*2.2.1 The use of herbal medicines for the treatment and control of gastrointestinal parasites*

The various herbs used in the control and treatment of gastrointestinal parasites has its foundation in ethnoveterinary medicine found relevant till date in different parts of the world [42]. Garlic, onions, and mint are found useful in treating animals or birds infected with gastrointestinal parasites. The leaves, flowers, and oil of a shrub (*Chenopodium ambrosioides*) with its origin in Central America are used as an anthelmintic [43].

### *2.2.2 Plant and extracts used for alleviating Coccidiosis in poultry*

Some secondary metabolites in some plants and parts, such as the roots, bark, seeds, leaves, and stems containing alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, and flavonoids, have therapeutic effects against coccidiosis. Coccidiosis is capable of wiping out a flock completely if not alleviated timely. Some strains of *Eimeria* spp. have developed resistances and insensitive to some orthodox coccidiostats and consequently leave their residues in the animal products. The inclusion of flaxseed either whole or the oil in the diet of day old chicks was found to decrease lesions associated with *Eimeria tenella*. There is a particular plant in India known as *Holorrhena antidysentrica* (kurchi) and it is antiprotozoal. Its extract is mixed with that of other plants such as *allium spp* and *berberis* making it a good coccidiostat [44–47]. Alicin, the main constituent of garlic, was extracted and was found to inhibit the sporulation of *Eimeria tenella* in an *in vitro* study [48–52]. The extract of green tea (*Camelia sinensis*) effectively constrains the sporulation of coccidial oocysts. The selenium and polyphenolic content in green tea was reported to deactivate the enzymes that enhance the sporulation of coccidial oocysts [51, 52]. The leaves of *Carica papaya* (pawpaw) also hinder coccidial oocysts [53, 54].

### *2.2.3 Antibiotics and alternatives in poultry production*

Antibiotics are synthetic or natural compounds that are usually administered orally, topically, or parentally in humans and animals for the control and treatment of diseases [55]. The use of antimicrobial agents is dated back to the 1950s [56]. The administration in medicine has been found to be very impactful [57]. The prophylactic and therapeutic effects of antibiotics improve growth in livestock production [58]. There are some antibiotics that act as growth promoters; they are applied at low subtherapeutic levels to decrease or control the population of bacteria in livestock [59]. Clostridium, salmonella, and mycoplasma bacteria cause huge losses, which affect the profit margin in poultry business [56, 60, 61].

Researchers are poised to proffer credible alternatives to the use of antibiotics in poultry production with the aim of reducing or eliminating the residues in animal products and consequently its effect on human health [62–64]. The alternatives to be used in place of antibiotics should not be toxic to the animals, easily eliminated from the body and biologically available to the animals. The public health as well must not be at risk and environmentally friendly [64, 65]. There is an array of possible alternatives to the use of antibiotics in livestock production, and they include probiotics,

### *Workable Alternatives to Conventional Inputs in Poultry Farming DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110199*

enzymes, phytogenic feed additives, and bacteriophages [66–68]. Phytobiotics are compounds extracted from the plant that improve the growth and performance of the animals. It is a useful alternative to antibiotics [66, 69]. The constituents in the phytobiotics are made of active organic compounds that could prevent or limit antibiotic resistances [70].

Certain secondary metabolites, such as polyphenols and polypeptides, are produced during the plant's metabolism; they have antimicrobial agents and exhibit immunomodulatory activities making them suitable phytobiotics that are used as feed supplements in poultry production [71, 72]. Phytobiotics promote growth, reduce stress in the chickens, and boost their immune system [73]. They also aid the activities of the intestinal microbiota, improve the uptake of nutrients, and prevent subclinical infections in poultry [74, 75].

### *2.2.4 The use of essential oil as an alternative to antibiotics*

There are plants identified as important antibiotic growth promoters in poultry production [69]. Some herbs, spices, and essential oils have bioactive compounds and the method of processing engaged determines their effectiveness [76]. There are different parts of the plants that are used for the extraction of essential oils. Essential oils are natural, aromatic, and volatile oily fluids produced from the plants [77]. The combination of essential oils with other plant extracts from lemon grass, *Oreganum aetheroleum*, *Oregano* and thyme, carvacrol and thymol, garlic and *Oregano* oil, cinnamaldehyde and thymol, *Allium sativum, Echinacea purpurea,* and *Ocimum basilicum* oil is effective against parasites and bacteria. They have antioxidant properties and are used as growth promoters. Some essential oils exhibit antimicrobial activities against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, yeast, and mold as presented in **Table 1** in the comprehensive review on essential oils as green alternatives to antibiotics [78].

