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## **Meet the editor**

Dr Leon A. Assael AB, DMD, FACD, FICD is Professor and Chairman of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Residency Program Director, and Medical Director Hospital Dentistry and Professor of Surgery OHSU Schools of Medicine and Dentistry in Portland, Oregon. Dr Assael is an alumnus of Columbia University (AB in government), Harvard University (DMD), Vanderbilt University

(residency in OMS) and the University of Kentucky (CMM). He is certified by the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. He served as Dean of the University Of Kentucky College Of Dentistry from 1997-2003. He was also on the faculty of the University of Connecticut from 1989-1997 and served as department head in surgical sciences and Associate Chief of Staff of the John Dempsey Hospital. From 1981-1989, he was residency program director in oral and maxillofacial surgery at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Dr Assael is the past Editor in Chief of the Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. He is the past Chairman of the Council on Dental Education and Licensure of the American Dental Association. He is the recipient of several national and international awards including The Donald Osbon award for outstanding educator, the William F. Harrigan award, and the Kurt Thoma award. He has also delivered lectureships honoring leaders in oral and maxillofacial surgery including William Ware, Sadie Fontaine, Peter Connole, Ben Alley, and Daniel Waite. In 2001, President George W. Bush awarded Dr Assael the America's Promise award for advancements in oral health in Appalachia achieved by the faculty of the University of Kentucky. In 2010, the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons awarded Dr Assael the Board of Trustees special recognition award. The author of textbooks including books on temporomandibular disorders, cleft lip and palate and facial injuries, and over 100 peer reviewed contributions to the scientific literature.

Contents

**Preface VII** 

Chapter 2 **Aetio-Pathogenesis and** 

Babatunde O. Akinbami

Babatunde O. Akinbami

Raphael Ciuman and Philipp Dost

M. Piagkou, T. Demesticha, G. Piagkos,

Chapter 4 **Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 47** 

Melina Spinosa Tiussi

Chapter 5 **The Mandibular Nerve:** 

Chapter 1 **Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of Management, Treatment Modalities and Complications of Orofacial Infections 1** 

**Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 13** 

Chapter 3 **The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome 29** 

Everton Da Rosa, Júlio Evangelista De Souza Júnior and

**The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment 71** 

Chrysanthou Ioannis, P. Skandalakis and E.O. Johnson

### Contents

#### **Preface XI**


Preface

appearance, self esteem and longevity.

specialty of oral and maxillofacial surgery

Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a specialty rooted in dentistry and forged in academic medical centers in departments of surgery, as the surgical specialty well equipped to care for conditions of the mouth, jaws, head and neck. Today oral and maxillofacial surgeons are advancing cancer care, neurosciences, understanding the pathology of the region, managing congenital and acquired deformities among others. In the process this specialty is improving the lives of our patients with better function,

This text is unique in that it is developed online and published in that fashion. It also addresses some unique issues that are important subsets of the needs of oral and maxillofacial surgery patients. While it does not comprehensively address the field, the papers enclosed provide an important niche in the development of the future

**Dr. Leon A. Assael** 

USA

Oregon Health and Science University,

### Preface

Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a specialty rooted in dentistry and forged in academic medical centers in departments of surgery, as the surgical specialty well equipped to care for conditions of the mouth, jaws, head and neck. Today oral and maxillofacial surgeons are advancing cancer care, neurosciences, understanding the pathology of the region, managing congenital and acquired deformities among others. In the process this specialty is improving the lives of our patients with better function, appearance, self esteem and longevity.

This text is unique in that it is developed online and published in that fashion. It also addresses some unique issues that are important subsets of the needs of oral and maxillofacial surgery patients. While it does not comprehensively address the field, the papers enclosed provide an important niche in the development of the future specialty of oral and maxillofacial surgery

> **Dr. Leon A. Assael**  Oregon Health and Science University, USA

**1** 

*Nigeria* 

Babatunde O. Akinbami

*Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery,* 

**Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of** 

**Management, Treatment Modalities and** 

Periapical view is useful to show the affected tooth/teeth crown, root apex in cases of caries,

Occlusal view is useful to show any stone in the submandibular salivary gland which may cause an ascending infection in the gland and later spread to the soft tissue

Plain soft tissue x-rays of the skull, jaws and neck are useful to see expansions in the

Also plain hard tissue x-rays such as the tangential Posterior-anterior view can show calculi

