**2. Volunteers as human resources in emergencies and disasters**

Disasters are becoming more frequent and more severe, which has an increasingly detrimental impact on human life and the environment. Additionally, it is becoming more challenging to predict and manage the effects of disasters due to various factors, including the growth in human population, technological advancements, greenhouse gas emissions, excessive consumption habits, destruction of forest areas, and inappropriate use of land. Therefore, studies on disaster risk management are the main emphasis of the integrated disaster management system that is employed in the majority of countries. However, it is clear from past disasters that governmental resources alone were insufficient to manage disasters in the nations where the disaster happened. For instance, the cascading disasters that occurred in 2011 in Japan, which has one of the greatest models for disaster management, resulted in almost 22,000 fatalities, and the country went through its worst crisis since the Second World War [31]. At this point, emergency and disaster management organizations require both human resources and modern technologies in addition to a strong institutional structure. In summary, human resources are one of the crucial components of the integrated disaster management system.

Dynes' classification of these structures in his "Organized Behavior in Disaster" study [32] is the most well-known when it comes to the organizational structures associated with emergencies and disasters. In this classification, which provides a valuable framework for comprehending the various categories of emergency and disaster volunteers [12], there are four types: Type I *(established organizations)*, Type II *(expanding organizations)*, Type III *(extending organizations)*, and Type IV *(emergent organizations).* Type I organizations perform regular tasks within existing structures, such as police forces routing traffic in the affected area when the disaster occurs in a region or the firefighting personnel responding if a fire has occurred. Type II organizations are often formed due to a community or organizational planning and perform regular tasks. Examples of these organizations are the Red Cross and the Red Crescent. These organizations are defined as organizations that carry out humanitarian aid activities other than disaster events and undertake various tasks in disaster situations. Type III is defined as organizations that undertake non-regular work. These organizations are not expected to participate in emergency and disaster responses but can operate in the crises in their area of expertise. For example, in an emergency and disaster, a sports club or a faith group may mobilize its members to distribute clothing and food to people in the affected area, or a logging company may send the machines and their staff for post-disaster debris removal work [12]. Although Type III organizations can work in coordination with Type I and II organizations, they do not operate under the effective control of these organizations. Finally, Type IV organizations perform non-regular tasks as Type III and generally assist affected people before Type I and II organizations reach the affected area. This group is the group that is not included in the official emergency and disaster management systems, has a lack of

information about disaster responses, and makes the first response in matters such as search and rescue and first aid.

In the most general sense, volunteering is defined as "any activity in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group, or organization" [33]. Types of volunteering in the literature are broadly considered as formal and informal. Formal volunteering is considered as the activities carried out actively through a formal organization or government program, while informal volunteering is defined as the activities carried out without the umbrella of a formal organization or government [10]. Regarding emergencies and disasters, it is possible to see that volunteering is classified differently [34, 35]. Shaskolsky [34] discussed volunteering in disaster situations in four forms. According to these:

	- a.Those who help a regular emergency and disaster organization;
	- b.Those who are in an ad hoc organization formally created to deal with specific disasters;
	- c.Before the disaster, those who use an organization not related to disasters for disaster assistance;
	- d.Those who respond to disasters as part of an informal group.

Volunteers play a crucial role because of the uncertainty of the effects of emergencies and disasters that occur today and the limited capacity of nations to respond. For instance, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies reported that their organization's *"disaster response and early recovery program"* had a reach of 650.2 million people in 2020 and that they had roughly 14.9 million volunteers [36]. In 2018, more than 12.7 million Canadians (aged 15 and over) officially spent 1.6 million hours for charities, nonprofits, and community organizations. This number was said to be equivalent to about 858,000 full-time jobs [37]. This shows that volunteering increases social cohesion and is a significant labor and economic resource for societies.

Volunteers typically perform a variety of tasks in the wake of emergencies and disasters, including search and rescue operations, technical assistance, and psychological support [8, 13, 38, 39], and they can offer support to those affected outside the local area, mainly through social media, with materials that the society may require and fundraising campaigns. As previously mentioned, these volunteer efforts for people affected by emergencies and disasters is carried out by expanding organizations or spontaneous volunteers.
