*3.11.1 Agapanthus-africanus (L)*

South African Xhosa tribes revere the *Agapanthus-africanus* for its magical powers according to their indigenous knowledge. *Agapanthus-africanus* is brewed and consumed by pregnant women in their third trimester to help with birth, in the belief

**Figure 12.** Celtis Africana Burm.f*-http://pza.sanbi.org/celtis-africana.*

that this will make the child strong and healthy, the newborn is further bathed in a similar concoction on the first day.

The Zulu nation, culturally use *Agapanthus-africanus* to treat flue, paralysis, heart conditions, coughs, chest problems (such as tightness or pains), tired feet (when the plaited leaves are applied as a bandage to the feet) and colds. Significantly, the *Agapanthus-africanus* (including the roots) is considered poisonous to humans, making all these applications rather intriguing given the associated risk [60].

If the clear sticky sap is ingested, symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, as well as severe mouth ulceration. When the sap comes into contact with your skin, it can cause burning, irritation, and rashes [61].

#### *3.11.2 Solanum aculeastrum Dunal*

*S. aculeastrum. Dunal (Solanaceae)* is used in traditional medicine to treat various human and animal diseases, specifically stomach disorders and various cancers, in the Eastern Cape, South Africa [11].

A scientific study found that the medicinal use of these plant, on the other hand, poses significant health risks [62]. Berry extracts were nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, haematotoxic, and fatal at higher doses, according to research into the plant's safety. Another source of concern about the plant's safety is its extracts' non-selectivity in inhibiting carcinoma, actively dividing and un-dividing cells [62, 63]. The effect of processing on the efficacy and safety of the berry as a herbal IV remedy yielded conflicting results [62, 63]. The extract's anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity appeared to improve with processing while its cytotoxic potential appeared to decrease. However, processed extracts were found to be less toxic than fresh extracts. Effect of processing on the efficacy and safety of *Solanum Aculeastrum Dunal* berries [62, 63].

Another study performed on the risk assessment found that the overall changes in biochemical parameters caused by the various extracts of *S. aculeastrum* berries at the different doses suggested that the normal functioning of these organs may be compromised. However, drying and boiling the berries may reduce their toxicity [13]. That is why is important for the indigenous knowledge people need to improve their understanding on the safeness of this plant and it less toxic dose.

#### *3.11.3 Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br*

The study done on male rats as part of the clinical trisls found that the effects of the aqueous extract of *L. leonurus* leaves on hematological, liver, and kidney functional indices suggest that the extract has parameter and dose-selective effects and will have consequences on the normal functioning of the animals' blood system, kidney, and liver [17]. When consumed daily for 21 days at the low doses, the extract is also unlikely to predispose the animals to cardiovascular risk. As a result, the aqueous extract of *L. leonurus* leaves was not 'safe' as an oral remedy in male rats [17]. High level of caution should be practised when traditional healers used and recommend this herb to their people.

#### *3.11.4 Hypoxis argentea Harv. Ex baker*

The study done on *Hypoxis argentea* Harv. ex Baker found that the acclaimed anti-diabetic effects of *H. argentea* could be mediated by its promotion of glucose utilization and preservation of pancreatic beta cell populations while preventing fat accumulation in adipocytes [64].

#### *3.11.5 Euphorbia ingens E. Mey. Ex Boiss*

If the latex from this tree is consumed, it can cause severe skin irritation, blindness, and severe illness in both humans and animals. If used correctly, it can be used as a purgative or to treat ulcers. The Basotho and Venda people in South Africa are said to use it as a cancer cure [65].

#### *3.11.6 Raphionacme hirsuta (E. Mey.) R.a. dyer*

*Raphionacme hirsuta (E. Mey.) R.A. Dyer and Cheilanthes contracta have been used in African anticancer medicines. In some rodent test-systems, extracts of these plants demonstrated antitumor activity [32]. While the tuberous roots are used in the production of alcoholic beverages, the plant is also said to be poisonous [66].*

#### *3.11.7 Lassertia frutescense (L.)*

Traditionally, S. frutescens has been used to treat fever, wounds, cancer, diabetes, kidney and liver problems, rheumatism, and stomach ailments [67]*. Sutherlandia capsules are commercially available and have been used with apparent positive clinical results in two health facilities in Kwazulu-Natal and the Northern Cape for outpatients living with AIDS* [68].

