**2.1 Ginger's antioxidant activity**

Overproduction of free radicals, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), has been shown to play a significant role in the development of numerous chronic diseases [4].

Ginger's antioxidant activity was assessed *in vitro* using the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and 2,2′-azinobis- (3-ethylbenzothiazole-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) techniques. The number of phenolic compounds in dried ginger was 5,2 times, 1,1 times, and 2,4 times greater than in fresh, stir-fried, and carbonized ginger, respectively. The antioxidant activity of various gingers tended to exhibit the following characteristics: dried ginger > stirfried ginger > carbonized ginger > and fresh ginger [5].

Moreover, data from FRAP, oxygen radical absorbance capacity, and cellular antioxidant activity experiments revealed that a polyphenol-rich fraction of the dried ginger powder exhibited strong antioxidant activity [6].

Additionally, the kind of extraction solvent may influence the antioxidant activity of ginger. An ethanolic extract of ginger revealed a significant antioxidant capacity and ferric-reducing ability, whereas an aqueous extract exhibited potent free radical scavenging activity and chelating capacity [6]. In human chondrocyte cells, ginger extract exhibited antioxidant properties, with oxidative stress mediated by interleukin-1 [7]. It increased the production of antioxidant enzymes and decreased the production of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation. Ginger extract lowered the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), which is connected to lipid peroxidation, in stressed rat heart homogenates [8].

Via the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway, ginger and its bioactive components (such as 6-Shogaol) displayed antioxidant action [9]. Nrf2 is a redox-sensitive transcription factor that is mostly expressed in metabolic and detoxifying renal organs and protects against oxidative stress in cells. In addition, ginger phenylpropanoids improved Nrf2 activity and increased the levels of glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) and the Nrf2 antioxidant response element's downstream effector in foreskin fibroblast cells [10]. In a human mesenchymal stem cell model, the effects of ginger oleoresin on ionizing radiation-induced damage were examined. By translocating Nrf2 to the cell nucleus and stimulating the gene expression of HO-1 and NQO1 (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) quinone dehydrogenase 1), oleoresin could reduce the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In rats with chlorpyrifos-induced oxidative damage, the 6-gingerol-rich fraction from ginger reduced H2O2 and MDA levels, enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity, and increased glutathione [11].

In addition, ginger extract treatment increased serum levels of antioxidants and testosterone and protected rat testes from cyclophosphamide-induced damage.

#### **2.2 Ginger's anti-inflammatory activity**

Several studies have demonstrated that ginger and its active ingredients exhibit anti-inflammatory properties that may protect against inflammation-related disorders [12]. Phoshatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), and nuclear factor kappa light chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-B) were primarily responsible for the anti-inflammatory effects. In human intestinal cell models, 6-Shogaol also showed protective properties against tumor necrosis factor (TNF-)-induced intestinal barrier disruption. It also blocked the overexpression of Claudin-2 and the disassembly of Claudin-1 by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt and NF-B signaling pathways [13]. Moreover, a 6-gingerol-rich fraction reduced an increase in inflammatory markers such as myeloperoxidase, NO, and TNF- in the brain, ovaries, and uterus of chlorpyrifos-treated rats [11].
