Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges

*Mariyam Ouaissa, Mariya Ouaissa and Zakaria Boulouard*

#### **Abstract**

The rapid advancement in technology has significantly impacted the field of communication, particularly with the evolution of wireless technology. Among these developments, Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communications have emerged as a pivotal technology for intelligent transportation systems (ITS). This innovation facilitates a network wherein vehicles communicate with each other and their surroundings, sharing vital information about traffic conditions and potential hazards. This network is instrumental in enhancing traffic management through route optimization and congestion control, while also enriching passenger experience with on-board infotainment options. Designed with a focus on road safety and passenger comfort, V2X networks are equipped with advanced on-board sensors capable of detecting various scenarios such as road accidents, traffic congestions, and other obstacles. This chapter delves into the intricate details of vehicular communications, exploring their architectures, characteristics, applications, and governing standards. Furthermore, it elucidates the concept of communication security within these networks, outlining the existing models of attackers, classifications of attacks, and fundamental security mechanisms. The comprehensive overview aims to shed light on the critical aspects of securing vehicular networks in the ever-evolving landscape of communication technology.

**Keywords:** ITS, V2X, RSU, IDS, security services, attacks

#### **1. Introduction**

In response to evolving transportation demands, traditional transport management technologies are proving to be less effective. Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of integrating intelligent transportation systems (ITS) into infrastructure to meet future transportation needs cost-effectively [1]. ITS, utilizing advanced wireless communications and localization systems, are set to pave the way for innovative solutions that foster interactions among drivers, vehicles, and the road environment [2]. This concept is further enhanced by the advent of autonomous on-board devices augmented with wireless communications, leading to the rise of the "connected vehicle" paradigm. This new approach in intelligent transport systems focuses on enhancing road traffic safety and efficiency through wireless communications.

Connected vehicle communications, known as V2X, includes wireless interactions such as Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I), Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), and hybrid communication forms [3].

Being distributed systems, vehicular networks encounter numerous security and privacy challenges, primarily because the data transmitted are exposed in an open-access environment. In particular, to fulfill the core objectives of V2X, especially in road safety applications, it is imperative to have robust security measures in place to facilitate the smooth functioning of V2X systems [4]. Absent these measures, V2X systems risk is being exploited for compromising security and disrupting traffic management [5]. Consequently, there is an urgent need for more effective strategies to safeguard the security and privacy of these networks against potential attacks, with a focus on protecting the confidential information of drivers and passengers [6].

This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of contemporary advancements in both research and the establishment of standards pertaining to the security and privacy elements in Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication. The goal is to offer a comprehensive synopsis of vehicular communication systems, highlighting their structural designs, distinctive features, various applications, and associated standards. Subsequently, the discussion shifts to the principles of secure communication as implemented in vehicular networking. To conclude, an examination of security within these networks is undertaken, encompassing the exploration of potential attacker profiles, categorization of different types of attacks, and an introduction to fundamental security protocols.

This chapter is structured as following: Section 2 provides a broad overview, focusing on the primary components and architectures integral to vehicular communications. Following this, the distinct features of these systems are elaborated in Section 3, while Section 4 is dedicated to discussing their various applications. The standards governing vehicular communications are then detailed in Section 5. Moving on to Section 6, the paper addresses the various challenges associated with vehicular communications. Section 7 delves into the realm of network security, discussing the existing models for potential attackers, classifications of different types of attacks, and the fundamental security mechanisms in place. The paper concludes with a final section that synthesizes the key points and findings.

#### **2. Components and architectures of vehicular networks**

The implementation of vehicular networks is essential, particularly with the integration of V2X technology. This technology is notable for its adaptability to fluctuating network topologies, allowing nodes to seamlessly join or leave the network without compromising its overall functionality or diminishing its performance [7]. These networks are characterized by their autonomous and self-organizing attributes, functioning as wireless communication systems where vehicles serve as mobile nodes. In this setup, vehicles are equipped with On-Board Units (OBUs), facilitating not only inter-vehicle communication but also interactions between the vehicles and the Road Side Units (RSUs). This dynamic communication framework is instrumental in enhancing the efficiency and efficacy of modern transportation systems [8].

*Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

#### **2.1 Communicating entities**

#### *2.1.1 On-Board Units*

An On-Board Unit is a wave device typically installed within a vehicle. It serves the primary function of facilitating information exchange between different OBUs or with Road Side Units. Comprising a combination of advanced hardware and software components, such as Global Positioning System (GPS), radar, cameras, and various sensors, the OBU represents a hub of high-tech integration in vehicular communication systems. Central to its design is a transceiver, which typically includes a radio frequency antenna connected to a processor. This sophisticated arrangement enables the OBU to perform its critical role in vehicular networks, ensuring efficient and effective communication across different nodes within the system.

#### *2.1.2 Road Side Unit*

Road Side Units, similar to OBUs, are composed of an antenna, a processor, and read/write memory. These units are equipped with both wired and wireless interfaces to facilitate diverse communication needs. The wireless interface is primarily used for communication with vehicle OBUs, enabling direct interactions between the vehicle and the roadside infrastructure. On the other hand, the wired interface is utilized to establish connections with other RSUs and the Internet, thus ensuring a broader range of connectivity.

Additionally, RSUs play a crucial role in expanding the coverage area of OBUs by transferring data, effectively enhancing the communication network's reach and reliability. Strategically installed along roadways, RSUs are commonly found in key locations such as near intersections and gas stations. This placement is instrumental in maximizing their effectiveness in transmitting and receiving vital information, thereby significantly contributing to the overall efficiency and safety of vehicular networks.

#### *2.1.3 The central authority*

The central authority is the pivotal entity in managing vehicular networks, serving as the network's backbone and acting as a data storage server. Its primary responsibilities encompass the comprehensive management of the entire network, which includes the registration of RSUs, OBUs, and vehicle users. This role is crucial for maintaining an organized and efficient network.

In addition to these administrative duties, the central authority is also tasked with ensuring the secure operation of Vehicle-to-Everything communication. This involves verifying vehicle authentication, as well as the identification of both users and OBUs. Such verification processes are essential for preventing any potential harm or damage to vehicles within the network.

