**2. Theoretical framework**

#### **2.1 SGM-identity development**

It is assumed that identity consists of two aspects: self-concept and self-esteem [16]. Self-concept entails the way we see ourselves. The extent to which this selfconcept is clear and consistent across time reflects self-concept clarity [28]. The way we value this self-concept is called our self-esteem [16]. Both self-concept clarity and a positive self-esteem are developed in relation to the environment, in which peers play an important role for adolescents [16]. For this development, two communication skills are necessary: self-disclosure and self-presentation [29]. Self-disclosure can be understood as disclosing intimate aspects of the self with the goal of receiving information, feedback, and interaction [30]. Self-presentation entails selectively presenting the self to others [31]. By disclosing aspects of themselves, and presenting themselves in certain ways, adolescents practice with ideas of who they are, and retrieve social input to help deal with their thoughts [30, 31].

Since 1970, several models have been developed to capture SGM-identity development [32]. Early SGM-identity development models focused on stages SGM-people go through, such as Cass' [33] model: identity confusion; identity comparison; identity tolerance; identity acceptance; identity pride; identity synthesis [3, 32]. Such models, however, do not account for the diversity within the SGM-community, as they are generally based on white, gay, cisgender men. Additionally, they depict the development as a linear process, which does not represent the fluidity of identity development [7].

Alternative to stage models, D'Augelli's [34] life span approach arose [32]. In this approach, the social context has a central place, and the fluidity of identity is recognized. It therefore better represents adolescent identity development as a dynamic process that is never completed. Six identity processes are identified in this model, operating independently from each other and in no specific order: exiting heterosexuality; developing a personal LGB identity; developing an LGB social identity; becoming an LGB offspring; developing an LGB intimacy status; entering an LGB community [32]. Although this is a model for identity development of sexual minorities, it is shown to reflect the process of gender minorities as well [32]. Empirical research also underlines the importance of the social context for developing a positive SGM-identity, through belonging to a community, openness about their SGMidentity, social support, and having positive SGM-role models [35].

#### **2.2 Social media influence on SGM-identity development**

With the recognition of social media usage as an influence on the identity development of adolescents, social media needs to be considered in developmental theories for SGM-identity [3]. Previous models of SGM-identity development have depicted developmental milestones, such as feelings of being different and questioning one's identity, as happened before SGMY have come out, making them private processes [7]. Interaction with the environment, however, is found crucial for the development of self-concept clarity and a positive self-esteem [16]. Social media might offer possibilities for SGMY to interact with others like them and find belonging, before coming out in their offline social environment.

Anonymity, accessibility, and asynchronicity are most often mentioned as affordances of social media, when explaining the use of social media by SGMY for their identity development [3, 19, 21, 29]. These affordances give adolescents an enhanced sense of control of what, and with whom, they share information, making them feel more secure and assured on social media than in offline situations [16]. Anonymity enables social media users to selectively share information about themselves, to avoid being discerned as a specific individual [29]. Accessibility entails the easy access to information and people, as there are no space and time limits online [16, 29]. Asynchronicity means that online communication is delayed, as it does not happen face-to-face, allowing time to think before communicating, to edit messages, or to delete messages afterward [22, 29].

The existing small research base on social media usage by SGMY and identity development shows an overall positive effect on their identity development, including self-concept clarity and self-esteem [3, 20–22, 29]. While for non-SGMY, these results are inconclusive [29]. This could be explained through the Differential Susceptibility to Media Effects Model proposes that three conditional variables related to the individual affect their media use and its effects [36]. The combination of the SGM-identity (dispositional variable), phase of identity development (developmental variable), and the lacking social environment regarding support (social variable), could explain the more positive effects of social media usage on identity development of SGMY, compared to non-SGMY in the early stages of this research field.

