments: one for "*algarrobo*" flour (**Figure 4e**), another for the knuckles *The Legumes of* Neltuma spp. *(ex* Prosopis spp*.) and Their Properties for Human and Animal... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110436*

(**Figure 4f**) and a third compartment for the seeds with other impurities (flour and grains, **Figure 4g**). In the case of materials that have smaller knuckles and seeds, the hopper for knuckles (**Figure 4h**) and the threshing cylinder II (**Figure 4i**) can be used, which has the opening elements (tines) closer together.

To obtain a purity of seed of 80% (according to INASE Res. 374/14 standard), the seed obtained must go through a final cleaning process that is carried out with a fan and an inclined plane, where impurities are blown away and escape through the upper part of the inclined plane and the clean seeds are collected at the base of it (**Figure 4c**).

#### **5.5 Performance**

An adult of *N. chilensis* tree can produce up to 100 kg of pods. However, pod production does not occur uniformly every year, due to different factors, therefore it can be said that the average is 20 to 60 kg of pods per tree, whilst *N. nigra* varies from 20 to 50 kg per tree [48]. The production of *N. alba* begins around 5 years of the tree's life, and produces 5 to 40 kilogrammes of pods per tree each year [49] (**Figure 5**).

3040 kg of pods yields 1400 kilogrammes of flour and the rest is made up of bran, which is the residue used to make balanced feed for animals (poultry, pigs and cattle) [40]. Cornejo Becker *et al*. [42] diagrammed a "*algarrobo"* flour plant and mention a yield of 42% in Salta.

One hundred kilos of ripe and dry "*algarroba"* (fruit) contain 30 kg of sugar, 20 kg of starch, 8 kg of protein and 2 kg of lipids, nutritive substances and more than 60 kg of cellulose [11].

In summary, it is concluded that the fibre content of "*algarrobo"* flour is higher than that of whole wheat flour, it has less fat with a very good composition of essential fatty acids (linoleic and oleic) and a notable amount of mineral salts (amongst others) Ca; Fe and P. The iron in the white "*algarrobo"* tree reaches values established for the

**Figure 5.**

*a) Previous drying in full sun of the plastic bags with pods b) Cold treatment to eliminate bruchids (−18°C) to bagged and dried fruits, c) P. flexuosa pods prepared for threshing d) seeds of P. alba from Campo Duran Seed.*

liver of cattle. The nutritional characteristics and the behaviour of the product define it as a quality flour that can be used in bakery products [50].

#### **6. Animal feeding**

"*Algarrobas*" are collected to feed livestock, whole or processed, alone or as part of a ration, fresh or after storage. Researchers have conducted studies on ground carob in cattle feed rations, especially in Brazil and India. "*Algarrobas*" are ground to ensure maximum nutritional value, since most of the seeds are made up of proteins which are not indigestible when passing through the digestive tract of cattle [13].

In the Argentine Chaco Region, "*algarroba*" flour production is in summer, coinciding with the season of greatest pasture production in the area. Its use can be deferred for times of forage scarcity (late autumn and winter). The high energy values of "*algarroba*" flour can significantly improve daily weight gains in cattle [3].

Prokopiuk *et al*. [51] say that pods of *N. alba* have nutritional values (95.3% dry matter, 6.8% crude protein, 35.7% neutral detergent fibre, 33.1% acid detergent fibre, *in vitro* digestibility of dry matter 66.6%, non-structural carbonates 52.3%, ethereal extract 2.2%) indicating that they are located within the main group of feed for ruminants, that of bulky ones, those that have a low weight: volume, with fibre content greater than 18%. Comparatively within this group, they could replace conserved maize and grain sorghum forages.

Prokopiuk *et al.* [3] used coarse fractions of ground "*algarroba"* from *N. alba* as a winter supplement (1 kg/animal/day, 0.5% live weight) for 4 months for 200 kg live weight steers of the Braford breed in the province of Chaco, Argentina, in front of a witness without supplement. All remained on implanted pasture, with an average stocking rate of 0.5 animal/ha, in a continuous grazing system where the predominant species was Gatton panic (*Panicum maximum*). The ground "*algarroba*" supplied a concentration of metabolizable energy of approximately 2.4 Mcal/kg DM. The supplemented steers had significant increases in haematocrit, erythrocytes, haemoglobin and iron and there were no adverse clinical side effects, improving the blood levels of some nutritional indicators, and slightly increasing the weight of the growing animals. No animal registered signs of disease.

Gonzalez- Montemayora *et al*. [20] studied the whole meal of dried pods of *N. alba*, *N. chilensis* and *N. nigra* from Bolivia obtained with a knife mill, and found that *N. nigra* and *N. alba* stood out for their protein, fibre and protein content. Low levels of antinutrients (saponins, lectins, trypsin, polyphenols, nitrates, phytate) and that the antinutritional substances studied do not represent a risk for the population. They also highlighted that the contribution of dietary fibre was higher 45.93% (*N. nigra*), 46.28% (*N. chilensis*) and 48.15% (*N. alba*).

Gonzalez- Montemayora *et al.* [20] found a high protein digestibility *in vitro* for the whole meal of pods of *N. nigra* (60.97%) and *N. alba* (55.37%), the same as Galera [52], although for *N. chilensis* it had the lowest protein digestibility. (45.57%). In this species Silva *et al.* [39] recorded 71.18% and state that it decreases with unprotected storage time, reaching a digestibility of 30%.

Chagra Dib *et al.* [53] cite that milk production at the beginning of lactation increased when Creole goats that were on natural pasture are supplemented in winter with alfalfa hay, commercial balanced and "*algarrobo*" pods. It also improved butterfat and crude milk protein. Weight loss was lower when they received alfalfa hay plus "*algarrobo*" pods.

*The Legumes of* Neltuma spp. *(ex* Prosopis spp*.) and Their Properties for Human and Animal... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110436*

#### **7. Conclusions**

Numerous publications support the need to improve technological production processes to obtain quality "*algarrobo*" flour in order to have a food product of good nutritional quality, high added value, of natural origin both for local residents and those who want to engage in industrial activity. It is recommended to use proven genetic material when forest plantations of the *Neltuma* genus are carried out for industrial purposes. *Algarrobo* flour is a quality food with building properties because it contains proteins and energy due to its sugars, as well as salts, minerals and vitamins that serve as an excellent food for both human and animal consumption. There is a wide variability depending on the taxon and origin of the fruits. Hence, the need to increase research that characterises the physical, chemical and nutritional properties in order to provide consumers with "*algarrobo*" flour. The establishment of technical standards and guides for their implementation similar to those of Peru would be a very useful tool for "*algarrobo*" flour producers since it will allow to homogenise the production and quality of the product obtained to improve competitiveness and commercialization in the national and international market.

