**7. References**


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104 Neuroendocrinology and Behavior

**6. Conclusion** 

**Author details** 

Haruhiro Higashida

*Kanazawa university, Kanazawa, Japan* 

*Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan* 

Nat. rev. neurosci. 7: 126-136.

Oxytocin Secretion. Nature. 446: 41-45.

**Acknowledgement** 

**7. References** 

Hideo Nakatani

Yoshio Minabe

of self-consciousness available in ASD research.

assess self-consciousness, although there is as yet no suitable test to examine representations

We hypothesized that OT signaling in the central nervous system may play a significant role in the pathophysiology of ASD based on studies using OT-related knockout mice, effectiveness in social context of OT to healthy subjects, and the results of short-term administration of OT on social impairments in ASD subjects. Long-term clinical trials of OT in ASD subjects are currently in progress. It is difficult to determine how symptoms of social impairment should be assessed in interventions in patients with ASD, although investigation of self-consciousness may provide important insights regarding this issue.

Toshio Munesue, Kazumi Ashimura, Mitsuru Kikuchi, Shigeru Yokoyama, Manabu Oi and

We are grateful for funding by the Strategic Research Program for Brain Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan for the long-term clinical trial of OT in patients with ASD (Registered identifier UMIN00007250 in Table 3).

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*Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan* 

*Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan Department of Psychiatry and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science,* 

*Department of Psychiatry and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science,* 


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**Section 3** 

**Miscellaneous Issues** 


**Miscellaneous Issues** 

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**Chapter 6** 

© 2012 Tolekova et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 Tolekova et al., licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**The Effects of Some Neuropeptides** 

**on Motor Activity of Smooth Muscle** 

Anna Tolekova, Petya Hadzhibozheva, Tsvetelin Georgiev,

Eleonora Leventieva-Necheva, Kiril Milenov and Reni Kalfin

Neuropeptides are intracellular peptides, composed of short chains of amino acids and found in brain tissue. They are often localized in axon terminals at synapses and are released as intercellular messengers that transmit information in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract etc. Many are also hormones released by nonneuronal cells. Neuropeptides can be divided and grouped according their site of synthesis and secretion or their structural or functional characteristics. Currently recognized neuropeptides include all hypothalamic releasing hormones, pituitary hormones, gastro-intestinal and brain peptides, some circulating hormones, opioide peptides, neurohypophyseal hormones etc (Siegel, 2006). Some neuropeptides are secreted by the nerve terminals with conventional neurotransmitters. But which are the differences between the classical neurotransmitters and the neuropeptides? The precursors of neuropeptides have at least 90 amino acids residues - larger than the precursors of the neurotransmitters. The synthesis of neuropeptides is carried in the neuronal soma and then is transported to the axonal ends. The secretion of neuropeptides requires lower concentration of intracellular Ca2+ in comparison to transmitters. After secretion the neuropeptides or their precursors are reused in the synapse. The concentration of the neuropeptides in the tissue is very low and they interact with the receptors at lower concentrations than neurotransmitters. Neuropeptides appearance and secretion are very plastic (Siegel, 2006). For example in pathological conditions, the number of endocrine cells that secrete neuropeptides can not only increase but also appear unusual locations as a result

Stanislava Mihailova, Galina Ilieva, Maya Gulubova,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

of additional stimulation (Gulubova et al., 2012).

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48417

**1. Introduction** 

**1.1. Neuropeptides** 

**Organs in Abdominal and Pelvic Cavities** 