Moreover, the central authority is equipped with specialized mechanisms designed to identify potential attackers. This capability is vital for safeguarding the network against various security threats, thereby maintaining the integrity and reliability of vehicular communications. By fulfilling these roles, the central authority plays a key role in ensuring the smooth and secure functioning of the vehicular network ecosystem.

#### **2.2 Communication architectures in V2X**

The primary objective of a Vehicle-to-Everything architecture is to facilitate seamless communication within the vehicular network [9]. This includes enabling interactions not only between vehicles but also between vehicles and stationary road infrastructure [10]. The communication framework in V2X encompasses three key modalities:

#### *2.2.1 Vehicle-to-Vehicle communication*

Vehicle-to-Vehicle communication is centered around the wireless exchange of data directly between vehicles. The primary aim of V2V communication is to enhance road safety by enabling vehicles in transit to share critical information such as their position, speed, emergency braking actions, potential collisions, and deceleration instances. This direct form of communication allows for real-time data exchange, which is crucial for preventing accidents and improving the overall safety of vehicular traffic.

One of the key advantages of V2V communication is its efficiency in multi-hop ad-hoc communication, which often proves to be more effective than relying on a network facilitated by operators. In multi-hop ad-hoc communication, data can be transmitted from one vehicle to another in a relay-like manner, allowing for a wider range of communication without the need for a fixed infrastructure.

**Figure 1** illustrates this mode of communication, demonstrating how vehicles can communicate with each other directly. This depiction would show the flow of information between vehicles, highlighting the dynamic and decentralized nature of V2V communication. Such a system is instrumental in creating a more responsive and interconnected vehicular network, where each vehicle acts both as a transmitter and a receiver, collaboratively contributing to a safer driving environment.

#### *2.2.2 Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communication*

Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communication refers to the method where multiple vehicles communicate with a range of roadside devices that are integral to a country's road network. This mode of communication involves various types of infrastructure units, such as radio frequency identification (RFID) readers, traffic signs, cameras, traffic lights, street lights, and parking meters. These devices play a critical role in providing

**Figure 1.** *Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication.*

*Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

vehicles with essential information about the road environment, traffic conditions, and other relevant aspects.

The V2I communication technique is predominantly wireless and bidirectional. This means that the data transfer occurs in both directions: infrastructure units can easily transmit information to vehicles via a wireless network, and vehicles can similarly send information back to these units. This two-way communication allows for a dynamic exchange of information, enhancing the overall efficiency and safety of the transportation system.

**Figure 2** demonstrates how this communication between vehicles and infrastructure takes place. It would typically illustrate the flow of information from various roadside devices to the vehicles and vice versa, showcasing the interconnected nature of V2I communication. This visualization helps in understanding how V2I technology facilitates a smarter, more responsive road network, where the infrastructure and vehicles work in synergy to optimize traffic flow, reduce congestion, and improve road safety.

#### *2.2.3 Hybrid communication*

Hybrid communication in the context of vehicular networks is a comprehensive approach that integrates the capabilities of both Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communication. This combination allows for a more versatile and far-reaching communication network within the vehicular ecosystem.

In a hybrid communication setup, a vehicle has the ability to interact with road infrastructure using either single-hop or multi-hop modes. The single-hop mode involves direct communication between the vehicle and the infrastructure, while the multi-hop mode allows for the transmission of data across multiple vehicles or infrastructure points, effectively extending the communication range. This versatility enables vehicles to maintain long-distance connections, not only with the Internet but also with other vehicles that might be located at significant distances.

**Figure 3** illustrates this hybrid communication model. It would typically depict how vehicles can seamlessly switch between or combine V2V and V2I communication modes, thereby facilitating a more connected and efficient network. This figure likely shows the flow of information between vehicles and infrastructure units, and possibly between vehicles themselves, highlighting the interconnected nature of hybrid communication. Such a system enhances the potential for improved traffic management, road safety, and overall user experience by leveraging the strengths of both V2V and V2I communication.

**Figure 2.** *Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication.*

**Figure 3.** *Hybrid communication.*

#### **3. Characteristics of V2X**

In the following, we will delve into a range of characteristics intrinsic to vehicular networks that are pivotal to consider when devising new solutions. These considerations are crucial for ensuring compliance with and effectively meeting the requirements of Vehicle-to-Everything standards. These characteristics encompass various technical, operational, and regulatory aspects that are fundamental to the successful implementation and functionality of V2X systems. By thoroughly understanding and addressing these characteristics, proposed solutions can be more accurately tailored to fit within the framework of V2X standards, thereby enhancing the efficiency, safety, and overall effectiveness of vehicular networks [11].

#### **3.1 High mobility and dynamic topology**

Vehicle-to-Everything systems are distinguished by their dynamic nature, primarily due to the vehicles constantly changing their positions and speeds. This rapid and frequent mobility results in a highly dynamic network topology, presenting unique challenges for maintaining stable and effective communication.

The swift movement of vehicles not only affects the structure of the network but also has a significant impact on wireless signal quality. High speeds can lead to fluctuations in signal strength, potentially resulting in packet loss or increased communication delays. These challenges are further compounded by varying traffic conditions. In urban areas, for instance, the density of vehicles can lead to congested networks, while on highways or in rural areas, the dispersion of vehicles creates a different set of communication dynamics.

Such variability in vehicle density and mobility patterns necessitates robust and adaptive communication systems within V2X networks. Solutions must be capable of handling the rapid changes in network topology and signal quality to ensure consistent and reliable communication, essential for the safety and efficiency of vehicular networks.

#### **3.2 Availability of geographic location**

In Vehicle-to-Everything systems, many geographic protocols operate on the premise that each vehicle is equipped with a positioning system integrated into digital

#### *Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

maps. This integration is crucial for the effective functioning of these protocols, as it allows each vehicle to be aware of its precise location at any given time.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most widely utilized positioning technology in vehicular networks. Its popularity stems from its ability to provide realtime, three-dimensional positional data, including latitude, longitude, and altitude. Additionally, GPS systems are capable of delivering accurate information about the vehicle's direction and speed.