#### **8. Supplementary material: "***Algarrobo***" flour recipes**

#### **8.1 Benefits and recipes**

"*Algarrobo*" flour is obtained by grinding the pods and seeds. It helps regulate digestive and intestinal processes, due to its pectic acid and fibre content. It has low fat content. It has vitamins A, B, D, as well as a significant amount of minerals (magnesium, calcium, potassium, iron and phosphorus). Also, it is suitable for celiacs. Its versatility as a food is a real stimulus to create desserts and infusions. The recipes shown below are an example of this:

#### **8.2 Own recipes**

#### **"***Algarrobo***" Cake**

**Ingredients**: 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup of "*algarrobo*" flour, 3 large eggs, 1 teaspoon of vanilla essence, 2 cups of self-rising flour.

**Preparation**: Beat the eggs, add the sugar and "*algarrobo*" flour. Continue beating until obtaining a cream. Add vanilla essence, add the 2 cups of self-rising flour. Mix well. Finally add 1 cup of liquid yogurt of the flavour you prefer, mix well. Leave 10 minutes for the yogurt bacteria to act.

If it lacks liquid, add a little more yogurt, or lemon juice, or a few drops of cognac, or port. The sugar can be replaced by honey, but the "*algarrobo*" flour tastes like mount honey. Flour a cake pan and place the preparation. Place it in the oven. Cooking can take between 1/2 hour or an hour depending on the depth of the source to be used (**Figure 6a**).

#### **"***Algarrobo***" Bonbons**

**Ingredients**: 50 g of "*algarrobo*" flour, 50 g of rolled oats, 50 g of grated coconut, ½ cup of pastry dulce de leche, liquid yogurt if it is necessary.

**Preparation:** Mix the "*algarrobo*" flour with the rolled oats, the pastry dulce de leche to form a paste. Add grated coconut and liquid yogurt if it is necessary. Make balls and pass them through grated coconut to cover them (**Figure 6c**).

#### **Figure 6.** *"Algarrobo" flour recipes***:** *a) Fruit pudding, b) "algarrobo" bonbons and c) "algarrobo" cake.*

#### **8.3 "***Paciencia del Monte***" recipes**

#### **Moulded Sweet Potato**

**Ingredients**: 1 kg of sweet potato; 250 g pumpkin squash (\*), 500 cc of water, 1 tablespoon of natural vanilla, agar-agar, 1 or 2 tablespoons of "*algarrobo*" flour, 3 or 4 tablespoons of honey [54].

**Preparation**: Peel the sweet potatoes and cut them into cubes under running water so that they do not turn black. Also, peel and cut pumpkin squash into cubes. Place the sweet potatoes together with the pumpkin squash in a container with water. Cook over moderate heat until everything is tender. Remove the preparation and let it warm slightly. Blend until it forms a cream and pour into a saucepan, perfume with vanilla. Bring it back to a low heat, over a diffuser, so that it heats up slowly and does not stick. Add agar-agar, dissolved in a little cold water and continue cooking, stirring with a wooden spoon for 5 more minutes. Remove from heat and add honey and mix. Pour into a mould, moistened with water or brushed with oil. When it begins to take consistency, dissolve the "*algarrobo*" flour with water to form a cream. Pour over the moulding. Mix with a spoon to give a marbled effect. Let it cool and cut it into portions.

(\*) It is used to give better colour. If omitted, reduce a little amount of water. **Charlotte**

**Ingredients**: 1/2 cup of "*algarrobo*" flour, 1/2 cup of water, 3 tablespoons of honey, natural vanilla, to taste.

**Preparation**: Mix the flour with the water trying not to form lumps. Bring the mixture to a low heat, cooking for 3 or 4 minutes, whilst stirring with a wooden spoon. Remove the preparation, sweeten it with honey and perfume it with vanilla. Use hot.

#### **Creams**

**Ingredients**: 1/2 kg pumpkins, ½ litre of water, 3 tablespoons of "*algarrobo*" flour, 1 tablespoon of corn starch, half walnuts to decorate.

**Preparation**: Peel the pumpkin and cut into cubes and cook them with water. Remove from the heat and blend the preparation. Bring back to the fire, over the

*The Legumes of* Neltuma spp. *(ex* Prosopis spp*.) and Their Properties for Human and Animal... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110436*

diffuser. Separately, mix the "*algarrobo*" flour with the corn starch and dissolve everything with 3 tablespoons of cold water. Add to the previous preparation, stirring with a wooden spoon, until thick. Remove it, flavour it with vanilla, and sweeten it with honey. Pour it into little bowls, when it solidifies decorate each portion with a nuts and take it to the fridge until serving.

#### **Fancy Cookies**

**Ingredients**: 4 cups fine wholemeal flour, 1 cup "*algarrobo*" flour, 1 teaspoon baking soda, 1 tablespoon lemon zest; 3 tablespoons of honey, 1 egg, 3 tablespoons of oil, milk or water, the necessary amount.

**Preparation**: Arrange in a bowl the flours, the baking soda and the lemon zest. Separately, beat the honey with the egg, oil and vanilla. Mix both preparations as the milk or water is incorporated in sufficient quantity to form a consistent dough. Let it rest for 30 minutes. Stretch it with the help of a rolling pin until it is 1 cm thick. Cut squares 5 cm on each side or other shapes to taste, place the dough on oiled and floured plates. Bake them at a moderate temperature for 10 to 15 minutes. Remove them and let cool on a wire rack. Decorate them with natural jams.

#### **Algarrobo Cream**

**Ingredients**: ½ cup of "*algarrobo*" flour, 1 egg, 3 table spoons of honey, 3 tablespoons of ricotta, 1 teaspoon of natural vanilla.

**Preparation**: Place the "*algarrobo*" flour, egg, honey, ricotta and vanilla in the blender glass. Blend everything, adding a minimum of liquid (water or cooking liquid from some fruit) used to dip cakes or for decorations.

