*3.1.9 Risk assessment of soil erosion*

Despite the potential cost of collecting field data for risk assessments at elevated levels, it remains a crucial factor in the formulation of efficacious policies and strategies concerning the conservation of soil and water resources [121]. The technological progress in geographic information systems (GIS) and satellite imagery provides practical avenues for surveying, classifying, identifying, and tracking land use and soil at diverse levels. In numerous research endeavors, models aimed at evaluating soil erosion have been established and executed through the utilization of satellite data and geographic information system (GIS). Remarkably, it has been disclosed that these models are at times more efficacious and accurate in detecting and linking the peril of soil erosion compared to field survey data. This, in turn, confers invaluable insights for resource management and soil conservation planning [122]. Overall, the assessment of soil erosion employs both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Despite the availability of measures for approximating soil erosion volumes and rates, the determination of the severity of the risk is conducted qualitatively. The methodology utilized in qualitative evaluation encompasses a broad spectrum of techniques such as picture categorization [123], index linking [124], photo analysis [125], field research statistics [126], and photo interpretation. The soil erosion risk map is produced through the utilization of the index coupling procedure, which is a qualitative evaluation technique that utilizes remote sensing images and GIS [127]. The aforementioned methodology has been demonstrated to be a plausible and economically feasible approach for gauging the likelihood of erosion [128, 129]. Several quantitative techniques, such as USLE, RUSLE, CORINE, PESERA, and WEPP, employ methodologies for constructing models [130–133]. The determination of the average annual soil loss per unit area of soil over a prolonged period can be ascertained through the utilization of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), a widely employed and uncomplicated soil erosion model [134]. Additionally, the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has been established as a novel technique that integrates current data, which supersedes the USLE approach [92]. There exists alternative, less commonly utilized methodologies for appraising soil erosion depletion, including the collaboration of data on the environment (CORINE) model, which was derived from a USLE model for assessing the erosion vulnerabilities and attributes within the member states of the European Union (EU) [135]. The PESERA model, designed to predict long-term average erosion rates at a 1 km resolution, has been predominantly adopted by a large portion of Europe [136]. The water erosion prediction project (WEPP) computational model is an uninterrupted, simulation-based, and distributed parameter framework for soil erosion prediction that is equivalent in status to the USLE and RUSLE models [137]. However, the authentication of qualitative erosion models presents obstacles due to the requirement for extensive proof, fresh resources, and the preparation of qualified personnel [138].