### **2.3 Alternative litter materials**

There is need for considering other useable bedding materials for commercial poultry production in view of the high demand for wood shavings and saw dust as raw materials in some industries. The credible alternatives for consideration are those that have the ability to absorb moisture, relatively cheaper, and readily available. Maize cobs, rice hulls, and peanut hulls have been found to be useful in bridging the gap except for newspapers that is usually recycled but could be used where available [79].

### *2.3.1 The use of rice hull as litter material*

Rice hull is produced from paddy rice during processing. It constitutes about 25% of the rice paddy [80, 81]. Rice hull is a complete waste as the disposal is usually a challenge in rice milling farms. This has necessitated its use for consideration as an alternative litter material for wood shavings and saw dust [82, 83]. The inclusion of rice hulls in poultry feed is limited because of the high silica and lignin content making it available for use as bedding material [84].

### *2.3.2 The use of corn cob as litter material*

Corn is rated the highest cereal crop produced globally with a value of about 875 million tons annually [85]. Maize cob is a residue produced during the processing of corn grains. The by-product accounts for about 200 kg per ton of grains threshed [86]. The use of corn cob is limited for use as building material and activated carbon [87, 88]. Maize cobs constitute more environmental problems in areas where corn is produced commercially [89]. The cellulose and hemicellulose content in maize cob is high except the lignin content that is low [90]. The ability for corn cob to absorb moisture makes it a high good bedding material for use in poultry [91, 92].

### *2.3.3 The use of shredded newspapers as litter material*

Newspaper is found to be useful as litter material, and despite the availability of soft copies, there is still a substantial availability of hard copies. In areas, where not recycled, it is a good source of bedding material in poultry [93, 94]. The decomposition of paper is fast following its ability to absorb moisture [95]. The use of newspaper as litter material is not associated with any health impediment as it is free from dust, disease pathogens, and contaminants. Lien et al. [96] reported the need for newspapers to be processed into chips or smaller pieces in order to improve its ability to hold moisture and enhance evaporation.

### *2.3.4 The use of peanut hulls as litter material*

The world's peanut produced was estimated to be 40 million tons as at the year 2015 [97]. The projected peanut hulls are 10 million tons amounting to 25% of the world's production having variable quantities of threshed kernels [98, 99]. In countries, where peanut is cultivated commercially, the hulls are usually discarded and allowed to decompose thereby making it suitable for different purposes [100].

## **3. Conclusion**

In countries, where there is competition between man and livestock for conventional feed, especially poultry, certain practices could be engaged to enable the farmers make optimum profit due to the escalating prices of the feedstuff. Since the first 4 weeks or starter phase is critical in broiler production, farmers can feed *ad libitum* using quality conventional feed ingredients for feeding the birds to boost their growth. As the birds attain the finishing phase, the major feedstuff, especially the energy source, can be replaced with proven novel feedstuff that is readily available provided the phytochemicals, or secondary metabolites are treated below the levels they can exert detrimental effect on the performance of the animals such as soaking and sun drying for cassava peels. The use of protein feedstuff for birds at the finishing phase in broilers or even in layers is lower compared to energy source. Therefore, sesame seed cake to a level of 10–12% will not compromise the quality of the feed. For the laying hens, 20–60% cassava grits can conveniently be used in replacing maize in the diet of layers in the plateau or declining phase without affecting the performance of the birds. Residues from sorghum can equally serve as an energy source in poultry. Agro-industrial by-products, such as wheat offal, corn bran, and rice offal, could be included in the diet of broiler turkey to a level of 15% in the feed formulation. Some plant extracts having antiparasitic agents, such as onion, garlic, mint, *C. papaya* leaves, and flax seed, contain therapeutic effects against coccidiosis in poultry. In the same manner, some essential oils from *Oreganum aetheroleum,* mixture of *Oregano* and thyme, garlic and oregano, cinnamaldehyde and thymol, carvacrol and thymol,