#### **2.3 Developing a resilient SGM-identity**

A recent development in research can be seen in the increased attention for resilience in SGMY [23, 37]. The Minority Strengths Model [38] is developed as an extension of Meyer's Minority Stress Model [39], highlighting the importance of resilience in helping SGMY navigate hostile social environments, and buffer the relationship between minority stressors [2, 24, 38]. Resilience is a dynamic process, as it involves interaction between risk and protective factors, and individual and environmental systems [23, 39, 40]. A distinction can be made between two manifestations of resilience: individual-based resilience and community-based resilience [23, 24]. Individual-based resilience consists of personal qualities and personality traits that a person may possess, making them more, or less, resilient. Community-based resilience also refers to an individual's ability to cope, adapt and thrive. The source of this ability, however, lies within identification with a social network, instead of being an individual quality [23, 24]. It is a sense of belonging to a community that may generate the ability to overcome adversities [24]. With that, community-based resilience is different from the protective factor of social support, as it does not necessarily revolve around direct support from others [24].

With the growing attention for resilience, studies have also tried to depict what contributes to resilience. The degree to which a person is resilient is dependent on the quality and quantity of the resources, and their availability and accessibility [40, 41]. Regarding individual-based resilience, several resources can be defined contributing to resilience: social and emotional support, connectedness, self-esteem, individuality, self-competence, and a sense of power [15, 24, 35, 38, 42]. Specifically, connections with other SGM-people are found to be crucial for the ability to cope with negativity [25, 38, 42]. Connecting with other SGM-people can also serve as a way to recharge, in order to navigate hostile social contexts [15, 43].

Furthermore, two types of resources contributing to community-based resilience can be distinguished: tangible and intangible [24]. The tangible resources show an

#### *Developing a Resilient Sexual and Gender Minority Identity Online: The Importance of Social… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108208*

overlap with the resources for individual-resilience. These resources can be, among other things, access to SGM-community centers, hotlines, information, role models, and SGM-affirmative laws and policies [24]. Intangible resources refer to systems of belief [24, 41]. Specifically for SGM-people, this entails the internalization of the social values and norms derived from the SGM-community [24]. Indeed, identification with a minority community can provide a collective sense of meaning-making out of shared adversities, which can be empowering and provide the strength to face adversities [15, 37, 43, 44]. The overlap between individual- and community-based resilience is also shown in the Minority Strengths Model [38]. Additionally, this model shows a reciprocal influence between individual- and community-based resilience [38]. Social support and community consciousness are highlighted as positive influences on positive health behaviors and mental health, through identity pride, selfesteem, and individual-based resilience [38]. Additionally, community consciousness, feeling connected with the SGM-community, positively contributes to individualbased resilience, which can be seen as the process of community-based resilience [38].

The main focus in resilience studies in SGM-populations has been on individualbased resilience [23, 24, 42]. Several scholars argue, however, that we should step away from this focus as it can lead to an expectation of resilience in each individual, and consequently removing or reducing social responsibility to protect disadvantaged populations [24, 26, 45]. Obstacles may lie in the access and availability of community-based resilience for SGMY during the period of identity concealment, as this often goes together with a period of isolation from others [37, 44]. Social media, however, might offer earlier access to community-based resilience, due to its affordances.

An explorative study of media-based resilience activities by SGMY distinguished four activities that fostered resilience: coping through escapism, feeling stronger, fighting back, and finding community [15]. These online experiences accounted for a buffer of the effects of marginalization, including isolation and victimization [15]. It has already been established that social media can offer social environments in which SGMY have access to resources such as information and events, they can explore and experiment with their identity, they can engage in SGM-communities, and they can observe others' behaviors and experiences [20–22]. These resilience-fostering activities on social media show similarities with identity development activities on social media, as described previously. This gives reason to believe that similar online experiences can not only offer SGMY identity development experiences, but they can simultaneously also foster resilience. These similarities make it interesting to study the identity development of SGMY through a framework of resilience. Existing studies on SGMY and resilience, however, have not focused on this.

Attaining a stable identity is often spoken of in developmental research as a goal for adolescents. Clinging too rigidly to this view, however, overlooks the fact that identity is dynamic and can change over time and in different contexts [46]. Therefore, we propose the following preliminary 'resilient SGM-identity' definition, better-highlighting identity development as a dynamic process: the ability to maintain a positive SGM-identity, and find resources to do so, living in a society where that identity is seen as norm-deviating. It is hypothesized that the social context plays a central role in developing a resilient SGM-identity. This reasoning is based on the knowledge of interaction with the environment as crucial for developing self-concept clarity and self-esteem, and consequently a positive SGM-identity [16, 35].