#### **Lemon Pie**

**Ingredients**: "*Algarrobo*" base for cakes: 1 tablespoon of fresh brewer's yeast, required amount of warm water and 2 tablespoons of oil, 2 tablespoons of honey, 1 teaspoon of natural vanilla, 2 cups superfine wholemeal flour, 3 tablespoons of "*algarrobo*" flour.

**Filling**: Lemon yolk cream; 2 tablespoons of oil, 2 tablespoons of honey, lemon zest and juice, 2 egg yolks, 2 tablespoons of corn starch, 1 cup of water.

Meringue, according to the recipe.

**Preparation**: Dissolve the yeast in ½ cup of warm water. Add the oil, honey and vanilla. Separately, combine the flours and arrange them in the shape of a crown. Pour the previous preparation in the centre. Take the dough as water is incorporated: a medium consistency should be obtained. Place the bun in a warm place and let it rest for 30 minutes. Stretch it out.

**Filling**: Place in the blender glass: the oil, the honey, the zest with the lemon juice, the yolk and the starch. Blend as the water is incorporated. Pour the preparation into a container and take it to a water bath for 30 minutes, stirring with a wooden spoon. Remove the cream and pour it over the cake.

Arrange the meringue on top forming peaks. Gratinate at maximum temperature. Remove, cool and serve.

#### **Fruit Pudding** (**Figure 6a**).

**Ingredients**: 2 green apples, ½ cup of seedless raisins, 2 tablespoons of honey, 1 teaspoon of natural vanilla, a small bowl of oil, 2 tablespoons of fresh brewer's yeast, required amount of warm water, 4 cups of fine wholemeal flour, 1 cup of "*algarrobo*" flour, 100 g of dried fruit (chopped walnuts and almonds, plums and figs in pieces, etc.).

**Preparation**: Arrange in the blender glass: cubed apples, raisins, honey, vanilla, oil and yeast, dissolved in 1/2 litre of water. Blend perfectly. Pour the smoothie over the previously mixed flours and combine the ingredients, adding more water, if

necessary. It should be a more consistent paste than the sponge cake. Add the dried fruit, and let it rest for 30 minutes in a warm place. Pour into oiled and floured moulds. Let rise for 30 minutes in a preheated and turned off oven. Bake at a moderate temperature for 45 to 60 minutes (depending on the depth and diameter of the moulds used). Remove them, let them warm and unmould on a wire rack.

#### **Cocadas**

**Ingredients:** 3 cups of wholemeal flour, half a cup of "*algarrobo*" flour, 1 cup of grated coconut, ½ teaspoon of baking soda, 3 apples, 3 tablespoons of honey, 1 teaspoon of natural vanilla, the necessary amount of milk.

**Preparation:** Combine the flours with the coconut and the baking soda. Arrange them in the shape of a crown, placing the grated apples, honey and vanilla in the centre. Take the dough, incorporating the necessary milk to obtain a consistent paste. Let it rest for 30 minutes, place it in a sleeve with a wide curly nozzle. Make crests on oiled and floured plates. Cook the cocadas in the oven at maximum temperature for approximately 10 minutes. Remove them, let them warm and detach them with a spatula. Let them cool on a rack.

#### **Brown Cake**

**Ingredients**: 1 tablespoon of fresh brewer's yeast, 1/2 cup of warm milk, 100 g of defatted ricotta, 2 tablespoons of oil, 4 tablespoons of honey, 1 teaspoon of natural vanilla, 3 cups of superfine wholemeal flour, ½ cup of "*algarrobo*" flour, 1 cup of corn starch, 1 apple, 50 g of seedless raisins. To decorate: 400 g Chantilly, ricotta (or natural jams).

**Preparation**: Dissolve yeast in warm milk. Beat it and let it rest. Place in the blender glass: the ricotta, the oil, the honey and the vanilla. Blend and reserve. Mix the flours and starch in a large bowl. Make a hole in the centre and pour the yeast and the liquid inside. Work the dough, incorporating the flours on the sides until you achieve a consistency similar to that of a sponge cake. If it is necessary add more warm milk. Add the diced apple, raisins and walnuts, mixing to distribute well. Let the mixture rest in a warm place for 30 minutes, pour it into a 30 cm diameter and 12 cm high pan (or 2 smaller moulds) oiled and floured. Bake at moderate temperature for approximately 40 minutes. The cake is ready when the surface is consistent and detaches from both sides of the mould. Remove it, let it warm and unmould it on a wire rack.

#### **"***Algarrobo***" Jelly**

**Ingredients**: ½ litre of water, 1 tablespoon of agar-agar, 2 tablespoons of "*algarrobo*" flour, 1 tablespoon of lemon zest, 3 or 4 tablespoons of honey.

**Preparation**: Place the water over low heat. Separately, mix the agar-agar with the carob and add 5 tablespoons of cold water. Add the boiling water, stirring continuously with a wooden spoon. Continue cooking for approximately 10 minutes without stopping stirring, and add the zest. Remove the preparation and add the honey. Mix very well and pour into individual moulds. When the preparation is warm, take them to the fridge and reserve them until dessert time, unmould and decorate with fresh fruit.

#### *Añapa* **(Refreshing Drink)**

**Preparation**: Mix "*algarrobo*" flour with very cool water, let stand for about an hour and then strain. This drink is more nutritious and natural than all commercial sodas made with industrial flavourings and colourings.

#### **Acknowlegement**

The authors of this chapter are grateful for the contributions to writing in English made by by Analia Piacenza, Victoria Ubino and Susi Garcia.