Conventional posterior-anterior, oblique laterals are useful to show mixed osteolytic changes (radiolucencies) and new bone formation (radioopacities) in chronic osteomyelitis

However, a single view of orthopantomogram (panorex) is useful for both mandible and

 Computerized tomographic scan is mainly useful for bone lesions as in osteomyelitis giving reduced CT no. in areas of bone destruction and close to normal CT no. in areas of bone formation. Fluids, abscesses and exudates gives varying opacities and lucencies with CT no. more than that of water (0) and cerebrospinal fluid (7) but less than fat

**1. Introduction** 

Intraoral x-rays

in the parotid duct

space

maxilla

Chest x-rays

(100) and bone (1000).

**1.1 Radiological evaluation of orofacial infection** 

soft tissue spaces in the head and neck region.

of the mandible; which is the classical moth eaten appearance. For the maxilla, occipitomental and true lateral views are useful.

fracture, impaction and periodontitis

**Complications of Orofacial Infections** 

*University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, Rivers State,* 

## **Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of Management, Treatment Modalities and Complications of Orofacial Infections**

Babatunde O. Akinbami *Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, Rivers State, Nigeria* 

### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Radiological evaluation of orofacial infection**

Intraoral x-rays

Periapical view is useful to show the affected tooth/teeth crown, root apex in cases of caries, fracture, impaction and periodontitis

Occlusal view is useful to show any stone in the submandibular salivary gland which may cause an ascending infection in the gland and later spread to the soft tissue space

 Plain soft tissue x-rays of the skull, jaws and neck are useful to see expansions in the soft tissue spaces in the head and neck region.

Also plain hard tissue x-rays such as the tangential Posterior-anterior view can show calculi in the parotid duct

Conventional posterior-anterior, oblique laterals are useful to show mixed osteolytic changes (radiolucencies) and new bone formation (radioopacities) in chronic osteomyelitis of the mandible; which is the classical moth eaten appearance.

For the maxilla, occipitomental and true lateral views are useful.

However, a single view of orthopantomogram (panorex) is useful for both mandible and maxilla


Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of Management,

from anaerobicinfections.blogspot.com

Treatment Modalities and Complications of Orofacial Infections 3

Fig. 2. Shows CT scan demonstrating a collection of gas filled abscess in the neck; excerpt

Fig. 3. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating a sublingual space abscess

#### **1.2 Types of CT scans**


Fig. 1. Shows CT scan demonstrating a retropharygeal abscess; excerpt from anaerobicinfections.blogspot.com

1. Traditional or single slice CT scan- produces single slice of images from the data obtained from detectors in the gantry. The patient's table must be turned to allow

2. Spiral CT scan- Allows simultaneous movement of table and x-ray tube; has a single row of detectors which produces volumetric data set and allows reconstruction of multiple slices of images obtained in a single revolution. The images can also be reformatted and viewed in multiple planes with the Pictural archival communication system. Also has the advantage of less artifact due to swallowing because a single breathe hold is utilized, gives better vascular opacification and small contrast bolus is needed to enhance lesions. 3. Multi-detector CT scan- has a matrix of detectors which sends volumetric data sets to produce multiple slices of images in more than the three planes at one revolution

4. New Tom CT scan (Schick, NIM, S.r.l., Verona, Italy) produces axial panoramic images and 3D data set for multiplanar images. It is a cone-beam CT scan which apart from the 3D dimensional imaging produced, also exposes patients to less radiations, but not

5. Contrast enhanced CT. scan- Contrast is introduced to enhance imaging of soft tissue

 Magnetic resonance imaging clearly demarcates the exudates accumulation and expansions within the soft tissue compartments. In the T2 weighted sequence image, soft tissue space swellings appear more opaque than the soft tissues while the bones

Fig. 1. Shows CT scan demonstrating a retropharygeal abscess; excerpt from

another 360 degrees revolution for a second slice of 3mm or less to be made.