This precise location and movement data are fundamental to the V2X communication framework. They enable vehicles to make informed decisions based on their immediate environment, contributing to safer and more efficient navigation. The integration of GPS with digital mapping technologies thus forms a cornerstone of modern vehicular network systems, underpinning various safety and navigation applications within the V2X ecosystem.

#### **3.3 Mobility models**

In vehicular network systems, the mobility model plays a crucial role in assessing the behavior and performance of various protocols. This model is pivotal as it simulates real-world vehicular movement patterns and conditions, allowing for a more accurate evaluation of network protocols within a V2X context.

To effectively reflect real-world conditions, the mobility model must account for various factors that influence vehicular movement. These include variations in speed, the presence of traffic lights, intersections, and the occurrence of traffic jams. Incorporating these elements helps in creating a more realistic simulation environment, which is essential for accurately predicting how protocols will perform in actual vehicular network scenarios.

The process of defining an appropriate mobility model begins with a clear understanding and identification of the test scenario environment. This involves considering the specific characteristics of the environment where the vehicular network will operate, such as urban settings with dense traffic and frequent stops or highway scenarios with higher speeds and fewer interruptions. By tailoring the mobility model to these specific conditions, it becomes possible to more accurately assess the efficacy and reliability of various V2X communication protocols under realistic conditions. This approach ensures that the protocols developed are robust and capable of handling the complex dynamics of real-world vehicular networks.

#### **3.4 Energy and storage capacity**

In Vehicle-to-Everything networks, the nodes—which include both On-Board Units in vehicles and Road Side Units—are well-equipped in terms of energy and computing power. This abundance of resources allows these nodes to effectively handle storage and processing tasks without significant limitations.

A key factor contributing to this capability is the lack of constraints on energy consumption for V2X nodes. OBUs, installed in vehicles, draw their power directly from the vehicle's own power supply, ensuring a steady and reliable energy source. This direct power supply allows OBUs to perform their functions without being hindered by energy conservation concerns typically faced by battery-powered devices.

Similarly, RSUs, which are installed as part of road infrastructure, are powered directly by the road platforms. This setup provides a stable and continuous energy source, allowing RSUs to operate efficiently and maintain consistent communication with passing vehicles.

The robust computing power and unfettered energy access of these V2X nodes ensure that they can effectively manage the demands of processing, data storage, and communication, which are critical for the smooth functioning of vehicular networks. This lack of energy constraints is a significant advantage, as it allows for more complex computations and longer operation times, leading to more reliable and efficient vehicular communication systems.

#### **3.5 Quality of Service requirements**

In Vehicle-to-Everything systems, the Quality of Service (QoS) requirements are highly diverse and depend greatly on the specific type of service being provided. Different applications within V2X demand varying levels of QoS to function effectively, particularly when it comes to real-time applications.

Real-time applications, especially those related to road safety and traffic management, have particularly stringent QoS requirements. These services necessitate guaranteed access to communication channels to ensure timely and reliable transmission of critical information. The nature of these applications means that any delay or disruption in communication could have serious consequences, making reliability and responsiveness top priorities.

Key among these QoS parameters are the requirements for end-to-end delay and packet loss rate. End-to-end delay refers to the time taken for a packet of data to travel from the source to the destination. For road safety applications, this delay needs to be minimized to ensure that vehicles can respond to dynamic road conditions in real-time. Similarly, the packet loss rate—the rate at which data packets are lost during transmission—must be kept as low as possible. High packet loss rates can lead to incomplete or inaccurate information being received, which is unacceptable in scenarios where safety-critical decisions are being made.

Therefore, in V2X communication, ensuring that these QoS requirements are met is crucial for the successful operation of real-time applications related to road safety and traffic management. This involves sophisticated network management and robust communication protocols that can prioritize and handle such critical data efficiently and reliably.

#### **4. Applications of vehicular communications**

V2X networks have been primarily developed with the goal of enhancing traffic safety and efficiency, primarily by minimizing the risk of road accidents. This overarching objective leads to the classification of V2X applications into two key categories based on their primary focus: security and efficiency. However, it's important to recognize that safety and effectiveness in V2X applications are not mutually exclusive concepts; instead, they are interconnected and often influence each other.

The aspect of security in V2X applications encompasses measures and protocols aimed at preventing accidents, ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of data, and protecting the network from various cyber threats. This safety aspect is crucial, as it directly impacts the well-being of the vehicle occupants and other road users.

On the other hand, efficiency in V2X applications refers to optimizing traffic flow, reducing congestion, and enhancing the overall driving experience. This includes

#### *Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

intelligent traffic management, route optimization, and real-time traffic information dissemination, all of which contribute to smoother and more efficient road travel.

While these two categories can serve as a basis for classifying V2X applications, it's essential to approach their design by considering both safety and efficiency together, along with other factors like user experience, scalability, and environmental impact. Integrating these considerations ensures that V2X applications not only address immediate safety concerns but also contribute to a more sustainable, efficient, and user-friendly transportation ecosystem. This holistic approach in the design and development of V2X applications is crucial for maximizing their benefits and ensuring their long-term success in improving road safety and transportation efficiency [12].

#### **4.1 Security applications**

The primary objective of safety applications within Vehicle-to-Everything networks is to prevent and decrease the occurrence of road accidents. These applications fall under the category of delay-sensitive applications, where minimizing communication delay is crucial for effective operation.

To achieve reduced delay, safety applications in V2X predominantly utilize V2V communication. This direct form of communication between vehicles is faster and more efficient in disseminating critical information in real-time. In the event of an accident, the involved vehicle can instantly broadcast information about the hazardous situation to nearby vehicles. This immediate transmission of data allows approaching vehicles to become aware of the danger ahead in time to take necessary precautions or alter their routes.

Another essential requirement for these safety applications is reliability. It is vital that all vehicles in proximity to the potential danger are reliably informed of the situation. This ensures that every driver in the vicinity has the opportunity to react appropriately, thereby significantly enhancing road safety. The effectiveness of these safety applications hinges on their ability to consistently deliver accurate and timely warnings to all relevant parties, underscoring the importance of both speed and reliability in V2X safety systems.

