**6. Ethnoveterinary practices and indigenous chicken disease management**

#### **6.1 Ethnoveterinary practices used**

Smallholder farmers use several EVPs in indigenous village chickens' health management. The EVPs products used are mainly based on plants, herbs, combination of modern products with plants and other traditional practices. **Table 2** and **Figure 2** display different EVPs products used in the treatment of indigenous village chicken diseases from both literature and the empirical data. It the empirical study, farmers in Vhembe district used mainly natural occurring EVPs as one or in combination with other modern products or conventional medicines to treat and control indigenous village chicken diseases. As show in **Table 2**, these include *Capsicum frutescens [*Chilies or Peri -Peri]; *Aloe vera*; [*Mushikili*]; [Musero]; Sunflower cooking oil; Hot water; Ashes (*Mopani Musese)* - African black wattle, [*Muunga*] *Acacia nigriscen* & [*Munanaga*] - Monkey thorn); Magazine (paper); Potassium permanganate, and locally available washing powder. Among the EVPs, Aloe species were the most utilized medicinal plants in managing chickens' ailments. Most commonly, plants or herbs like chilies and Aloes were crushed, soaked in water and applied orally i.e. given to chickens as a drink or in drinking water. Similarly, ashes used as firewood at home composed of *Mopani, Acacia mearnsii* [African black wattle; *Musese*], *Acacia nigriscen* [*Muunga*] & *Acacia galpinii* [Monkey thorn, *Munanaga or Tshikwalo*] were soaked in water and given to chickens as a drink or in drinking water.

The reviewed literature showed similar results to the findings of the empirical study. From literature, the EVPs comprised of botanical or herb families like Mimosaceae (*Parkia sp*.), Caesalpiniaceae [*Cassia sp*.]; Euphorbiaceae [*Euphorbia sp*.], **No Ethnoveterinary Practice product Source & Harvesting Technique Parts used Preparation & Application methods Therapeutic Value/ Ailment STUDY 1: EMPIRICAL DATA** 1 Aloe [*Aloe Vera*] In the bushes. Harvested by plucking out the whole or half Leaves • Dried, Crushed, fluid squeezed, mixed with salt and soaked in water for chickens to drink • Crush fruit, mix with donkey feaeces in drinking water • Crushed leaves mixed with pepper (fresh) and ashes • Crushed mixed with grinded fresh garlic and neem leaves Diarrhea, Newcastle and Duck disease. 2 Chilies [Peri -Peri] Grown at home. The whole fruit is plucked out and used Whole Fruit Crushed and mixed with water for chickens to drink Diarrhea [*Kwingi*], Newcastle 3 [Mushikili] Found in the bushes. Leaves are collected and used Leaves Soaked in water for chickens to drink Preventative 4 [Musero] Grown at home and found in the bushes. Wholesome leaves are collected and used Leaves Soaked in water for chickens to drink Diarrhea [Kwingi] 5 Sunflower cooking oil Bought from the shops N/A Put oil in the palm or deep the finger in the oil and directly apply onto the location of disease-causing parasite Parasites 6 Hot water Normal tape or river water. N/A Pour water in the chicken house to kill lice [Thatha] and Mice [Vhulive] (diseases causing parasites) Parasites 7 Ashes Firewood from various trees such as Mopani Stems/ trunk Mix it with water apply on the area infested with parasites Diarrhea [Kwingi], Newcastle and Duck disease 8 Magazine (paper) N/A N/A Burnt and the ash mixed with water for

chickens to drink

*Ethnoveterinary Practices for Indigenous Poultry Health Management by Smallholder Farmers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108912*


*Ethnoveterinary Practices for Indigenous Poultry Health Management by Smallholder Farmers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108912*



**Table 2.** *Literature review.*

Solanaceae [*Capsicum sp*], Cucurbitaceae [*Lagenaria sp*.]; [*Meliaceae*] (*Khaya sp*.); Anacardiaceae [*Mangifera sp*.]; *Liliaceae* (Aloe sp.); and Agavaceae [*Agave sp*.]. Herbs and plants used could be categorized into bulbs, rhizomes, fruit, leafy and ash based on medical plants like Onion (*Allium cepa*); Turmeric [*Curcuma* sp.]; Chillies [*Capsicum annum*]; Paw-paw or Papaya [*Carica papaya*]; and *Mopani*, respectively. Herbs such as [*Rutachalepensis*] Rutacceae and [*Phytolaccadodecandra*] Phytolaccaceae were used as a whole plant. The reviewed and empirical researched list of herbs and other EVPs is not exhaustive.

