**2.3 Renoprotective effect of ginger**

Many studies revealed the effect of ginger on kidney dysfunction. From these studies, it was found ginger significantly protects the renal cells and reduces the severity of tubular damage caused by gentamicin. Ginger was effective as a prophylaxis agent, but it has no curative activity [14]. Interestingly the presence of polyphenols and flavonoids in the *Z. officinale* extract might be responsible for the antioxidant and nephroprotective activities [15]. Furthermore, it was found that injecting ginger (200 mg/kg) in rats induces a considerable decrease in the concentration of urea and creatinine in rat model, improved, restored, and recovered the affected kidney tissue after inducing kidney injury by azathioprine [16].

### **2.4 Ginger's kidney protective effect**

Numerous research has demonstrated ginger's efficacy on renal impairment. Ginger greatly protects renal cells and lowers the severity of tubular damage produced by gentamicin, according to these investigations. Ginger was useful as a preventative, but it lacks curative properties [14]. Intriguingly, the antioxidant and nephroprotective properties of the *Z. officinale* extract may be due to the presence of polyphenols and flavonoids [15]. Moreover, it was discovered that 200 mg/kg of ginger generates a significant drop in the levels of urea and creatinine in rat models, and improves, restores, and recovers damaged kidney tissue induced by azathioprine [16].

### **2.5 Ginger's anticancer effect**

The method by which ginger acts as a cytotoxin against cancer cells is still a matter of debate among scientists. Ginger contains anti-inflammatory and anti-tumorigenic substances, including [6]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol, [6]-paradol, and zerumbone. Ginger and its bioactive compounds inhibit the progression of colorectal, gastric, ovarian, liver, skin, breast, and prostate cancers [17].

### **2.6 Ginger's antiemetic effect**

Ginger (and its compounds) exert its antiemetic effects peripherally, within the gastrointestinal system, by boosting gastric tone and motility via anticholinergic and antiserotonergic activities [18]. Additionally, it is said to enhance gastric emptying. This combination of roles explains ginger's well-known capacity to alleviate symptoms of functional gastrointestinal diseases, such as dyspepsia, abdominal pain, and nausea, which are frequently associated with impaired gastric motility. Three recent studies have explored the effect of ginger on serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT3, and 5-HT4) and cholinergic (M3) receptor activity; however, the precise mechanism of action of ginger concerning its antiemetic qualities is yet unknown [19].

## **2.7 Ginger's effect on liver**

In a mouse model, dried ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) suppresses inflammation, improves pathological alterations, and lowers INF and IL6 levels. It may potentially cause liver damage. NF-B activation is inhibited to reduce proinflammatory responses, TNF, IL-6, and other inflammatory cytokines levels [20].

**Figure 1.** *Multiple health benefits of ginger [28].*

## **2.8 Ginger's effect on diabetes**

The consumption of ginger has an impact on lipid profiles, insulin sensitivity, glycemic status, and other metabolic abnormalities in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Reducing inflammatory substances, such as CRP, IL6, TNF, and others, improves them [21].

It reveals an antagonistic effect against serotonin receptors. Notably, it decreases intestine glucosidase and amylase activity, which reduces glucose absorption [22]. Ginger's neuroprotective effects on the brains of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats may also result from changes in astrocyte function. Damage response, decreasing the expression of acetylcholinesterase (AchE), and improving the construction of neurons [23].

### **2.9 Ginger effect on neurological degenerative diseases**

Ginger's active component, 6-Shogaol, reduces neuroinflammation and cognitive impairments in animal dementia models. Therefore, it plays a significant role in the amelioration of symptoms in Alzheimer's and other neurological illness patients. It enhances memory in animal models of dementia by suppressing the activity of glial cells and by minimizing memory corruption [24].

In addition, ginger inhibits NF-B,16,17 iNOS, and cyclooxygenase2 activity (COX2) [25]. It protects C57BL/6 mice from inflammation caused by ultraviolet B [26]. Ginger has an inhibitory effect on melanogenesis in B16F10 melanoma cells and can therefore prevent the darkening of the skin (**Figure 1**) [27].