*The Legumes of* Neltuma spp. *(ex* Prosopis spp*.) and Their Properties for Human and Animal... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110436*

#### **Author details**

Marisa Jacqueline Joseau\*, Sandra Rodriguez Reartes and Javier Eduardo Frassoni Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, National University of Córdoba, Cordoba, Argentina

\*Address all correspondence to: jajoseau@agro.unc.edu.ar

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[18] Villagra PE, Rossi BE, Alvarez JA. Efecto de *Prosopis flexuosa* sobre las condiciones microambientales en el Monte central (Reserva de Biósfera de Ñacuñan, Mendoza, Argentina). In: Actas de la Reunión Nacional del Algarrobo III Reunión Nac de la Asoc Arg de *Prosopis*. Mendoza, Argentina; 2000. p. 57

[19] Mallo MF. La algarroba (*Prosopis* sp.) como recurso en las estrategias campesinas al sur del Valle Calchaquí. In: Verzino GEJMJ, editor. Reunión Nacional del Algarrobo Actas. Córdoba. Argentina: Grupo Encuentro; 2013. p. 193

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[22] Verga AR. Genetische Untersuchungen an *Prosopis chilensis* und *P. flexuosa* (*Mimosaceae*) im trockenen Chaco Argentiniens. Göttingen Res Notes for Genetics. 1995;**19**(1):96

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[24] Intituto Nacional de Semillas. INASE Res. 374/14. Argentina; 2014 p. 8

[25] Cruz I, Sauad J, Condorí M. Mejora del proceso tradicional de secado de frutos de algarroba, para la obtención de harina. Aplicación de herramientas de análisis multicriterio para la selección de alternativas tecnológicas. In: Verzino GEJMJ, editor. Reunión Nacional del Algarrobo Actas. Córdoba, Argentina: Grupo Encuentro; 2013. p. 193

[26] Código Alimentario Argentino. Capitulo IX. Buenos Aires, Argentina; 2017

[27] Sciammaro L, Ferrero C, Puppo C. Agregado de valor al fruto de Prosopis alba. Estudio de la composición química y nutricional para su aplicación en bocaditos dulces saludables. Revista de la Facultad de Agronomía. 2015;**14**(1):115-123

[28] Correa Uriburu FM, Cattaneo F, Maldonado LM, Zampini IC, Alberto MR, Isla MI. *Prosopis alba* seed as a functional food waste for food formulation enrichment. Food. 2022;**11**:2857

[29] Draghi C. Las semillas del futuro. La ciencia redescubre cultivos olvidados. La Nación. 2003;**2003**:20

[30] Pereira de Gusmão R, Cavalcanti-Mata ME, Martins-Duarte ME, Souza Gusmão TA. Particle size, morphological, rheological, physicochemical characterization and designation of minerals in mesquite flour (*Prosopis* j*uliflora*). Journal of Cereal Science. 2016;**69**:119-124

[31] Pereira de Gusmão R, Souza-Gusmão TA, Calvancanti-Mata ME, Martins Duarte ME. Mathematical modeling and determination of effective diffusivity of mesquite during convective drying. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2016;**7**(6):814-823

[32] Escobar BA, Estévez MA, Fuentes CG, Venegas DF. Uso de harina de cotiledón de algarrobo (*Prosopis chilensis* (Mol) Stuntz) como fuente de proteína y fibra dietética en la elaboración de galletas y hojuelas fritas. Arch Latinoam Nutr Órgano Of la Soc Latinoam Nutr. 2009;**59**(2):191-198

[33] Freyre M, Astrada E, Blasco C, Baigorria C, Rozycki V, Bernardi C. Valores nutricionales de frutos de vinal (*Prosopis ruscifolia*): consumo humano y animal nutritional. The Journal of Food. 2003;**4**(1):41-46

[34] Sciammaro L, Ferrero C, Puppo C. Comparación entre harinas de dos especies de algarrobo (*Prosopis* sp.) del norte argentino. [Internet]. p. 93. Available from: http://sedici.unlp. edu.ar/bitstream/handle/10915/136450/ Resumen.pdf?sequence=1

[35] Boeri P, Piñuel L, Sharry S, Barrio D. Caracterización nutricional de la harina integral de algarroba (*Prosopis alpataco*) de la norpatagonia Argentina. Rev la Fac Agron La Plata. 2017;**116**(1):129-140

[36] Mom MV. Caracterización estructural y propiedades funcionales de las harinas de los frutos de *Prosopis alba* Griseb., *P. chilensis* (Molina) Stuntz emend. Burkart y *P. flexuosa* DC. Desarrollo de un proceso de secado, molienda y mezcla para optimizar la calidad del . Universidad de Buenos Aires; 2012

[37] Labuckas D, Arzac M, Ledesma M, Domina A, Carranza C, Rovetto L, Aguilar R, Silva MP Martinez MJ. Harinas de algarrobas del Noroeste Cordobés:

Propiedades Químicas y Funcionales. Artículo de Divulgación [Internet]. 2018; Available from: https://inta.gob. ar/documentos/harinas-de-algarrobasdel-noroeste-cordobes-propiedadesquimicas-y-funcionales-0

[38] Mazzuferi V, Ingaramo P, Joseau MJ. Tratamiento de Calor para el Secado de Frutos y el Control de Insectos en *Prosopis chilensis*. Aǧrı. 1994;**XI**:49-53

[39] Silva MP, Martinez MJ, Brunetti MA, Balzarini M, Karlin U. Valoración nutritiva del fruto del algarrobo blanco (*Prosopis chilensis*) bajo distintos tipos de almacenamiento. Multequina. 2000;**9**:65-74

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[49] Gómez MI. Propiedades de la harina de algarrobo (*Prosopis alba* Griseb) con vistas a procesos de panificación. In: Verzino GEJMJ, editor. Reunión Nacional del Algarrobo Actas. Córdoba. Argentina: Grupo Encuentro; 2013. p. 193

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#### **Chapter 4**

## Soybean Production, Constraints, and Future Prospects in Poorer Countries: A Review

*Moosa M. Sedibe, Alina M. Mofokeng and Doreen R. Masvodza*

#### **Abstract**

This study was carried out to examine patterns of soybean production, constraints, and possible solutions in poorer countries such as Southern African countries. It was observed that the success of soybean in top-producing countries was characterized by large acreage of land, with a good supply of inputs coupled with intensive management and access to competitive markets. Africa is a minor player in the soybean industry as it supplies less than 1% of the world's soybeans. Because the crop is not for direct household consumption, it is produced on a small-scale and treated as a zero inputs crop. This has resulted in a persistent yield gap, with levels reaching only a third of those obtained in developed countries. There is under-usage of inputs such as irrigation, fertilizers, and improved seed. There is need for a definite shift from small to large-scale production. Limited access to inputs, poor adoption of technologies and restricted markets usually also compromise production. The global demand for soybean due to a growing feed industry, biodiesel, industrial demand, and bias for plant-based protein, is going upwards. New soybean frontiers will likely be present in future, and countries whose production levels lag could take advantage of this situation.

