*2.2.1 Water erosion*

This sort of soil erosion, as its name implies, is brought on by water and denotes the removal of topsoil as a result of precipitation, snowmelt, floods, or improper irrigation.

**Figure 2.** *Type of soil erosion.* As a result, it can happen as a result of farming activity or extreme weather. Water is more destructive on bare land and during periods of heavy rain or melting [18].

### *2.2.2 Wind erosion*

Another reason for erosion is dust storms, which have become more frequent in recent years, especially in arid areas. When the earth is level, acceptable, and dry, erodibility increases; nevertheless, hills reduce wind force and make it more difficult to remove rough and heavy particles [19].

### *2.2.3 Anthropogenic soil erosion*

This typically happens as a result of anthropogenic forces, and both direct and indirect human activity can cause soil erosion. For instance, mining and quarrying have an immediate impact. The topsoil is impacted by unsustainable management in indirect ways, which aggravates agricultural and forest standing erodibility [20].

#### **2.3 The risks of soil erosion**

More than just the loss of fertile land is a consequence of soil erosion. It has resulted in increased sedimentation and pollution in streams and rivers, blocking these waterways and resulting in a fall in fish populations and other species. Degraded areas are also frequently less able to retain water, which can make floods worse [21].

#### **2.4 Mechanisms for erosion**

Detachment (from the ground), movement (by water or wind), and deposition (frequently in areas where we do not want the soil such as streams, lakes, reservoirs, or deltas) are the three processes involved in erosion [22].

#### **2.5 Reason for soil erosion**

The following factors are significant contributors to soil erosion:

#### *2.5.1 Rainfall and flooding*

Four different types of soil erosion are brought on by rainstorms of greater intensity: Sheet and rill erosion, sheet erosion, gully erosion, and splash erosion. In locations with extremely heavy and frequent rainfall, a sizable amount of soil is lost because rainfall drops scatter the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby rivers and streams. Running water during floods also obliterates a tremendous amount of soil by creating holes, rock-cut basins, etc. [16].

#### *2.5.2 Agriculture*

Soil erosion is mostly caused by agricultural practices. The ground is disturbed by agriculture. To plant new seeds, the trees are cut down, and the ground is plowed. The land is left fallow during the winter because the majority of the crops are grown in the spring. During the winter, the earth erodes the most. Tractor tires also leave grooves in the ground that operate as a natural waterway. Wind erosion removes fine soil particles [16].

### *2.5.3 Grazing*

Grazing animals consume the grasses on the land and clear it of its flora. The dirt is disturbed by their hooves. Additionally, they remove plants from the roots. As a result, the soil becomes more permeable to erosion [23].

## *2.5.4 Logging and mining*

The logging process necessitates the removal of multiple trees. Trees firmly hold the soil in place. The forest cover protects the soil from intense rain. The leaf litter that protects the soil from erosion is also removed during logging. Additionally, mining activities harm the ecology and increase soil erosion risk [24].