#### **4.2 Traffic management applications**

V2X services extend beyond the realm of road safety, encompassing a broad spectrum of applications, particularly in the area of traffic management. These applications are designed with a focus on enhancing the efficiency of traffic flow and optimizing travel routes. By doing so, they contribute significantly to reducing the time vehicles spend on the road, which in turn leads to decreased fuel consumption and a reduction in air pollutants.

Traffic management applications within V2X systems utilize real-time data and advanced communication technologies to analyze traffic patterns, identify congestion points, and suggest alternative routes. This proactive management of traffic helps in alleviating congestion on busy roads and highways, leading to a smoother flow of vehicles. The ripple effects of these improvements are manifold, including a more pleasant driving experience, reduced wear and tear on vehicles, and lower emissions due to less idling and stop-and-go traffic.

An additional, yet crucial benefit of these traffic management applications is the potential reduction in road accidents. By effectively managing traffic flow and reducing congestion, the likelihood of accidents caused by traffic jams and the associated frustration or aggressive driving behaviors is significantly diminished. This not only contributes to overall road safety but also aids in creating a more sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation ecosystem.

Thus, V2X services, through their diverse range of applications, play an integral role in shaping a more efficient, safer, and cleaner transportation system, extending their impact well beyond just road safety.

#### **4.3 Comfort or entertainment applications**

The primary aim of many V2X applications is to enhance the comfort and convenience experienced by drivers and passengers. These applications offer a variety of services that cater to the informational and entertainment needs of those on the road. Examples include providing route information, locating available parking spots, ensuring internet connectivity, and offering a range of multimedia services such as messaging, gaming, and access to various radio channels.

One of the key aspects of these applications is the provision of Internet access, which is typically achieved through Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communications. This connectivity allows vehicles to tap into a wide array of online services, essentially bringing the full spectrum of business services into the vehicle environment. Such access transforms the vehicle into a mobile office or entertainment hub, enabling passengers and drivers to remain productive or entertained throughout their journey.

Furthermore, file sharing and video streaming services can be facilitated via Vehicle-to-Vehicle communications. This feature is particularly beneficial during long journeys, as it allows passengers to stream videos or share files with other vehicles, thus making travel more enjoyable and less monotonous.

Overall, these applications significantly contribute to a richer, more connected, and enjoyable driving experience. By integrating these diverse services, V2X applications are redefining the concept of travel, transitioning it from a routine task to an enjoyable and productive experience, enhancing both comfort and convenience for all road users.

#### **5. Vehicular communication norms and standards**

In this section, we present the norms and standards of communication in V2X [13].

#### **5.1 Dedicated short-range communication**

The U.S. Department of Transportation recognizes Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) as a pivotal technology for vehicular communications. DSRC is characterized by its ability to facilitate two-way wireless communications over short to medium ranges, with a strong emphasis on supporting high data transmission rates. These capabilities are especially critical for communication-based security applications within vehicular networks.

Originally developed in the United States under the aegis of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), DSRC has been specifically tailored to meet the needs of vehicular communications. The system is designed to support a communication range of between 300 and 1000 meters, which is optimal for the types of interactions typical in vehicular environments. In terms of data transfer capabilities,

*Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

DSRC boasts data rates ranging from 6 to 27 Mbps, accommodating the high data requirements of modern vehicular applications. Additionally, it is capable of supporting vehicle speeds of up to 190 km/h, ensuring reliable communication even at high speeds.

DSRC operates in the frequency band of 5.850–5.925 GHz, which amounts to a total bandwidth of 75 MHz. This bandwidth is strategically divided into seven channels, each 10 MHz wide, with an additional 5 MHz guard band positioned at the lower end of the spectrum. This allocation and organization of the frequency band are key to DSRC's efficiency, allowing for robust and reliable communication that is essential for the safety and efficiency of vehicular networks. The careful design and standardization of DSRC make it a critical component in the infrastructure of modern intelligent transportation systems.

#### **5.2 IEEE 802.11p**

The IEEE 802.11p standard, an initiative by the IEEE working group, was introduced specifically to cater to Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE). This standard is a modification of the conventional IEEE 802.11, with enhancements designed to support intelligent transportation systems applications.

One of the key aspects of IEEE 802.11p is its utilization of Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA), a functionality derived from the IEEE 802.11e standard, which is instrumental in improving the quality of service in vehicular communications. EDCA is particularly effective in prioritizing communication, especially for security-related messages that are deemed high priority. This prioritization is essential in ITS applications where timely delivery of critical information can significantly impact safety and efficiency.

The prioritization mechanism in EDCA works by varying the Arbitration Inter-Frame Spaces (AIFS) and the Contention Windows (CW). By adjusting these parameters, high-priority messages are given precedence over other, less critical messages. This system ensures that important security messages have a higher likelihood of being transmitted promptly, which is crucial for maintaining real-time communication in vehicular networks.

Additionally, IEEE 802.11p structures channel access time by dividing it into repetitive synchronization intervals, each typically lasting 100 milliseconds. This structured approach aids in maintaining regular communication patterns and enhances the overall efficiency and reliability of data transmission in vehicular environments.

Through these adaptations, IEEE 802.11p significantly enhances the capability of vehicular networks to handle the unique demands of ITS applications, ensuring that vehicles can communicate effectively and safely in a variety of scenarios.

#### **5.3 WAVE protocol**

The Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment (WAVE) architecture is a comprehensive suite of standards specifically designed to define the communication stack in Vehicle-to-Everything environments. WAVE plays a crucial role in enabling the real-time exchange of traffic messages between Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communications. The primary objectives of WAVE in a transportation scenario are to enhance security, improve traffic management, and reduce congestion, thereby facilitating a more efficient and safer driving experience.

In the context of WAVE, Road Side Units within a vehicular network are typically equipped with dual interfaces. One interface is dedicated to the WAVE stack, which is responsible for handling the specific communication requirements of the V2X network. The other interface is designed for external connections, such as Ethernet, which provides access to broader networks like the Internet. This dual-interface approach allows RSUs to effectively manage both internal vehicular communications and external data exchange.