**Keywords:** production patterns, yield gap, biotic factors, technology adoption, soybean production

#### **1. Introduction**

Soybean (*Glycine max*) is an economically important oilseed crop with a high protein (40%), high oil content (20%), and of good nutritional quality [1]. It is a non-native and non-staple crop in Sub-Saharan Africa with potential to become a commercial crop owing to its wide range of uses such as food, feed, and as an industrial raw material [2, 3]. After palm oil, soybean oil is the most consumed cooking oil in the world, being also a major export good. The overall sector can have a total retail market value of around USD 146.23 billion [2].

This study will examine production patterns of soybean in poorer countries in contrast to top-producing countries and will discuss the constraints and limitations to soybean production in poorer countries such as those in Southern Africa and suggest their possible solutions. Some of the uses of the crop will also be elaborated.

#### **2. Global production and consumption**

Top production of soybean is mainly reported in the United States, Brazil, and Argentina, with India ranking fourth so far [4]. The best three countries together account for 80% of total production and they dominate world exports [5]. United States of America, Brazil, Argentina, China, India, Paraguay, Canada, Ukraine, Russia, and Bolivia are among the top 10 soybean producers globally [6].

Brazil emerges as one of the leading countries in soybean production because it has a significant amount of usable and relatively inexpensive land coupled with yield growth while production in the USA is driven predominantly by yield growth since the 80's, **Table 1** [4]. Soybeans in the USA is also known for its good quality regarding protein content as compared other countries hence its usual good price [9]. China imports the largest quantities of soybean (USD 38.1 billion) followed by the Europe Union which imports mainly soymeal and cake for feed for livestock and soybean oil to produce biodiesel [5].

The introduction of herbicide-resistant, genetically modified (GM) soybeans has also allowed for increased productivity levels and a smaller workforce, enabling the crop's rapid expansion. More than 80% of soybean varieties are genetically modified and given this inherent resistance, they survive better under chemical control of weeds, especially on large scales, and this contributes to better crop yields [5]. According to reports by Debnath and Babu [2], the adoption of genetically modified technology increases yields by an average of 22% relative to traditional varieties.

### **3. Production in Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa**

In Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, however, there is very little or no significant growth of production of the soybean crop despite its value and important uses and benefits [10]. Southern Africa is one of the regions where the human population


#### **Table 1.**

*World production, yield, and acreage for the African producers from 2018 to 2019 against top international producers [7, 8].*

#### *Soybean Production, Constraints, and Future Prospects in Poorer Countries: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109516*

increases faster than food production and food insecurity is also a major concern. African producers supply less than 1% of the world's soybeans (**Table 1**) [7, 8].

African production levels are rising 48% fast, at a rate of 6.84% per year, although this mostly results from an increase in area under the crop and not from yield [7, 8]. Major production is concentrated in South Africa, which is the leading producer in Africa, contributing about 35% of the total production, followed by Nigeria (27%), Zambia and Uganda (85%) [8]. Other Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, including Zimbabwe, Malawi, Ghana, Sudan, and Ethiopia, have also experienced sizeable commercial soybean expansion [10]. Outside of these countries, there is very little soybean production in the rest of SSA [11]. Cereals, such as maize (*Zea mays*), millet (*Panicum* spp.), rice (*Oryza sativa*), sorghum (*Sorghum bicolor*), and wheat (*Triticum aestivum*) are also important crops with regard to calorie intake in Southern Africa [10].

Because soybean is usually not for direct household consumption, it is grown as a secondary crop and this makes it not thrive under subsistence settings [12]. The African continent still has to significantly increase the area under soybean crop and make use of underutilized land to its benefit [10]. The major factors that are expected to drive soybean production include land availability, the investment by private equities, international developmental organizations and banks in corporate farms, growth of the poultry market, growing bias towards plant based protein, and increasing household consumption [13].

Protein deficiency exacts a greater toll from infants, children, and pregnant and lactating women in the Southern African region, than anywhere else in the world, partially because starchy foods are widely consumed and animal protein often is too expensive and out of reach for low-income families. The region accounts for 38 and 27% of global child stunting and wasting, respectively [14]. Soybean has a potential to economically and nutritionally transform African economies and some of the countries actually share similar agro-climatic conditions with countries like Argentina and Brazil [15].

#### **4. Uses of soybean**

As the list of its uses continues to expand, soybean may potentially play a role in food globalization among crops like maize, wheat, rice, and potato. Besides its role in the food industry, it is important in the feeds, biodiesel, and other industrial uses as well as improvement of soil nutrients and structure. Its many uses contribute to its widespread production [16]. This section will describe some of the important uses of soybean.

#### **4.1 Soybean-derived foodstuffs**

Soybean can be processed into soy milk, a valuable protein supplement in infant feeds and the milk can be processed into curds and cheese [17]. Soybean seed yields edible, semi-drying oil, used as salad oil and also for manufacturing margarine and shortening [13]. Soy foods such as miso, tempeh, and soy sauce are derived either directly from the whole fresh bean or after processing of the bean into soymilk and are consumed either in fermented or non-fermented form. In the recent past, the range of soy foods has expanded to include fresh beans and sprouts, and grain products such as pasta and flour, meat substitutes, and soy spreads and pastes, baked goods, snack bars, noodles, and infant formula [11, 16]. Soybean can be used blended with maize and wheat flour as a source of protein with about 20% oil. Mechanically pressed meal provides low-fat flour with 5–6% oil, and solvent-extracted meal gives defatted flour with about 1% oil [16].

Soybean is used in dietetic foods and in novel products, such as tofu-based ice cream and soybean yogurt. Studies associate the soybean consumption of phytoestrogen-rich diets typical of soybean with a lower risk of lifestyle diseases such as coronary heart diseases, osteoporosis, hormone-dependent forms of cancer, and menopausal symptoms. Soy protein is a primary component in meat analogues consumed by people who prefer foods that are animal-free or lower in saturated fat [16, 17].

#### **4.2 Feeds**

The major processed soybean product globally is soybean meal [18]. In Africa, the demand for soybean has increased, driven by the growing feed industry for poultry and aquaculture. The vegetative portions of plants are used for silage, hay, pasture or as fodder [13, 16]. Soy products, like soy cake and full fat soy is increasingly used as substitutes for fishmeal in feed rations because it is cheaper. Soy oilcake is mainly imported from Argentina and then mixed with soy-oil and nutrients to compose a balanced feed ration. These feed rations are cheaper than a ration consisting of full fat soybeans but, however do not give the same performance of production [9]. Soy meal is a very rich protein feed for livestock and it has an increasing demand [17].

