Preface

Neurophysiology is the study of the nervous system in terms of its function. The focus is on nerve cells and glial cells as the building blocks of the nervous system and the networks that are formed by them. Individual neurons and their networks are subject to various forms of plasticity and undergo short- or longer-lasting modifications. The outcome of neural network action can be the behavior of specific brain areas and body regions or the behavior of an individual. Finally, pathophysiological processes can affect all organizational levels of the nervous system from individual cells to networks, neural systems, and behavior. *Neurophysiology - Networks, Plasticity, Pathophysiology and Behavior* addresses these various scales in health and disease.

The book reviews novel findings related to neurophysiology, such as neural plasticity, neurological disorders, sensory systems, cognition, and behavior. It provides an overview of the current state of the art of neurophysiology research and focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this area. Chapters focus on recent advances in specific areas of neurophysiology in different brain regions and experimental models.

The book is divided into two sections. Section 1, "Neural Networks, Neuroplasticity, Behavior," includes Chapters 1–6. Section 2, "Neuropathophysiology," includes Chapters 7–12.

Chapter 1, "Clinical Neurophysiology of Epileptogenic Networks", by Nick Tsarouchas, describes foundational elements of neural networks and how they can give rise to aberrant functions such as epileptic seizures. More specifically, the author demonstrates with artificial neuronal network simulations how physiological brain oscillations (delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma range, and transients thereof, including sleep spindles and larger sleep waves) are generated. In addition, the author shows how epileptiform phenomena can develop and be observed at different levels of analysis.

In Chapter 2, "Neurophysiology Involved in Neuroplasticity: Mechanisms of Forgetting", Jose Rodrigo Carrillo-Marquez and Jose Damian Carrillo-Ruiz explain new neurophysiological mechanisms that result in processes of brain plasticity. Furthermore, the authors clarify that neuroplasticity can take place in different complex tasks and discuss the evolutionary advantage of forgetting.

Chapter 3, "Neurophysiology of Emotions", by Maurizio Oggiano, reviews emotions as automatic and primary patterns of purposeful cognitive and behavioral organizations. The author outlines the neurophysiological basis of elements of emotion and their function, namely, coordination, signaling, and information purposes.

Chapter 4, "Neuronal Architecture and Functional Organization of Olfactory Glomeruli", by Thomas Heinbockel, addresses the modular organization of the brain in a sensory system, our sense of smell, and olfaction. The chapter focuses primarily

on an insect animal model that has contributed tremendously to our understanding of questions regarding how olfactory information is processed in the brain and how olfactory glomeruli contribute to encoding qualitative and quantitative features of a sensory stimulus.

In Chapter 5, "Quantitative Electroencephalography for Probing Cognitive and Behavioral Functions of the Human Brain", Richard M. Millis, Merin Chandanathil, Awosika Ayoola, Fidelis Nwachukwu, Ravindrasingh Rajput, Sheetal Naik, and Kishan Kadur use exam scores and an individualized self-inventory of psychosocial interactions to provide data for probing behavioral and cognitive performance of medical students. Their study of quantitative electroencephalography could be predictive of academic performance, and, specifically, for improvements in attentional control, cognitive performance, and psychosocial skills. It could also serve as a proxy indicator for neurofeedback training-related changes in neuroplasticity.

In Chapter 6, "Resting-State Brain Network Analysis Methods and Applications", Yunxiang Ge and Weibei Dou address how functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) can be used to construct brain networks. The authors also discuss challenges and pitfalls when analyzing groups of brain networks as well as review the clinical application of resting-state fMRI in the neurorehabilitation of spinal cord injury patients and stroke patients.

In Chapter 7, "Neuroimaging in Common Neurological Diseases Treated by Anticoagulants", Pipat Chiewvit discusses the use of anticoagulant drugs in treating symptomatic patients and as prophylactic therapy in asymptomatic patients. More specifically, this chapter reviews neuroimaging in common neurological conditions such as ischemic stroke, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, and arterial dissecting disease of head and neck arteries and how anticoagulant drugs contribute to treatment therapy.

In Chapter 8, "Sleep Patterns Changes Depending on Headache Subtype and Covariates of Primary Headache Disorders," Füsun Mayda Domaç, Derya Uludüz and Aynur Özge reviews the bidirectional effects that sleep and headache have on each other. On the one hand, diminished and poor quality of sleep can be a trigger factor for headaches. On the other hand, patients with headaches may have poor sleep quality. The author indicates that the pathophysiology of headaches and sleep disorders share the same brain structures and pathways and suggests that clinicians consider sleep complaints for effective management of headaches.

In Chapter 9, "The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia", Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta, and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. The authors focus on compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its role in maintaining cognitive performance at an advanced age and in dementia.

In Chapter 10, "Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation", Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar, and Nand Kumar present Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) as a safe and non-invasive

tool to investigate and modulate intracortical circuits. TMS allows for direct stimulation of cortical neurons and generation of action potentials which can provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders.

In Chapter 11, "Impact of Hypoxia on Astrocyte Induced Pathogenesis", Farwa Munir, Nida Islam, Muhammad Hassan Nasir, Zainab Anis, Shahar Bano, Shahzaib Naeem, Atif Amin Baig, and Zaineb Sohail review the importance of the most abundant cell type in the central nervous system, namely, astrocytes. These glial cells are critical during neuro-inflammation since they activate pro-inflammatory pathways which can lead to neurodegenerative disorders. This in turn impairs neural circulation and blood flow by affecting the blood-brain barrier which results in a lower oxygen concentration, subsequent brain hypoxia, and additional astrocyte-induced pathogenesis.

In Chapter 12, "Astrocytic Abnormalities in Schizophrenia," Kiarash Saleki, Mohammad Banazadeh, Banafshe Abadi, Zeynab Pirmoradi, Zahra Esmaili, Shiva Amiri, Ramtin Pourahmad, Kristi A. Kohlmeier, and Mohammad Shabani discuss the role of astrocytes for an important neuropsychiatric disorder, schizophrenia. The authors focus on astrocytes in schizophrenia at the molecular and behavioral level, including immune system function, changes in white matter, neuroplasticity, and therapeutic implications of targeting astrocytes in schizophrenia.

I am grateful to IntechOpen for initiating this book project and for asking me to serve as its editor. Many thanks go to Sara Tikel at IntechOpen for guiding me through the publication process and for moving the book ahead in a timely fashion. Thanks are due to all contributing authors for their excellent chapters. Hopefully, all contributors will continue their research with many intellectual challenges and exciting new directions. I would like to thank my wife Dr. Vonnie D.C. Shields, Associate Dean and Professor, Towson University, MD, and our son Torben Heinbockel for the time that I was able to spend working on this book project during the past year. Finally, I am grateful to my parents Erich and Renate Heinbockel for their continuous support and interest in my work over many years.

> **Thomas Heinbockel, Ph.D.** Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA

Section 1

Neural Networks,

Neuroplasticity, Behavior

**1**

Section 1