Similarly, On-Board Units in vehicles also feature two types of interfaces under the WAVE architecture. The first is dedicated to the WAVE communication stack, enabling the OBU to participate actively in the V2X communication network. The second interface is used for connecting to various sensors and for facilitating human interaction, such as through user interfaces or display systems within the vehicle. This arrangement in OBUs ensures that they can not only communicate efficiently with other vehicles and infrastructure but also process and interact with data from vehicle sensors and provide information to the driver or passengers.

Overall, the WAVE architecture's design, with its dual-interface approach for both RSUs and OBUs, is integral to the functionality and effectiveness of V2X networks. It ensures that vehicular communication systems are versatile, capable of handling complex interactions within the network while also maintaining connectivity with external systems and user interfaces.

#### **6. Challenges of vehicular networks**

The vehicle network faces a large number of challenges in order to provide reliable services [14].

#### **6.1 Data management and storage**

The advent of large-scale vehicular networks, potentially comprising millions of vehicles, brings with it the prospect of generating vast quantities of distributed data. This surge in data creation within Vehicle-to-Everything networks presents a unique set of challenges, particularly concerning data management.

One of the primary issues arising from such large-scale networks is the sheer volume of data that needs to be stored and managed efficiently. Vehicular networks, with their multitude of connected vehicles, will produce data at an unprecedented scale. These data can encompass everything from traffic conditions and vehicle performance metrics to environmental data and user preferences. Managing these data effectively is crucial to ensure that it can be used to enhance traffic safety, improve navigation, and facilitate better overall management of transportation systems.

Additionally, the dynamic nature of vehicular networks adds another layer of complexity to data management. The data in V2X networks are not static; they are constantly being updated and changed as vehicles move and interact with their environment. This dynamism requires a flexible and robust data management system capable of handling continuous updates, high-speed data exchanges, and the realtime processing demands of a constantly changing network.

The challenges of managing data in large-scale, dynamic V2X networks thus call for innovative approaches. These might include advanced data processing techniques, cloud computing solutions, edge computing architectures, and sophisticated algorithms for data storage, retrieval, and analysis. The goal is to develop a data management system that is not only scalable to handle the massive influx of data but also agile enough to adapt to the network's dynamic properties. Such a system is key to unlocking the full potential of V2X networks, enabling them to contribute significantly to the evolution of intelligent transportation systems.

#### **6.2 Quality of Service**

Quality of Service is fundamentally defined as a collection of requirements that a network must fulfill during the transmission of data packets from their origin to their destination. In the realm of Vehicle-to-Everything communications, ensuring QoS is particularly challenging, despite ongoing efforts to optimize bandwidth and improve message latency.

The challenge of supporting QoS in V2X environments arises from the diverse range of applications these networks support, each with its own unique set of QoS requirements. For instance, real-time applications commonly found within V2X systems are inherently delay-sensitive. These applications, which often include safetyrelated communication like collision warnings or emergency vehicle notifications, require rapid and reliable data transmission to be effective. Any significant delay in the communication could potentially lead to ineffective warnings or responses, undermining the primary purpose of these applications.

Consequently, ensuring QoS in V2X networks involves not just the optimization of bandwidth to reduce latency but also encompasses a broader set of parameters such as reliability, packet loss, and jitter, which are critical for the smooth functioning of various V2X applications. Different applications may prioritize these parameters differently based on their specific requirements. Therefore, managing QoS in V2X networks requires a nuanced approach that can adapt to the varying needs of different applications while maintaining the overall efficiency and reliability of the network. This adaptability is key to the success of V2X systems in enhancing road safety, traffic efficiency, and driver convenience.

#### **6.3 Routing**

Designing dynamic routing protocols for vehicular networks presents a significant challenge, primarily due to the highly mobile and ever-changing nature of these networks. The key objective of these routing protocols is to efficiently disseminate information from one node (vehicle) to another, adapting to the dynamic conditions of the network. However, several critical issues need to be addressed to achieve this effectively [15].

One of the main challenges is minimizing the delays in transmitting information across the network. In the context of V2X, where vehicles are constantly moving and network topologies are frequently changing, ensuring timely delivery of data is crucial, especially for safety-critical applications. Delayed information can be less relevant or even useless, making it imperative to develop routing protocols that can swiftly handle data transfer between nodes.

Another important consideration is the reduction of control overheads. Control overhead refers to the additional network traffic generated by the routing protocol itself (such as route discovery and maintenance messages), which can consume a significant portion of the network's bandwidth. High control overheads can lead to network congestion and reduced efficiency, particularly in dense vehicular

#### **Figure 4.** *Routing protocols types in V2X.*

environments. Therefore, it is essential to design routing protocols that are not only efficient in data handling but also minimalistic in their own bandwidth usage.

The routing protocol for V2X must be robust enough to cope with the unpredictable and dynamic nature of vehicular network topologies. It should be capable of rapidly adapting to changes such as varying vehicle speeds, different traffic densities, and changing network structures. This requires the protocol to be highly flexible and responsive, with the ability to make real-time adjustments based on current network conditions [16].

Topology-based protocols are classified into three categories: proactive, reactive, and hybrid. For the proactive protocol, the routing table is updated by the nodes by inserting the information of new routes into the network. Hello packets are sent periodically to transfer data to neighboring nodes. This effect creates substantial control overhead and limits the use of available bandwidth. For the reactive approach, updates are sent only when needed, which reduces control overhead substantially. However, this approach still has overhead such as route maintenance. The overhead created in the reactive protocols helps to discover the paths to send the information. Hybrid protocols are considered as a new innovation and discovery made by researchers. This approach focuses on network design architecture more than performance analysis and improvement (**Figure 4**).

In summary, the development of an effective dynamic routing protocol for V2X involves balancing the need for rapid and reliable information dissemination with the constraints of network bandwidth and the dynamic characteristics of V2X. Achieving this balance is key to the successful implementation and performance of vehicular ad-hoc networks.

