*3.1.6 Soil erosion using the RUSLE model*

Satellite-based remote sensing and the utilization of geographic information systems (GIS) are indispensable instruments in the evaluation of soil erosion in spatial contexts. This is due to their remarkable ability to extract, identify, and modify land features, as well as their seamless integration with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) [83, 89–91]. The RUSLE model exhibits extensive usage and has an extensive record of validation. It is noteworthy that its limitations have been thoroughly established [92, 93]. African soil erosion rates have been predicted and assessed in a number of studies using RUSLE, with a focus on highlands and river basins [94–96]. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of research on identifying possible erosion and simulating the danger of soil erosion in built-up metropolitan settings [97–99]. In contemporary times, noteworthy progressions in urban planning and the mitigation of soil erosion have demonstrated that land managers and policymakers hold a greater degree of significance toward the spatial distribution of soil erosion risk as opposed to the factual values for soil loss [100].