**1.2 Types of CT scans** 

thereby increasing the speed of imaging.

useful for inflammatory swellings.

space infections.

appear dark.

anaerobicinfections.blogspot.com

Fig. 2. Shows CT scan demonstrating a collection of gas filled abscess in the neck; excerpt from anaerobicinfections.blogspot.com

Fig. 3. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating a sublingual space abscess

Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of Management,

Treatment Modalities and Complications of Orofacial Infections 5

Fig. 6. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating multiple abscess in Ludwig's

angina; excerpt from abcradiology.blogspot.com

Fig. 4. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating left parapharygeal space abscess excerpt from abcradiology.blogspot.com

Fig. 5. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating a left buccal space abscess

Fig. 4. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating left parapharygeal space abscess

Fig. 5. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating a left buccal space abscess

excerpt from abcradiology.blogspot.com

Fig. 6. Shows Contrast enhanced CT scan demonstrating multiple abscess in Ludwig's angina; excerpt from abcradiology.blogspot.com

Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of Management,

weight must be maintained.

**3. Principles of drainage** 

necessary skills

**3.1 Procedure** 

and medial to masseter

Treatment Modalities and Complications of Orofacial Infections 7

Rehydrate with intravenous fluids, Dextrose saline 5% alternate with Normal saline 0.9% 1 liter 8hrly for 72hrs, fluid control however should be depend on degree of dehydration, renal status, input/output chart. An average output of 1-2mls per minute per kg body

Drainage may be done under conscious sedation or general anaesthesia depending on the extent of spread, airway obstruction, patients' cooperation and availability of facilities and

For cases to be done under G.A, orotracheal or fibreoptic intubation without muscle relaxants is preferred to prevent further compromise of the airway. Both forms of intubation

1. Make about 1.5 – 2cm skin incision in the most dependent fluctuant site/sites on the

2. Blunt dissection into the swelling, the swelling is entered with the sinus forceps closed and then opened and moved in different directions to break multiple loci of pus, drainage is aided with digital pressure, suction and can be guided by radiologic or endoscopic imaging 3. After satisfactory decompression of exudates, sinus forceps should be removed with the

 For submandibular and Ludwig's abscesses, the first layer is skin followed by the subcutaneous tissue and platysma muscle within it, then the outer part of the investing layer of deep cervical fascia before entering into the submandibular space which is below the inner part of the investing layer. Further dissection through the inner part and mylo-hyoid muscle which forms the floor of the mouth allows access into the sublingual space which is below the oral mucosa. Dissections should be along same line and at least 3cm away from the lower border of the mandible to avoid the salivary

 For submasseteric abscesses, approach can be transoral (intraoral) or via the neck (extraoral) or both. Extraoral can be retromandibular- this also allow drainage of intermuscular planes easily without going through masseter muscle but continuous drainage is not aided by gravity and extra care must be taken to protect the retromandibular vein, external carotid artery, and facial nerve. The submandibular offers access below the angle of the mandible avoiding those structures and drainage under gravity is better but dissection is through the muscle. Intraoral dissection may be added to facilitate drainage and incision is made on mucosa along the anterior border of the ramus of mandible, sinus forceps is inserted into the space lateral to the ramus

 For pterygomandibular space, same intraoral incision at same site allows penetration into the space, which is medial to the ramus and lateral to the medial pterygoid.

glands. At least 3 interrupted incisions are made for ludwig's angina.

Drain abscesses both intraorally or extraorally depending on the site.

can enhance quicker access or visibility into the airway than nasotracheal.

swelling to aid drainage under gravity where possible.

beaks wide open to avoid gripping of any vital tissue.

If there is airway obstruction, cricothyrostomy or tracheostomy may be necessary.


Soft tissues and exudates are best evaluated using contrast medium, therefore the best imaging technique is contrast CT-scan. The soft tissues, spaces and exudates appear radioopaque on contrast CT scans. Moreover, CT scan is cheaper, readily available and has no electromagnetic effects on patients with metallic implants compared to MRI and most patients do not react to the contrast medium (Gadolinium) which is injected into the body via intravenous route before the scan. Pre-operative and post- operative evaluation of the lesions/swellings by these imaging modalities not only assist in the diagnosis but also serve as a guide in the treatment and monitoring of progress. Incision and decompression, sequestrectomies are now being done under ultrasonic and CT guidance.

#### **2. Principles of treatment and treatment modalities of orofacial infection**

Thorough evaluation of the patients with these infections, elimination of local factors and control of systemic diseases contribute to the successful management and good outcome. Effective decompression, choice and dosages of antibiotics, compliance of patients are measures necessary to combat these problems with a view to reducing the morbidity and mortality.

The spread of the infections in patients with periapical periodontitis and dentoalveolar abscess who present early to the hospital is better curtailed with empirical broad spectrum oral antibiotics within five days to 1 week.