#### **7. Security in vehicular networks**

Security in vehicular networks is crucial because it affects people's lives. In fact, it is essential that transmitted messages cannot be modified or deleted by malicious nodes. Additionally, information about vehicles and their drivers must be secure and protected. Therefore, to ensure the smooth operation of intelligent transportation

systems, appropriate security mechanisms must be implemented. In this section, we focus on V2X security in general, presenting the basic aspects and mechanisms of security in V2X [17].

#### **7.1 Characteristics and challenges of V2X security**

The characteristics and functionalities of V2X pose certain challenges that may affect the application of security approaches to establish secure communications in V2V and V2I [18].

#### *7.1.1 Mobility*

The high mobility of nodes in vehicle networks leads to a highly dynamic network topology, presenting unique challenges in vehicular communication systems. One of the key issues stemming from this dynamic nature is the difficulty nodes face in consistently recognizing their neighbors. This challenge can be exploited by attackers, who may seize the opportunity to create and distribute false topology information within the network.

Attackers, by disseminating inaccurate or misleading information about the network's topology, can manipulate the perceived layout of the vehicular network. This manipulation can lead to the creation of fabricated routes that appear to cross through the attackers' locations. Such deceptive strategies can have severe consequences, as they can be used to orchestrate attacks with the intent of causing traffic disruptions, leading to road congestion or, in more extreme cases, triggering traffic accidents.

These potential attacks highlight the importance of implementing robust security measures in vehicle networks. It is essential to have systems in place that can verify the authenticity of topology information and detect anomalies in data being shared across the network. Mechanisms such as continuous monitoring, data validation, and the use of trusted communication protocols are vital in safeguarding against these types of threats. Additionally, fostering a secure and reliable vehicular communication environment requires collaborative efforts between technology providers, vehicle manufacturers, and regulatory bodies to establish and enforce stringent security standards and practices.

#### *7.1.2 A shared transmission medium*

The nature of airborne radio transmission in vehicular networks, where data are transmitted wirelessly, inherently allows for the possibility of passive eavesdropping. An attacker with the right equipment and expertise can exploit this vulnerability by operating in promiscuous mode, a state in which the receiver is able to listen to all data transmitted over the network, not just the data addressed to it. Utilizing sniffing software, the attacker can capture these transmitted packets as they travel through the transmission field.

This capability of passively listening and capturing packets presents a significant security risk. As the process is passive, the attacker does not need to actively interact with or intrude into the network, making the intrusion difficult to detect. The intruder can remain within the transmission field and gather vast amounts of data without the knowledge of the transmitter or other network participants.

Once the data packets are captured, the attacker can attempt to decrypt the transmitted data. Depending on the strength and type of encryption used within the network, this could potentially give the attacker access to sensitive information, such as location data, personal details of the driver or passengers, or other confidential communication.

This scenario underscores the importance of robust security measures in vehicular communication systems. Effective countermeasures include the use of strong encryption algorithms to protect data, implementing secure authentication protocols to verify the identity of network participants, and employing intrusion detection systems to identify and mitigate unauthorized access attempts. Ensuring that these security measures are in place and kept up to date is critical in safeguarding vehicular networks against such passive eavesdropping and data decryption attempts.

#### *7.1.3 Multi-hop communications*

The implementation of multi-hop communication protocols in Vehicle-to-Everything networks is crucial for facilitating long-distance wireless communication. In a multi-hop network, data packets are relayed across multiple vehicles (nodes) to reach their intended destination, especially when the source and destination are not within direct communication range. This collaborative nature of multi-hop communication means that the active participation of all vehicles in the network is vital for maintaining its smooth functioning and overall connectivity.

However, the reliance on multiple nodes for data transmission in V2X networks can also introduce security vulnerabilities. Malicious nodes within the network can exploit the multi-hop communication process. As each node potentially acts as a relay for data packets, a malicious node could manipulate or disrupt the data being transmitted. For instance, such a node could alter the content of the packets, delay their transmission, or even create false data, leading to misinformation being spread across the network.

This exploitation can pose serious threats to the security and integrity of the V2X network. It can lead to compromised safety-related information, inaccurate traffic data, or breach of privacy. Therefore, it is imperative to incorporate robust security measures in the design of multi-hop communication protocols for V2X networks. Measures such as strong encryption, authentication of nodes, and implementing intrusion detection systems can help mitigate these risks. Additionally, algorithms designed to identify and isolate malicious nodes can be instrumental in maintaining the integrity and reliability of the network. These security strategies are essential to protect against potential threats and ensure the safe and effective operation of V2X communication networks.

#### *7.1.4 Dissemination of information*

In vehicular network protocols, the regular transmission of beacon messages by nodes is a fundamental aspect of maintaining network functionality and ensuring the delivery of various services. These beacon messages typically include information about the node's current position and may contain additional data relevant to specific services being provided within the network. While this practice is essential for the efficient operation of vehicular networks, it also introduces a potential security vulnerability.

Malicious nodes within the network can exploit these regularly transmitted beacon messages for nefarious purposes. By collecting and analyzing these messages, a malicious entity can establish a path profile of specific vehicles. This path profiling

#### *Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

involves tracking the movement and behavior of vehicles over time, which can lead to various security and privacy concerns.

For instance, by establishing a path profile, a malicious node can predict the future locations of a vehicle, potentially leading to stalking or targeted attacks. It can also gather sensitive information about a driver's habits, routes, and routines, which could be used for unauthorized surveillance or other invasive activities.

To mitigate these risks, vehicular network protocols need to incorporate robust security measures that protect against such privacy breaches. This might include implementing measures to anonymize beacon messages, limiting the amount of data shared in such messages, or employing advanced encryption techniques to secure the data being transmitted. Additionally, mechanisms to detect and prevent unauthorized data collection and analysis within the network can further safeguard against the exploitation of beacon messages by malicious nodes. Ensuring the privacy and security of users in vehicular networks is critical, and addressing these vulnerabilities is a key aspect of developing resilient and trustworthy vehicular communication systems.

#### **7.2 Entities involved in V2X security**

Safety is an issue that must be carefully evaluated and addressed in the design of the vehicular communication system. Several threats potentially exist, including fake messages causing traffic disruptions or even danger, compromising drivers' private information. Issues to be addressed include trust, resilience and effectiveness [19].

