**2.** *Taenia* **life cycles**

**Figure 1** depicts the human *Taenia* spp. life cycle. *T. asiatica* and *T. solium* use the pig as an intermediate host (IH), while *Taenia saginata* uses cattle as an IH. In the small intestine of intermediate hosts, the enveloping structures of taeniid eggs undergo digestion. Subsequently, the oncospheres enter the host's circulation, eventually navigating to their intended target organs via the intestinal membrane. When humans accidentally consume these eggs, namely those of *T. solium*, they can encyst in various tissues (cysticercosis), with a particular affinity for the brain, resulting in NCC. The clinical features of NCC vary depending on the parasites' location, quantity, maturation, regression phases, and the host's immunological response.

#### **Figure 1.**

*T. saginata, T. asiatica, and T. solium life cycles.*

The scolex of the parasite will evaginate and attach to the mucosa of the duodenum-jejunum if an individual eats uncooked or semi-cooked pork or beef with live cysticerci. Gravid proglottids are passed naturally or via bowel movements 8–12 weeks after infection. Eggs consumed by pigs or cattle are broken down into their embryophoric structures, and the oncospheral membrane is digested by bile and enzymes. It takes around 12 weeks for cysticerci to develop in a pig's skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and brain. These cysticerci will continue reproducing until the pigs are slaughtered for at least a year. *T. saginata* cysticercus has a limited life history, as shown by the calcification of its cysticerci in mature cattle. The cysticerci