For infections that have spread to the potential spaces;


No gold standard for antibiotic regime, based on the polymicrobial etiologic nature of odontogenic infections, patients can be given


Parenteral Analgesics;


Rehydrate with intravenous fluids, Dextrose saline 5% alternate with Normal saline 0.9% 1 liter 8hrly for 72hrs, fluid control however should be depend on degree of dehydration, renal status, input/output chart. An average output of 1-2mls per minute per kg body weight must be maintained.

#### **3. Principles of drainage**

6 Maxillofacial Surgery

Ultrasound scan is also useful for superficial soft tissue imaging with probes of high

 Scintiscanning is very useful to ascertain the presence of exudates within bone especially in the early phase as well as in the established phase of acute osteomyelitis, producing high signals in the spectrum of that of inflammations. X-rays and CT scans may not be very useful in acute osteomyelitis to demonstrate early bone changes. Soft tissues and exudates are best evaluated using contrast medium, therefore the best imaging technique is contrast CT-scan. The soft tissues, spaces and exudates appear radioopaque on contrast CT scans. Moreover, CT scan is cheaper, readily available and has no electromagnetic effects on patients with metallic implants compared to MRI and most patients do not react to the contrast medium (Gadolinium) which is injected into the body via intravenous route before the scan. Pre-operative and post- operative evaluation of the lesions/swellings by these imaging modalities not only assist in the diagnosis but also serve as a guide in the treatment and monitoring of progress. Incision and decompression,

sequestrectomies are now being done under ultrasonic and CT guidance.

Capsule amoxycillin 500mg or amoxycillin/clavulanate and

For infections that have spread to the potential spaces;

intravenous metronidazole 500mg/100ml 8hrly for 72hrs

commenced before the outcome of the m/c/s results.

Commence empirical intravenous antibiotics,

odontogenic infections, patients can be given

**2. Principles of treatment and treatment modalities of orofacial infection** 

Thorough evaluation of the patients with these infections, elimination of local factors and control of systemic diseases contribute to the successful management and good outcome. Effective decompression, choice and dosages of antibiotics, compliance of patients are measures necessary to combat these problems with a view to reducing the morbidity and mortality.

The spread of the infections in patients with periapical periodontitis and dentoalveolar abscess who present early to the hospital is better curtailed with empirical broad spectrum

No gold standard for antibiotic regime, based on the polymicrobial etiologic nature of

with intravenous broad spectrum antibiotic amoxycillin/clavulanate or ceftriaxone

selective cyclo-oxygenase enzyme inhibitor, non- steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs;

non-selective, diclofenac with misoprostol to protect the gastric/duodenal wall.

frequencies of 7.5Mhz and above

oral antibiotics within five days to 1 week.

 Tablet metronidazole 400mg 8hrly Analgesic tablet paracetamol or ibuprufen

It is better to admit;

Parenteral Analgesics;

celecoxib or

either paracetamol or

Drain abscesses both intraorally or extraorally depending on the site.

Drainage may be done under conscious sedation or general anaesthesia depending on the extent of spread, airway obstruction, patients' cooperation and availability of facilities and necessary skills

For cases to be done under G.A, orotracheal or fibreoptic intubation without muscle relaxants is preferred to prevent further compromise of the airway. Both forms of intubation can enhance quicker access or visibility into the airway than nasotracheal.

If there is airway obstruction, cricothyrostomy or tracheostomy may be necessary.

#### **3.1 Procedure**


Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of Management,

autoimmune reaction in the periosteum7. Based on this fact, it has been found that

 Decortications as well as thorough Periodontal tissue management with

and reconstruction plates will be indicated

**5. Complications of orofacial infections** 

1. Regional and distant spread (abscess in any part of the body)-

had spread to the neck and chest wall, to allow for drainage

Orbital decompression will be needed for spreading retrobulbar abscess

Paracentesis/laparatomy for abbominal/pelvic abscesses

Cranial burr holes/craniotomy for intracranial abscess

With or without prolonged antibiotic therapy and

in its management;

Oral hygiene instructions.

**4.3 Refractory osteomyelitis** 

lactamase producing organisms.

**5.1 Early complications** 

1999).