*Ethnoveterinary Practices for Indigenous Poultry Health Management by Smallholder Farmers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108912*

**Figure 2.** *Ethnoveterinary practices used to control and treat indigenous village chickens' ailments.*

#### **6.2 Preparation**

Farmers prepared EVMs variedly depending on the nature and type of the EVP. Identified EVMs were mainly soaked in water and given to chickens to drink. Moreover, some herbs were combined with a number of elements and thereafter soaked in water for chickens to drink. For example, in some instances Aloe was crushed, and mixed salt, donkey feaeces, fresh pepper, neem leaves, ashes or garlic and then soaked in water for chickens to drink. In the empirical study, farmers mixed Aloe with potassium permanganate and gave to chickens as part of the drinking water. Also, onion and garlic are mixed with either aromatic ginger, brown sugar, vegetable oil, or garlic and given with feed to chickens.

#### **6.3 Therapeutic value**

Majority of EVPs were used as a preventative measure, immune boosting and for healing purposes in multiple chicken ailments. This was observed in both the empirical data and the reviewed literature. For example, Aloe was used to prevent and cure ailments such as diarrhea, Newcastle, depression, and duck disease. Similarly, Onion [*A. cepa*], Garlic [*Allium sativum*]; and Turmeric [*Curcuma sp*.] treat multiple respiratory diseases such as avian Influenza, and snot [*Infectious Coryza*]. Equally, Chillies [*Capsicum annum*], Oleaceae [*Oleaeuropaea capenesis*] and Rhamnaceae [*Rhamnusprinoides*] all treat depression.

#### **6.4 Herbs and medicinal plants sustainability**

The two studies conducted also reviewed issues of sustainability in relation to the EVPs. In relation to the herbs and medicinal plants, harvesting techniques, availability, parts used/harvested, regeneration, afforestation, reafforestation, and conservation were observed in both literature and the empirical studies. Herbs used were either

found and harvested from the bushes or they were grown at home. Herbs like *Aloe*, and *Mopani* were generally harvested in the bushes. Moringa is harvested in the bushes and also grown at home for medicinal purposes for both animals and humans. In many cases, fewer tree leaves are harvested used to treat and control diseases. Aloe as the most used medicinal plant was harvests by either removing the entire leaf or by cutting the required size. The number of chickens a farmer has determines the size of the leaf to be harvested and this was also done for conservation purposes. Some plants especially fruity ones like chilies are used in whole (**Table 2**). Other EVPs are by products. For instance, sunflower oil and donkey feaeces are mixed with Aloe and used.

The sustainability of these elements depends on the primary industry like farming (sunflower & donkeys). Furthermore, firewood ashes used are products of old and drying trees. Thus, the sustainability of ashes depends on the continued adherence to traditional practices of vegetation conservation. The reviewed literature does not show how each herb or EVP is sourced. However, evidence from literature shows that while most plants are harvested in the bushes, preservation and their conservation is emphasized in practice through community ostracism, secrecy and restrictions. For example, only certain members of the community or family are permitted to harvest these herbs. Also, some herbs are a family secret while others are harvested in the night. The scarce the herb is, the higher level of protection with measures such as secrecy. Surprisingly, there is no evidence both in literature and the empirical study of attempts to preserve these plants or herbs by engaging in mass production. Privacy and secrecy are rather preferred as a preservation measure. It is also evident that most herbs used are scarce and need to be protected, cultivated and/or conserved for their future sustainability.

#### **7. Dosage and contraindications**

Literature revealed that there is no specific dosage and contraindications for different methods used in indigenous chicken health management. For instance, in the empirical study farmers indicated that depending on the number of chickens at home, different *Aloe* leaf sizes are cut, crushed and put in water for birds to drink. In some instances, the entire leaf is used. The dosage accuracy is further made difficult by the fact that most EVP practices are administered to the entire flock once the disease is suspected or when controlling diseases without systematical measured dose. This was also the case, with other herbs like *Moringa oleifera*, *C. papaya* (Papaya), *C. frutescens* (chillies) and other EVPs. Moreover, some medicine is secretly used or hidden from the general population due to cultural reasons, hence the dosages remain unknown. This is as well linked to maintaining the intellectual property rights of the community or knowledge holders. Farmers also claim that their EVPs are risk free and have no negative side effects to the health of animals. These results present an opportunity for further investigations on the actual recommended dosage ideal for a treating a particular ailment, mechanism of action, risks or contraindications associated with different herbs and other traditional medical practices.