#### *7.2.1 The driver*

In the V2X safety chain, the driver holds a paramount position due to their crucial role in decision-making and interaction with the system. Despite the advanced technology and automation integrated into V2X applications, the driver remains an indispensable component, particularly in terms of safety.

The driver's omnipresence in the vehicular system is vital for several reasons. Firstly, while V2X technologies provide significant assistance and situational awareness through various applications, it is ultimately the driver who interprets this information and makes real-time decisions based on it. These decisions can range from adjusting speed and changing lanes to more critical responses in emergency situations. The driver's ability to understand and respond to dynamic road conditions, informed by V2X communications, is essential in ensuring overall safety.

Furthermore, the current landscape of V2X applications typically involves the driver as an interactive component within the broader driver assistance systems. These systems are designed to augment, not replace, the driver's capabilities. They provide valuable insights, alerts, and recommendations, which the driver must then evaluate and act upon. For instance, collision avoidance systems may alert the driver of potential hazards, but the driver often has the final say in how to respond to these alerts.

This interactive relationship between the driver and V2X systems underscores the importance of the human element in vehicular safety. It also highlights the need for designing V2X systems that are intuitive and user-friendly, ensuring that the drivers can easily understand and effectively utilize the information and assistance provided to them. As V2X technology continues to evolve, maintaining the driver's central role in the safety chain and ensuring seamless integration between human decisionmaking and automated systems will be key to maximizing the safety benefits of these advanced vehicular networks.

#### *7.2.2 The vehicle (OBU) and the Road Side Unit*

In the context of Vehicle-to-Everything networks, the literature often simplifies the concept of the On-Board Unit by referring to it in terms that encompass both the driver and the vehicle. While this representation does not fully capture the complexity and distinct roles of the driver and the vehicle in the network, it serves as a convenient shorthand for discussing the integrated vehicle system within V2X communications.

Within a V2X network, it is important to recognize two distinct categories of vehicles and Road Side Units:


Identifying and mitigating the threats posed by these malicious entities is crucial for maintaining the security and reliability of V2X networks. This involves implementing robust security protocols, continuous monitoring, and advanced authentication mechanisms to ensure that all nodes in the network—both vehicles and RSUs—are functioning correctly and are not compromised. By addressing these security concerns, V2X networks can effectively support their primary goals of enhancing road safety, traffic management, and overall driving experience.

#### *7.2.3 The attacker*

In the realm of Vehicle-to-Everything security, the concept of an attacker is broadly defined as one or more entities with the intent to compromise the security and integrity of the network. These attackers employ a variety of techniques to achieve their objectives, which can range from disrupting the normal operation of the network to accessing confidential information or causing physical harm through manipulating vehicular behaviors.

An attacker in a V2X context is not limited to a single entity; it can also be a collective of entities working in concert. For instance, a group of vehicles could collaborate to launch a coordinated attack on the network. This cooperative approach can amplify the impact of the attack, making it more challenging to detect and counteract. Such collaborative attacks can take various forms, including but not limited to:

1.*Spreading false information:* the vehicles may work together to disseminate false or misleading data across the network, potentially leading to hazardous situations on the road.

*Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*


Addressing the threat posed by such attackers requires a multifaceted approach to V2X security. This includes the deployment of advanced cryptographic techniques, realtime monitoring and intrusion detection systems, and the development of protocols that can quickly isolate and neutralize malicious entities. Additionally, fostering collaboration and information sharing among honest participants in the network can be an effective strategy in identifying and responding to these security threats. Ensuring the security of V2X networks against both individual and collective attackers is critical for maintaining the trust, integrity, and safety of these increasingly essential systems.

#### *7.2.4 Third parties*

In the context of intelligent transport systems (ITS), third parties play a significant role as direct participants and facilitators. These third parties typically include entities such as transport regulators, car manufacturers, and traffic police, each of whom plays a distinct role in the overall functioning and management of the ITS.

An important aspect of ensuring secure communication and operations within ITS is the use of cryptographic methods, such as public key pairs. These public keys are essential for establishing secure communication channels, verifying identities, and ensuring the integrity of transmitted data.


This integration is crucial for several applications within ITS, such as secure Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communication, remote vehicle diagnostics, and enforcement of traffic laws. For instance, a vehicle may need to authenticate a message received from a traffic regulator or send encrypted data to the manufacturer for maintenance purposes.

Overall, the incorporation of public key pairs from third parties into OBUs enhances the security framework of ITS, enabling trusted interactions and protecting against various cyber threats. This is a key component in building a robust and secure intelligent transportation ecosystem.

#### **7.3 Classification of V2X attacks**

Like any system and especially regular vehicular networks, V2X is exposed to several types of attacks and threats. In order to protect this network against these attacks, it is necessary to classify them (**Table 1**) [20, 21].

**Table 1** presents a detailed overview of various attack types that are critical to the security of Vehicle-to-Everything communication systems. These attacks are grouped into four major categories: attacks on availability, authenticity, confidentiality, and integrity, each targeting a specific aspect of V2X communication security.

Starting with attacks on availability, these are particularly crucial because they target the very essence of V2X systems: ensuring that network services are always operational, and that real-time information is accessible for user safety. In this category, Denial of Service attacks are prominent, aiming to disrupt the availability of network services. Jamming attacks follow, focusing on interfering with communication channels, while Black Hole attacks involve a node that intercepts packets but refuses to participate in routing. Malware attacks, using malicious software, aim to disrupt network operations.

The second category deals with attacks on authenticity, a vital component in ensuring that all network stations correctly authenticate before accessing services. Any breach in this area can lead to severe consequences. This category includes Sybil attacks, where an attacker creates multiple fake identities for a single node; GPS spoofing, which manipulates a vehicle's location data; and Identity Theft attacks, where an attacker impersonates a legitimate vehicle, leading to potential misdirection and misinformation within the network.