The safety efficacy of *Lassertia frutescense* was tested on healthy adults, and the results revealed no significant differences in general adverse events, cardiovascular, central nervous system, gastrointestinal tracts, infection, allergy, malaise, or most physical, hematological, biochemical, or physiological parameters (P > 0.05). Subjects who consumed *L. frutescens*, on the other hand, reported greater appetite than those in the placebo group (P0.01). Although the treatment group had a lower respiratory rate (P0.04), a higher platelet count (P0.03), MCH (P0.01), MCHC (P0.02), total protein (P0.03), and albumin levels (P0.03) than the placebo group, these differences were within the normal physiological range and were not clinically significant [69]. Canavanine, an *L. frutescens* biomarker, was undetectable in subject plasma. In general, healthy adults tolerated 800 mg/ day *L. frutescens* leaf powder capsules well [69]. This indicate that *Lassertia frutescense* can be safely used for human consumption with no adverse events on the patients.

#### *3.11.8 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims*

*P. viridiflorum Sims* was discovered in a scientific study to be used in traditional medicine to treat tuberculosis, inflammatory disorders, wounds, veterinary ailments, gastrointestinal, sexually transmitted diseases, kidney, circulatory, and malaria. [70]. Toxicological effects have also been reported from this species, that's why safety should be carefully considered when using this herb. Compound(s) with antimalarial, anticancer and acaricidal properties have been isolated from *P. viridiflorum* [70]. There is enough scientific evidence on pharmacological and phytochemical properties of *P. viridiflorum* which gives credibility to the use of this plant species against various diseases in African traditional medicine [70].

#### *3.11.9 Knowltonia capensis (L.) Huth*

It was found that when fresh leaves and roots are eaten, a white crystalline compound which is enzymatically changed to a highly toxic oil with an acrid taste that produces the blistering [71]. Traditionally the smoke from burning leaves is inhaled for headaches [71]. These plants' leaf poultices are commonly used in traditional medicine to treat wounds, external cancers, and rheumatism. To relieve toothache, the roots of *Anemone knowltonia* can be applied directly [71].

#### *3.11.10 Celtis Africana Burm.f*

The bark extracts of *Celtis Africana Burm.f* have been used as pain-killers, fabrifuges, and during malnutrition, while the leaf extracts was used for the treatment of the eyes infection and pulmonary troubles [72].

Medicinal plant remedies play an important role not only in the treatment of cancer, but also in the treatment of chronic ailments such as hypertension and many others by lay people in rural South Africa. A clear scientific report suggests that there must be awareness on the risks associated with the concurrent use of conventional medication and medicinal plants. Even though this chapter brought both sciences and tradition knowledge together, there is a clear need to educate health practitioners and patients about the potential risks of using both prescribed western drugs and medicinal plants to avid contraindication [73].

## **4. Conclusions**

This chapter brings together traditional knowledge and science to discuss how indigenous plants are widely utilized in South Africa to treat cancer and diseases associated to cancer. The chapter acknowledges the contribution of indigenous knowledge to the body of knowledge to dispel the misconception that African epistemologies are less developed. When the hard sciences and soft social indigenous knowledges are combined, the vertical and horizontal knowledge become less mysterious and less colonized. The plants are common in the many climatic regions of the nation; some are drought-resistant plants that thrive in the provinces of the Western, Eastern, and Northern Cape as well as some parts of KwaZulu-Natal, with differing chemical and genetic compositions in each of these geographical locations. Extensive scientific research is being conducted on the safety, quality, and efficacy of this medicinal plant to validate traditional claims, identify bioactive constituents, and conduct clinical trials. This has created a unique situation in which traditional knowledge and science meet to provide insight into these popular plants as well as safety advice to traditional healers. The chapter demonstrated the relationship between science and indigenous knowledge of traditional healers, local knowledge of people who care for the sick, product development, and the global innovation agenda as it relates to these plants. This chapter demonstrates that there is a growing understanding of phytomedicine and traditional medicines that can potentially be used to treat cancer patients. In selecting plants for cancer treatment, our forefathers' innate knowledge demonstrated true predictions, and our traditional healers should also understand that not all plants and plant parts are safe for human consumption. This chapter demonstrated how a convergence of vertical hardcore sciences and horizontal non formal curriculum indigenous knowledge can contribute to a new decolonized world in which African pedagogies and transformation

discourse in society will be permitted. Collaboration between traditional healers and scientists clearly improved understanding of the use, preparation, therapeutic potential, and pharmaceutical make-up of these medicinal plants in the treatment of cancer. In this way, traditional knowledge, and science meet in novel and unexpected ways.