#### **8. Weakness and strengths of** *ethnoveterinary practices*

The results show that majority of farmers relied on EVPs to manage poultry ailments. For example, an earlier study in the same area. A study reported that most

#### *Ethnoveterinary Practices for Indigenous Poultry Health Management by Smallholder Farmers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108912*

farmers use herbs, plants and other traditional practices as EVMs for poultry in the area [14]. Also, in Zimbabwe it was found that over 95% of communal farmers do not use veterinary services but preferred indigenous knowledge systems in controlling or treating poultry ailments [30]. The high cost of drugs and services was cited as prohibitive by farmers. There are farmers who believe that veterinary health services aim to destroy livestock in the event of disease outbreaks. It is why, farmers do not seek assistance from extension services. Ethnoveterinary Practices perform well to a reasonable spectrum of common symptoms and conditions such as septicemia, diarrhea, wounds, colds, worms, and reproductive disorders. Evidently, EVPs cure several bacterial diseases like coccidiosis, mycobacteriosis, plague and a wide spectrum of coliform diseases.

The practice of EVP is popular in rural farmers and it lags in its development, commercialization and knowledge transfer. Another reason for this was secrecy of the practice and absence of information in the gray literature. The weakness of EVPs is they fail to treat and control epidemic or endemic infectious diseases. For instance, foot and mouth disease, rinderpest, anthrax, and acute life-threatening bacterial diseases. Their popularization creates diversity of habitat shocks in semi-arid woodland and savanna habitats. This chapter presents an evidence-based EVPs practices especially medicinal plants. The inventory also opens opportunities for herbs and traditional practices commercialization and opening further inroads into new poultry drugs development in managing birds' ailments. Intellectual property rights of the knowledge holders needs to be respected for them to benefit. Cultivation of species most at risk is an agri-business opportunity and a chance to know, conserve, manage and protect endangered herbs. Research on right soils and conditions for growing these important poultry herbs is needed to optimize their collection and sustainable use. It is also worth noting that EVPs are not universally recognized as a valid method for disease treatment and control. Variations occur from region to region as well as within communities. Additionally, the decision for the ailment is based on trial and error and deliberate experimentation. The results show that while there are similarities, EVPs are less systematic and formalized. There are also new opportunities for researchers to further validate, document and acknowledge EVM in South Africa and other tropical countries.

#### **9. Conclusions**

Herbs, medicinal plants and traditional practices identified control a wide spectrum of poultry diseases such as diarrhea, wounds, coccidiosis, respiratory diseases and reproductive disorders. The chapter revealed that there are a variety of herb species and other traditional practices used by farmers in indigenous village chicken disease management. It is evident that several medicinal plants are reliably and safely used to treat poultry ailments. However, the same are less effective in epidemic or endemic infectious diseases like foot and mouth disease, rinderpest, as well as anthrax. In most countries including South Africa legal registration of these botanical products is not yet a major hurdle or requirement for their promotion. Farmers, thus have incentives to commercialize or trade the knowledge on poultry health management without many challenges. The observed herbs and traditional medicines, offer viable alternative health care options that are environmentally friendly, safe and affordable for farmers. Also, these herbs could be used to produce alternative less harmful conventional medicine if further investigations such as laboratory tests are conducted. There are still major gaps in the EVPs practices such as standardization of the practices. For example, there is no specific dosage for most ailments, chickens are treated collectively, and harmful effects or risks involved in the use of EVPs are yet to be scientifically studied. Lastly, medicinal plants are also not grown at large scale to support their sustainability rather farmers rely on their natural occurrence in the environment. Moreover, the knowledge is hidden to the few members of the community mainly household heads and knowledge holders. This means EVPs are at risk of extinction. Hence, to preserve EVPs with their beneficial health alternatives to chicken health management, their sustainability should be prioritized. This forms part of efforts of the fight against climate change and negative effects of conventional medicines to the environment and human health. Nonetheless, IP rights must be observed for communities and knowledge holders to benefit from the commercialization of the plants, as custodians of the indigenous knowledge.
