**4. Agriculture**

Northern Africa is reported to be among the world's most water-scarce regions where drought is a principal climatic factor (rising temperature and drop in rainwater) reducing agricultural production [37]. Agriculture is the most vulnerable economic activity. It is considered as a major challenge in Northern African countries, particularly for farmers whose livelihoods rely on rainfed farming. Farmers in Northern Africa have to increase crop production to meet the rising needs for food.

Egypt is predominantly desert, with only 4−5% of land used for the Egyptian people to live and produce food [38]. Egypt is a water-scarce country (with less than 1000 m3 of freshwater per year) and it is near the edges of absolute water scarcity (less than 500 m3 /year). Agriculture plays a significant role in the Egyptian economy as it is the sector which plays a crucial role in food's productivity. This sector provides livelihoods for about 55% of Egypt's population, which is largely rural [39]. Agriculture consumes between 80 and 85% of water resources. More than 90% of River Nile water goes towards agricultural productivity. As Egypt's population still grows, the economy is expanded and significant drought severity, all these drivers and others are contributing together to more growth in freshwater demand and render the whole of the Nile valley vulnerable. Since water availability (quantitative and qualitative) is the major factor of agricultural production, the Egypt authority needs a sustainable water strategy to better ways of resolving the shortages of water and is through good agricultural water management.

Algeria is a poor country in water resources because of the irregularity (insufficient and unequally distributed) of water supplies. The annual water supplies drop below 1000 m3 per person. Agriculture is the largest using sector of water and is increasingly subject to water risks. Almost 25% of the Algeria population is engaged in agriculture sector. Water demand is predicted to further increase because of population pressures increase, intensive agriculture, economic growth and high drought risk under climate change. Thus, developing a mix of strategies that increase water supplies, manage water demands, and reduce long-term pressure on water is urgent more than ever before.

Morocco - Agriculture represents almost 15% of Morocco's GDP [17]. Agriculture is the primary user of water, accounting for 80 percent of withdrawals. Morocco suffered severe water shortages under its worst drought in 4 last decades and which is prompted by expansion in water needs (decrease in rainfall and bad water management). Morocco expects to reach absolute water scarcity (the annual water supply drops below 500 m3 per person) and people are expected to live under extreme water stress in less than 25 years [19]. Actually, various Innovative irrigation practices can help in reduction of water uses in agriculture. Nevertheless, they are expensive for small farmers to afford.

Tunisia is one of Northern African countries suffering from water stress as it has limited surface water reserves, low precipitation and thus a great increase in agriculture's dependence on groundwater withdrawal. As Tunisia's population increased from 4.18 million (1960) to 11.93 million (2021) (**Table 1**) and also drought frequency so all these factors and others have drastically increased food needs to be grown, which requires more water. About 80% of Tunisia's freshwater resources are used for agricultural exploitation; Over 76% of groundwater is used by agricultural sector. However, less than 24% of irrigation water use come from surface water [40]. Tunisia witnessed its worst drought in 50 years from 1999 to 2002, which caused more increase in water consumption and affected agricultural producers [41]; resulting in deterioration of the quality and quantity of groundwater reserves.

Libya is the second-largest country in Northern Africa, and it is almost entirely covered by the Libyan Desert (**Figure 2**). Thus, most residents of Libya live in the coastal regions where more chance of water availability. Groundwater constitutes the major freshwater supply in Libya [42] and it constitutes around 98% of the total freshwater demand [43]. Irrigated agriculture is also the largest using sector of freshwater; it consumes more than 80 percent of freshwater. The shortage of clean and freshwaters in Libya have led to an overall situation of overuse of groundwater. During the last 4 decades, the irrigated land has increased considerably which is causing more pressure on water availability which is already very stressed.
