*5.1.2.6 Other bookmarks*

Other markers have been proposed for monitoring GFD, such as the permeability test [113] or fecal calprotectin [114, 115]. Determination of fecal calprotectin


### **Table 2.**

*Studies based on GIP determination in stool and/or urine for monitoring of gluten-free diet. GIP, gluten immunogenic peptides.*

concentration has established itself in recent years as a new useful marker of gastrointestinal pathologies. Several studies show that there is an association between calprotectin levels and the degree of inflammation, so it can be used to monitor response to treatment and predict the risk of recurrence. In addition, results obtained by Oribe et al. [116] have shown that patients with positive anti-tTG IgA antibodies, that is, those in contact with gluten, showed significantly higher values of fecal calprotectin than patients undergoing GFD and non-celiac patients. These methods, by demonstrating the presence of intestinal inflammatory processes, are generally not specific for CD and, therefore, if their values are modified, it could also be due to other causes such as infectious diseases, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), or allergic processes.

## **5.2 Non-dietary therapies**

Since strict follow-up of GFD presents many difficulties for patients with CD, additional treatments are needed for this disease. In recent years, CD research has focused on the search for non-dietary therapies to control GFD [17, 77]. Emerging
