**4.4 Tsunami**

A tsunami is a type of wave that can strike any coast and can be generated in oceans, inland seas, and any large body of water. They are most common in Asia, the Pacific islands, and the United States West Coast, but experts say that seismic activity under the Atlantic Ocean could also trigger tsunamis on the East Coast. The last documented tsunami on the East Coast was in Canada in 1929. Tsunamis are most frequent in the Pacific Ocean's "Ring of Fire" (98%), the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea (9%), the Mediterranean Sea (6%), the Indian Ocean (1%), and other seas (1%). Throughout history, tsunamis have occurred from approximately 1.4 million years ago (in Hawaii) to the present day (in Mexico on September 19, 2022). They can be caused by earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic activity. Tsunamis have caused damage and deaths in coastal areas worldwide. Some of the deadliest tsunamis in the world from 1900 to 2022 are the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami and the 2011 Tōhoku Japan Tsunami.

From 1900 to 2022, a total of 39 major tsunami events occurred worldwide. These tsunamis resulted in 266,629 deaths, affected 10,709,690 people, and caused direct economic losses of 334,985,586,000 US dollars (as shown in **Table 1** and **Figure 2**). The countries with the highest number of tsunami events in the world during this time period were Indonesia and Japan in the Asia continent.

#### **4.5 Extreme temperature**

Extreme weather or climate events include unusual or severe weather patterns that deviate from historical norms. These events can include heat waves, cold waves, and tropical cyclones, resulting in significant economic costs, loss of life, and ecosystem changes [7]. Extreme events are often based on a weather pattern recorded at a location and are defined as being in the most unusual 10%. [8]. The most important extreme weather types include heat waves, cold waves, and tropical cyclones. The effects of extreme weather events are reflected in increasing economic costs, loss of life, drought, flooding, landslides, and ecosystem changes.

From 1900 to 2022, 255 extreme temperature events occurred globally, causing 165,880 deaths, impacting 101,216,729 people, and resulting in direct economic losses of 109,314,953,000 US dollars. The continents with the highest frequency of these events include Asia, Europe, and North America, with India, the United States, and France having the highest frequency of events.