Attacks on confidentiality are also covered, highlighting the importance of maintaining the privacy and confidentiality of data within V2X communications. Without


**Table 1.** *V2X attacks classification.*

#### *Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

robust security measures, the exchange of data between nodes is vulnerable to unauthorized access. Eavesdropping attacks involve the interception of data without authorization, Traffic Analysis attacks focus on deducing information from network communication patterns, and Man in the Middle attacks involve an attacker intercepting and potentially altering communications between legitimate parties.

Lastly, **Table 1** discusses attacks on integrity, which are crucial to ensure that data remains unaltered and trustworthy during transmission. This category includes Temporal attacks, where malicious nodes intentionally delay the transmission of messages, rendering them ineffective or even dangerous. Illusion attacks are also featured, where false data is generated through sensors and distributed across the network, leading to potentially misleading information being acted upon by drivers.

In summary, each of these attack types poses a significant risk to the security of V2X networks and, by extension, to the safety and efficiency of the users relying on these systems. **Table 1** serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding the various vulnerabilities and threats that V2X communication faces [22, 23].

#### **7.4 Mechanisms of security in vehicular communications**

V2X uses radio transmissions to maintain communication between vehicles, this allows a malicious node to easily inflict itself on the network. In order to deal with these malicious nodes and the attacks previously mentioned, several security mechanisms have been adopted [24, 25].

#### *7.4.1 Tamper-proof device*

The tamper-proof device (TPD) is designed to enhance the security of both internal and external communications in vehicles, safeguarding them against unauthorized access and tampering. This device serves a critical function by securely storing sensitive data, such as cryptographic key pairs and digital certificates, and is tasked with the responsibility of digitally signing outgoing messages to ensure their authenticity [26].

To bolster its defense against potential attacks, the TPD is equipped with its own independent power source—a battery that can be recharged using the vehicle's power system. Additionally, it includes a clock that can be securely synchronized at trusted base stations, maintaining accurate timekeeping essential for various security protocols.

Access to the TPD is stringently controlled, restricted solely to authorized personnel. This restricted access is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the device and the data it holds. For instance, the cryptographic keys stored within the TPD can be updated or renewed during the vehicle's periodic technical inspections, ensuring they remain secure and up to date.

A notable feature of the TPD is its array of sensors designed to detect any attempts at physical tampering. In the event that tampering is detected, the device is programmed to erase all stored keys and information. This self-erasure mechanism is a vital security measure, preventing compromised data from falling into the hands of attackers and ensuring the continued security of the vehicle's communication systems [27].

#### *7.4.2 Intrusion detection systems*

For effective detection and response to potential attacks on a system, it is essential to have a robust mechanism or software that continuously monitors the data flowing

through the system. This mechanism must be adept at identifying and reacting to data that appears suspicious or anomalous. Intrusion detection systems (IDS) are widely regarded as the most effective tools for this purpose [28].

An Intrusion Detection System operates by analyzing network activity, with a focus on identifying patterns or behaviors that deviate from the norm, which could indicate a security breach or attack. Upon detecting such anomalies, the IDS does not just passively report these findings; it actively responds by recommending corrective actions or automatically initiating responses. These responses can range from generating alerts, sending notification emails, to resetting connections to mitigate the threat.

In the context of vehicular networks, IDS plays a crucial role. Here, the IDS is tasked with scrutinizing both incoming and outgoing packets, searching for any indications of malicious activity or signatures. This is particularly important as vehicular networks are highly dynamic and involve a continuous exchange of information, which could be exploited by attackers.

Moreover, IDS solutions are valuable in detecting insider attacks—a type of threat that traditional cryptographic solutions might fail to identify. Insider attacks are perpetrated by entities within the network and often require more sophisticated detection strategies.

Intrusion detection systems can be categorized based on various criteria, such as the detection techniques they employ or their architectural design. The detection techniques might include anomaly-based detection, which looks for deviations from established patterns of normal activity, or signature-based detection, which compares network activities against a database of known attack signatures. Architecturally, IDS can be implemented as network-based systems, monitoring network traffic, or as host-based systems, focusing on activities within individual network hosts [29].

By integrating IDS into vehicular networks, stakeholders can significantly enhance the security and resilience of these systems, safeguarding them against a wide range of cyber threats and ensuring the safety and privacy of their users [30].

#### **8. Conclusion**

To conclude this chapter, it is essential to encapsulate the key insights and forward-looking perspectives. This chapter has comprehensively examined the multifaceted aspects of vehicular networking, emphasizing the pivotal role of security in these increasingly connected systems. As the integration of V2X communication in intelligent transportation systems (ITS) becomes more prevalent, the importance of robust security mechanisms to safeguard against a variety of cyber threats becomes paramount.

The exploration of various attack vectors, including threats to availability, authenticity, confidentiality, and integrity, underscores the complexity and evolving nature of security challenges in vehicular networks. These threats not only jeopardize the functionality of the ITS but also pose significant risks to user safety and privacy.

Looking ahead, this chapter suggests that the future of vehicular networking security lies in the development of more advanced and adaptive security protocols, enhanced encryption methods, and innovative intrusion detection systems. The integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning could provide new avenues for predictive security measures, potentially identifying and mitigating threats before they materialize.

#### *Secure Vehicular Networking: Architectures, Applications, Attacks, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114877*

Furthermore, as V2X communication becomes more intertwined with other emerging technologies like autonomous vehicles and smart city infrastructure, a holistic approach to security, encompassing all interconnected systems, will be essential. This approach should not only focus on technological solutions but also consider regulatory frameworks, standardization, and collaboration among stakeholders in the automotive, technology, and governmental sectors.

In conclusion, while the advancements in vehicular networking bring forth remarkable opportunities for efficiency, safety, and convenience in transportation, they also introduce complex security challenges. Addressing these challenges effectively will require ongoing research, innovation, and collaboration, ensuring that as vehicles become more connected, they also become more secure, resilient, and trustworthy.

### **Author details**

Mariyam Ouaissa1 \*, Mariya Ouaissa<sup>2</sup> and Zakaria Boulouard3

1 Laboratory of Information Technologies, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida, Morocco

2 Computer Systems Engineering Laboratory, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco

3 LIM, Hassan II University, Casablanca, Morocco

\*Address all correspondence to: ouaissa.mariyam08@gmail.com

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 5**