#### **4.3 Biodiesel and other and industrial uses**

A small but growing proportion of soybean oil is used as a feedstock for biofuel production, but soybean is rarely cultivated with this as the core objective [18]. Industrially, the oil is important in the production of paints and candle wax. It is also used is in the manufacturing of paints, linoleum, oilcloth, printing inks, soap, insecticides, and disinfectants [17]. The straw is used to make paper stiffer than that made from wheat straw.

#### **4.4 Improvement of soil nutrients and structure**

Soybean straw may be plowed back into the soil as a green manure [17]. In lowinput inter-cropping systems, the crop is known to improve soil properties, through nitrogen fixation and enhanced moisture retention. The combination of improved soil properties and the ability to break lifecycles of pests and diseases makes soybean an ideal crop in cereal rotation programs [1]. This advantage is especially important for crop production in Africa due to the economic limitations in the use of fertilizers. Besides socioeconomic benefits, soybean and associated Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium microbes contribute to nitrogen fixation in soils. Nitrogen fertilization is tremendously expensive and pauses ecological risks, such as water eutrophication and the emission of greenhouse gases, that contribute to global warming [11].

#### **5. Production constraints and solutions**

#### **5.1 Yield gap**

Among the constraints faced in the production of soybean, there is a substantial yield gap between the developed and developing countries and it is persistent among Sub-Saharan African farmers [2]. The average soybean yield has stagnated at 1.1 t ha−1 in SSA in contrast to the world average of 2.4 t ha−1. This yield gap is primarily due to the underusage of modern inputs in developing countries. Sub-Saharan Africa imports substantial

#### *Soybean Production, Constraints, and Future Prospects in Poorer Countries: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109516*

volumes of processed soybean in the form of oil and cake for animal feed to fill the gaps. As a net importer, Africa is exposed to rising global prices for soybean, oil, and cake.

Yield gaps are not unique for only soybean as they also exist for staple cereal crops like maize and a number of other crops grown under smallholder and subsistence setups [11]. There are a number of constraints that account for yield gaps, such as resource availability, economic issues such as inflation, gender disparities, accessible markets, etc. These may have resulted in limiting farmers in this region from becoming major players in producing soybean [10, 19]. Solving technical issues and taking measures to close the yield gap may go a long way to improve production levels [20].

#### **5.2 Fertilizer usage**

One way to close the yield gap is making sure farmers access fertilizer and other inputs. Technical issues such as access to fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, seem to linger for all for farmers from small to large scale farmers, across different countries. It is the capabilities to solve these problems and that vary at different levels. Due to limited access to farming resources, smallholder farmers are more likely to farm on poor quality soil and are often plagued by low crop yields [19]. On the other hand, mere provision of free inputs to smallholder farmers attracts unscrupulous players who end up creating black market of the inputs. A farmer that approaches a bank for an inputs loan or a machinery loan may go a long way in carrying out significant production as compared to one who gets invited for free inputs.

Legumes, such as soybean have a high phosphorus (P) requirement for growth and also for nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Low soil phosphorus may contribute to the poor survival of some rhizobial strains [21]. Low phosphorus availability is liable to limit soybean yield on many highly degraded soils in the tropics, even though the external P requirements of soybean are lower than those of some other legumes. It is reported generally that the longer the P is in contact with the soil, the greater the fixation that occurs [12]. If planting is being done on virgin land, inoculation of the seed with *Bradyrhizobium japonicum* should be carried out to enable the crop to fix its own nitrogen through the action of this bacterium in the root nodules [22]. For annual crops such as soybean, P application, 2 weeks after planting is recommended [21].

The flowering stage of soybean requires huge amounts of fertilization for successful seed set. Once the soybean begins to flower, it takes large quantities on nutrients from the soil especially phosphorous and potassium [12, 23]. Abortion of flowers happens a lot in soybean and numerous flowers easily get lost due to limited fertility among other factors. The oversight some farmers make, is to plant soybean after maize and not apply sufficient amounts of phosphorus and potassium hoping there will be sufficient fertility for good yields [23].

#### **5.3 Diseases**

Constraints, such as pathogens, pests, and weeds can be classed as biotic factors [24]. On the other hand, plants stressed by too much or too little water or by nutrient imbalances often produce seeds that are abnormal and these are known as abiotic factors. It is recommended for farmers apply fungicide to their soybean seed at planting to improve germination [22]. In the United States, commercial cultivars are marketed as resistant or tolerant to white mold caused by *Sclerotinium rolfsii* which causes sudden death syndrome, *Fusarium solani* f. sp. *Glycines*, brown stem rot *Phialophora gregata* f. sp. Sojae, *Phytophthora* root and stem rot *Phytophthora sojae*, frogeye leaf spot *Cercospora*  *sojina*, stem canker, *Diaporthephaseolorum* var. carlivora, Charcoal rot *Macrophomina phaseolina*, Soybean rust *Phakopsora pachyrhizi*, Soybean mosaic virus a Potyvirus Bean pod mottle virus *A Comovirus*, soybean cyst nematode, *Heterodera glycines*, root know nematode, *Meloidogine arenaria* [25]. Prevalence varies with countries and regions.

#### **5.4 Weed and insect pests**

Soybeans are generally less competitive with weeds than other common crop species, which may be one potential limitation associated with including soybeans in a crop rotation. Although soybeans may tolerate early-season weed competition more than maize, it may be important to control weeds prior to the V3–V4 growth stage, 3–4 weeks after emergence to avoid yield reduction [26]. Narrower rows and higher plant populations can increase soybean's competitive ability, but the response is inconsistent and can increase the risk of diseases and soybean lodging [27]. The flowering stage in soybean is critical so you do not need harsh herbicides at this time. One must just make sure all the weed control is done earlier [26, 27].

The most important insect pests of soybean are defoliators or pods feeders; these two groups of insect pests can reduce soybean yield by up to 65% [22]. You do not need insects and bugs at flowering but good insect control as this is the time insects cause most damage by causing wounds to the plant that introduce disease [23]. Pesticides, fungicides and insecticides may be needed on occasion, but are generally not recommended except under certain conditions where an expert has provided guidance on product application [22].

