**3. Soil erosion models**

Several theoretical frameworks emphasize the significance of protracted (whether natural or geological) erosion in shaping the topography. A multitude of erosion models has been devised to gauge the potential outcomes of expedited soil erosion or soil erosion stemming from anthropogenic actions [47]. The phenomenon of tillage erosion is frequently neglected by models, and the development of soil erosion models is more commonly observed in agricultural landscapes rather than in naturally vegetated areas such as forests or rangelands. The preponderance of erosion models concentrates solely on the phenomenon of soil erosion due to water, whereas some other models center their attention exclusively on the issue of erosion at mining locations [48]. The fundamental aim of the majority of soil erosion models is to predict customary levels of soil depletion (frequently an annual mean rate) within a given area *via* the utilization of diverse land management practices such as a plot, a field, or a catchment/watershed [49]. Some models used to predict erosion are founded on statistical principles, whereas other models rely on mechanical or physical principles [50]. The Water Erosion Prediction Project erosion model (WEPP) and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) represent two of the most widely utilized soil erosion models in North America [51]. The majority of mine land erosion research focuses on setting up or improving RUSLE parameters. Gully erosion is frequently excluded from soil erosion models because it is challenging to forecast these essential erosional features [52].
