**3. The livelihood utilization of traditional vegetables in Tanzanian rural communities**

The livelihood of Tanzania's rural communities depends on agricultural activities. Jackson et al. [21] used indicators of livelihoods capitals namely; natural, physical,

human, social and financial capitals to determine status of agrobiodiversity. There is a wide range of vegetable crops grown in different parts of Tanzania [22]. The poor households rely mostly on TAVs for production and consumption. Approximately 40% of farmers are involved in cultivation of TAVs, of which 25% are relatively large scale farmers [23]. The share of both marketed and non-marketed TAVs in total house- hold income is on average, nearly 13% indicating significant contribution to overall household incomes Weinberger and Msuya [23], ATVs have rapid canopy expansion rates which allow them to accumulate vegetative biomass within a short period. This guarantees food and nutrition security. The ATVs have ability to grow all year round in warm subtropical environments and have co-evolved adaptive mechanisms to ensure broad adaptation to drought. Some species has a remarkable recovery rate after exposure to a prolonged drought. Most TAVs come into production within a short time after the first rains, and harvesting commences three to six weeks after emergence. Chepkoech et al. [24] found a high correlation between adaptive capabilities to climate change and five livelihood capitals. In their study, Berg et al. [25] noted that human capital was built by critical thinking, innovation, confidence and quality of life; social capital by mutual trust, bonding, collective action, networking and emancipation; natural capital was enhanced by improved field practices, food production, agricultural diversification and food security while financial capital by increased income and profits, savings and loan schemes. The framework described by Kissoly et al. [26] (**Figure 1**) show that livelihood assets directly affect agrobiodiversity and food security status of a particular community. Understanding how livelihood assets affects utilizations of traditional vegetable agrobiodiversity will enable establishment of policies that will be community specific thus result to expected outcomes.

#### **3.1 Natural capital**

The livelihood of rural populations of farmers and pastoralists relies on natural resources and ecosystem services to a greater extent [25]. Subsistence farmers in environments too adverse to support high yielding crop and livestock varieties rely on wide range of crop and livestock types [27]. Barbier, [28] reported that rural communities which depend on ecologically fragile environments face a vicious cycle of declining livelihoods, increasing ecological degradation and loss of resource commons as well as declining ecosystem services on which they depend. Therefore, in the context when yields for major crops go rancid globally, marginal crops could increase yields and food security and encouraging environmental sustainability [29].

Tanzania is among the regions rich in diversity of traditional vegetables particularly of wild species in Africa [30]. The study by Keller et al. [31] found considerable variation in richness of traditional vegetable diversity across different agroecologies of Tanzania although analysis showed even distribution.

#### **3.2 Social capital**

Social capital yields a flow of mutually beneficial collective action which serves as the basis for enhancing sustainable resource management to improve productivity, equity and the environment in farming communities [32]. A study by Jackson et al. [21] suggest that although social capital is not strongly associated with natural capital in agrobiodiversity management, it goes hand in hand with human capital such that individual knowledge of social–ecological system by maintaining dynamic set of social norms and institutions that support ecological intensification. Kessy et al. [33]

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional African Vegetables Agrobiodiversity – Livelihood Utilization… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109070*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Conceptual framework of relationship between livelihood asset, agrobiodiversity and food security. Source: Kissoly et al. [26].*

reported that socio-demographic characteristics such as age, sex and educational level of head of household affect perception of traditional vegetables and thus utilization, other factors being size of household. Lambrou and Laub, [27] proposed understanding gender sensitivity in livelihood roles as an important approach of devising solution for conservation of biodiversity and alleviate poverty. The authors argued that, depletion of natural resources and decreasing agricultural productivity place additional burden on women's work and health while impede their participation in decision making processes and income generating activities.

#### **3.3 Physical capital**

High physical capital coupled with financial capital supported agricultural intensification hence food security [21]. TAV species despite having the potential to improve dietary requirements of households in Tanzania, 30% - 40% of the produce is lost after harvest due to inadequate handling skills, poor infrastructure, lack of appropriate processing technology and poor market information, lack of storage facilities and supporting system [33, 34]. Musebe *et al*., [35] recommended that it is necessary to provide processing and market infrastructure to the processors of African indigenous vegetables. Owusu and İşcan, [36] estimated the likelihood of market participation of farms in Tanzania to be 41% and probability of a farm transition from subsistence to commercial is 30%, the authors argued market participation of a farm is highly influenced by land size, labour use and mechanization such that a unit increment increase likelihood of market participation by 5%.

#### **3.4 Human capital**

Training farmers in modern production techniques, quality control and standardization of selling unit as well as linking them to the market will open up market outlet of traditional vegetables [11]. Chepkoech et al. [24] associated high indicator of human capital such as farming experience, educational attainment of the household head, percentage of adults with primary education, type of training on farming, technical assistance, and access to climate information with capabilities to cope with environmental changes in crop production. Women dominate the traditional African value chain in sub – Saharan Africa from production to marketing thus improving traditional African vegetables is improving and the livelihood of resource-poor women [37].

#### **3.5 Financial capital**

Developing countries in general and Tanzania in particular exhibit inconsistence relationship between economic growth, rate of poverty reduction and nutrition outcome despite positive agricultural growth [38]. **Figures 2** and **3** show that the rate of declining poverty headcount ratio is relatively slow compared to the rate of increasing GDP per capita in Tanzania. This may be attributed to the need to shift in labour out of agriculture and into industry and service in order to diversify sectoral production [39], the author noted the fall of agricultural employment share from 72% in 2015 to 46.9% by 2030. However, agricultural sector will continue to be the backbone of many developing countries, hence, there is an urgent need for financial support to vulnerable small scale farmers whose livelihood depends on subsistence farming.

Growing vegetables for sale have been a reliable source of alternative income in many households in both rural and urban areas while offer dietary diversity from wide range of nutrients. Traditional African vegetables have been equally important nonetheless, however, in addition to many other challenges, lacking financial support at most if not any point in value chain of traditional vegetables limit growth of the sector and in turn household livelihood. A study by Ambikapathi et al. [40]

**Figure 2.** *Poverty headcount ratio.*

**Figure 3.** *GDP per capita from 2014 to 2017. Source: NBS [22].*

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional African Vegetables Agrobiodiversity – Livelihood Utilization… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109070*

showed that only 3.3% of green leafy vegetables are sold in formal market and 26.8% and 58.0% are sold semi-formal and informal respectively in urban regions of Tanzania suggesting even lower percentage of formal vegetable marketing in rural areas.