#### **5.5 Crop rotations**

Continuous cropping of maize leads to extensive degradation of soil and decrease in crop productivity which endangers household food and nutritional security. Introducing soybean into rotation with maize is a method to diversify diets and nutritional status while reducing abiotic and biotic stresses bringing soil fertility improvement and generating more income for farmers [28]. Several agronomic benefits are associated with the use of soy-maize rotations in the tropics, including increased soil fertility, decreased biotic pressure, and increased maize and soy yields [28]. Diversification and intensification through inclusion of grain legumes in cereal, root, or tuber-based cropping systems represents a key technology in the drive towards the sustainable intensification of agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa [29].

Soybean can contribute to the nitrogen economy of the soil [28] as the additional nitrogen fixed by soybeans has been found to significantly increase maize yields subsequently planted after soy [29]. Soy-maize rotations build resilience against threats such as Striga (*Striga hermonthica*) [28]. Despite the usefulness of legume-cereal rotations to boost productivity, adoption in Sub-Saharan Africa remains limited [28]. In South Africa, Van der Merwe et al. [30] reported that the increase in production is partly resulting from commercial farmers recognizing the benefits of soybean in crop rotation systems with maize [19].

#### **5.6 Production practices**

General principles of good management like crop rotation, planting healthy, vigorous seeds, and selection of soybean varieties may all be important. Berglund and Helms [31] reported that row spacing is a critical determinant of yield in soybean production, because appropriate spacing can ensure effective weed control. Before

*Soybean Production, Constraints, and Future Prospects in Poorer Countries: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109516*

flowering you also want a plant that can catch huge amounts of solar energy, that can produce and keep the most flowers so as to end up with the most pods. By late planting, the sunlight is much less as the season progresses hence one ends up with small pods and seeds, so adherence to planting dates is important. If one is planting late you may need to use narrower rows giving a heavier population that can catch the sunlight and heat to cushion the stand. Row planting determines the plant population per unit area, and if cultivation practices are not optimized then a low population, that is, wide spacing can adversely influence the total yield of a given area.

#### **5.7 Processing, markets, and other factors**

Factors strongly impacting a commercial crop like soybean, such as poor infrastructure, limited access to markets and technical assistance, barriers to acquiring agricultural inputs, pervasive rural poverty, uncertain land tenure, and poor policy enactment can all negatively impact crop productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa [28]. Large corporations have not materially invested in the Sub-Saharan Africa region to cater to either domestic demand or to service other international markets, leaving the market opportunities available for local and regional processors [18].

Intensification of the soybean processing sector is necessary to create demand for production thus reducing on expensive imports [18]. This, however, requires institutional partnerships between governments, the private sectors and development banks to invest in soybean-crushing infrastructure and bio-refineries, and in the reallocation of the recently idle land from traditional crops to alternative cash crops [2].

As the crushing of soybean produces only 18% oil and 78% meal, processing soybean only for oil is expensive for crushers in the absence of a domestic demand for cake. Ethiopia, for instance, due to the lack of crushing infrastructure, exported 53.94 thousand MT of soybean and imported 4.52 thousand MT of soy oil in 2017 [7]. Logistical bottlenecks can also be experienced in countries which have increased production and have limited crushing facilities and farmers in countries such as Argentina have to sometimes stockpile their production and sell it when market conditions improve [5].

#### **5.8 Technology transfer and adoption**

Adoption of technologies by farmers in poorer countries requires, unwavering support from government, sufficient government follow up and back-up as well as evaluated results-based management. Extension workers require re-training and re-equipping [32]. Modernization and digitization of platforms is also often necessary to improve efficiency of information transfer. Mere provision of free inputs to farmers may not be effective to bring about the desired transformation of the farming sector as the history of many third world countries proves. Some farmers face poverty cycles that may force them to sell inputs to meet household needs. This way, unscrupulous players get attracted and black markets are promoted. A farmer who approaches a bank for a machinery loan may go a long way in carrying out significant production as compared to one who gets invited for free inputs [32].

#### **6. Country case studies**

Three country case studies will be presented of Ghana, a typical "poor African country" which seems to have long term challenges with respect to soybean

production, Cambodia and South Africa, both of which are transitioning and are experiencing increased soybean production levels at country level. The three countries will be examined with respect constraints faced, interventions and government support and response and technology adoption levels by farmers.

#### **6.1 Ghana**

Ghana like Nigeria are quite old states in Africa. As early as, 1975 and 1977 a major soybean-growing campaign was launched in support of the growing Ghanaian poultry industry which triggered the launch of a major soybean-growing campaign in support of the growing Ghanaian poultry industry [12]. The initial farmer response was high and a considerable increase in production was recorded, but the utilization base was low and knowledge of processing was inadequate [21]. Initiatives that were meant to increase cash income and improve the nutritional status of rural households were therefore prematurely stalled [12, 33].

A number of other factors are identified as attributing to this problem. Technical issues such as fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, seem to linger for all farmers from small to large scale, not only in Ghana but in many countries. It's the solution methods and capabilities that vary at different levels. Some of the challenges faced in Ghana were as follows:


Generally, a large scale commercial farmer with experience is more likely to even out most technical issues and may have lighter issues such as market identification and processing challenges.

*Soybean Production, Constraints, and Future Prospects in Poorer Countries: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109516*

#### **6.2 Cambodia**

In the past, well before 1994, in Cambodia, soybean was grown for subsistence by most farmers on a small scale, and as supplementary crop for livelihood. However, it has become the main cash crop and the fourth most important crop after rice, maize, and cassava in terms of cultivated area and production due to competitive market prices and demand from consumers [32].

Farmers in Cambodia face a fair share of technical constraints just like any country such as access to agricultural inputs and machinery. Some farmers plant soybean manually by broadcasting using the hand-hoe and only a few use machines for planting. Another major problem is lack of knowledge about pest identification. The soybean sub-sector is hugely immature with limited or no links in the value chain from production to marketing to processing. Domestic soybean seeds are considered by processing companies in local communities to be of poor quality and this leads to low demand and therefore contributes to low prices [32].

Researchers, government sector, private sector, extension agencies, and policy makers need to develop appropriate technologies to enhance soybean production and create an enabling environment of successful cultivation of soybean. Training and re-tooling for extension workers is consistently done to effectively transfer improved soybean technologies to farmer [32]. The government aims to modernize agriculture and increase labor productivity for farmers and in terms of markets, Cambodia aims to carry out digitization of information which will facilitate the formation of value chain platforms through which value chain stakeholders can exchange information, services, and products [35].

The level of technology adoption is very significant due to unwavering support from government [32]. Cambodia's fertilizer usage per hectare of cropland increased from 10.0 kg in 2005 to 33.0 kg in 2018 [35]. Use of pesticides, most of which are imported, has also increased in Cambodia. It is the regulation of their use that still needs to be done for farmers' safety, food safety, and ecosystem health. Cambodian agriculture has experienced a gradual and nationwide mechanization which resulted in replacement of labor with machinery such as tractors, harvesters, power tillers and water pumps bringing significant growth in soybean production alongside other crops [32, 35]. Besides job creation, large scale farms can become information centers for smaller farmers, which is a plus to extension services.

#### **6.3 South Africa**

In South Africa large-scale production of soybeans did not begin until the late 1990s. Previously, output hovered below 50,000 tonnes nationwide with acreage below 50,000 ha. The area planted to soybeans has expanded rapidly since then [19]. The soybean sector and industry in South Africa contributes 250 million USD out of the 11.25 billion USD brought in by the whole agriculture [36]. This include sectors carrying out value-addition of the crop as most of the grain has to be processed.

Most farms are commercial while smallholder farms are more predominant in rural areas [11]. As early as 1996 South African farmers still planted less than a 100 thousand hectares but with increased crushing capacity ensuring local demand for soybeans, the active promotion of the benefits of including soybeans into a rotational cropping pattern with other crops. This and management ease brought by genetically modified herbicide-tolerant soybean varieties, more and more farmers choose to plant soybeans in rotation with maize [37].

The department of trade and industry initiated elaborate processes that triggered investments towards new soybean processing plants and improvements in existing ones during the 2012 financial year. In response farmers have committed to produce increasingly high yields of soybeans yearly and the South African Bureau for Food and Agricultural policy [38] projects that there would be an increase in the amount of land set aside for commercial soybean production subsequently [19]. These policy directives elevated soybean as a cash and food crop. In addition, an industrial policy and action plan of 2012/13 to 2014/15 distinguished soybeans as having the potential for creating opportunities for new investments and jobs making South Africa the largest soybean producer in SSA, followed by Zambia, Nigeria, and Uganda [7].

Historically, soybean marketing in South African and other oilseed crops were regulated under an oilseed board initiated in 1937 and revised in 1968. This board was set up primarily to determine the sale prices of oilseeds in the local market. In 1996 the act it was operating under, was replaced by another act which deregulated marketing of agricultural products in the South African agricultural sector leading to the establishment of a council to manage and monitor the government's involvement in the agricultural sector.

This was when soybean producers in South Africa became participants in an international free market environment. In terms of markets, there are many growing and numerous ready markets for soybean in South Africa. Today, some African countries still operate under such restrictive laws which do not improve the true market performance of crop prices thus limiting their producers from becoming global players [39].

#### **7. Future prospects**

Soybean has the potential to transform the economy of a country as evidenced by data for countries like South Africa and Cambodia, to name only two countries. According to Kargesa and Reckingac [40], soybean has become one of the most important commodities of trade. This is besides its role in transforming family livelihoods and diets. If all limitations in its production are dealt with and commitment to utilize idle land tracts and adoption and adherence to recommended production techniques is done, it becomes an easily accessible source of protein to an ordinary family. It will take a lot of awareness of its value in Asian diets such as the Chinese diet and culinary industry, where lifestyle diseases have been kept low while maintaining an important balance. Therefore, it is worth any commercial pursuits.

#### **8. Discussion, conclusions, and recommendations**

The success of soybean in the top-producing countries is associated with large landmasses with supply of adequate inputs coupled with intensive management and good access to competitive markets.

Africa is a minor player in the soybean industry as African producers supply less than 1% of the world's soybeans due to a persistent yield gap between smallholder farmers and large scale farmers which also occurs among third world and developed countries. Because soybean is not for direct household consumption, it is treated as a secondary crop by subsistence farmers.

If measures are taken to close the yield gaps among other factors by not regarding soybean as a zero inputs crop, as well as increasing scale of production from small to

*Soybean Production, Constraints, and Future Prospects in Poorer Countries: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109516*

large scale through the utilization of idle land, improve access to inputs and markets, third world countries will improve production.

Technical issues such as access to fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, linger for all for farmers from small to large scale farmers, across different countries. It is the capabilities to bring solution that vary at different levels.

Mere provision of free inputs to smallholder farmers attracts unscrupulous players who end up creating black markets of the inputs. A farmer that approaches a bank for a machinery loan may go a long way in carrying out significant production as compared to one who gets invited for free inputs.

Positive transition in soybean production has occurred and is still occurring for countries like South Africa and Cambodia, both in Africa and Asia, respectively. Large scale production should be able to meet domestic demand and excess for exports. In addition to job creation, large scale farms can become information centers for smaller farmers.

Adoption of technologies by farmers in poorer countries backed by sufficient government policies and actions at the same time routing out leakages from shady operations that arise may bring about transition of the soybean sector in African countries.

The soybean sector and industry contributes a quarter of a billion USD to the 11.25 billion USD brought in by the whole agriculture sector in South Africa. This shows that the crop can significantly transform an economy.

The growing feed industry, industrial demand and biodiesel are driving the demand for soybean upwards. The bias towards plant based protein is also expected to benefit the consumption of soybean-based products. Therefore, new soybean frontiers are likely to continuously develop and the Southern African region has an opportunity to tap in, to its own benefit.

#### **Funding**

This soybean research project is fully funded by the Research, Development and Postgraduate Studies of the Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein.

#### **Conflict of interest**

There are no conflicts of interests regarding this work.

#### **Author details**

Moosa M. Sedibe1 , Alina M. Mofokeng2 and Doreen R. Masvodza1 \*

1 Central University of Technology (CUT), Bloemfontein, South Africa

2 Agriculture Research Council (ARC), Potchefstroom, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: rmasvodza2011@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Soybean Production, Constraints, and Future Prospects in Poorer Countries: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109516*

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#### **Chapter 5**