Treatment Modalities and Complications of Orofacial Infections 9

*peptostreptococcus intermedius* found in the deep pockets associated with generalized periodontitis. Others believe that it may be part of a bone, joint and skin {SAPHO; synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis and osteitis} syndrome probably due to allergic or

Corticosteroids or high doses of potent NSAIDs and biphosphonates have been useful

In refractory cases, not responsive to the above treatment, resection of that part of bone involved and reconstruction with bone grafts with or without alloplastic bone substitutes

The average period of antibiotic coverage for the patients with soft tissue space infections and dentoalveolar abscess ranged between 5 to 14days while that for osteomyelitis was between 4 to 6 weeks. The latest broad spectrum antibiotics now used in the treatment of orofacial infections are the fourth generation cephalosporins (Cefepime) and the Imipenems/ cilastin derivatives (Bacqure). Both are exceptional in the treatment of beta

Spread of odontogenic infections accounts for up to 57 % of deep neck abscesses (Mihos et al., 2004). With the potential for infection spreading to the interpleural space and mediastinal tissue, the mortality rate of mediastinitis continues to be 17–50 % despite aggressive use of antibiotics and advances in intensive care facilities (Marty-Ane et al.,

Additional incisions below the swellings have to be made for patients whose infection

 For spread into the thorax, a chest tube will be needed at the seventh intercostal space mid-axillary line or a thoracotomy when there is organisation and consolidation

2. **Septicemia and Toxic shock syndrome**- recognized by high temperature, pallor, jaundice, increasing respiratory and pulse rate with reducing blood pressure. Massive

Occasionally, hyperbaric oxygen daily for 1 month may also be required.


By the second day of admission, when the patient is fairly stable,


By the end of the third day or beginning of fourth day, Empirical antibiotic given needed to be changed after the arrival of the m/c/s result if response is not satisfactory. Patients with spreading soft tissue space infections and bone infections have to be admitted for about two to three weeks.

#### **4. Treatment modalities of osteomyelitis**

All cases of suppurative osteomyelitis must be admitted.

Those with acute suppurative osteomyelitis are to commence on fluids and intramuscular analgesics and empirical antibiotics while waiting for M/C/S result.

Intravenous Sparxfloxacin 200mg 12 hrly for 72hrs with lincomycin 500mg 8hrly or clindamycin 300mg 12hrly for 4 weeks. If symptoms of necrotizing colitis start, the macrolides should be stopped.

Those with chronic suppurative osteomyelitis must wait for M/C/S result before given antibiotic-no need for empirical antibiotics

Also indicated for chronic osteomyelitis is


#### **4.1 Focal sclerosing osteomyelitis**

May not need any intervention but if there is persistent pain or superimposed infection,


#### **4.2 Chronic sclerosing osteomyelitis**

There have been controversies over the origin and aetiology of diffuse sclerosing osteomyelitis. Some authors believe that it is due to organisms like *propionibacterium acne and*  *peptostreptococcus intermedius* found in the deep pockets associated with generalized periodontitis. Others believe that it may be part of a bone, joint and skin {SAPHO; synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis and osteitis} syndrome probably due to allergic or autoimmune reaction in the periosteum7.

Based on this fact, it has been found that


8 Maxillofacial Surgery

For lateral pharyngeal space, same incision, also allow forceps into the space lateral to

 For infratemporal space, the incision is extended higher to the coronoid process, the forceps penetrates medial to the attachment of the temporalis muscle and below the lateral pterygoid muscle. Care must be taken to avoid the internal maxillary vessels,

 For peritonsillar space abscess (Quinsy), incision is made into the mucosa in the tonsillar bed anterior to the tonsils, quick suctioning of the exudates must be done to

Commence jaw exercises with mouth gag to continue daily with wooden spatula- this

By the end of the third day or beginning of fourth day, Empirical antibiotic given needed to be changed after the arrival of the m/c/s result if response is not satisfactory. Patients with spreading soft tissue space infections and bone infections have to be admitted for about two

Those with acute suppurative osteomyelitis are to commence on fluids and intramuscular

Intravenous Sparxfloxacin 200mg 12 hrly for 72hrs with lincomycin 500mg 8hrly or clindamycin 300mg 12hrly for 4 weeks. If symptoms of necrotizing colitis start, the

Those with chronic suppurative osteomyelitis must wait for M/C/S result before given

May not need any intervention but if there is persistent pain or superimposed infection,

There have been controversies over the origin and aetiology of diffuse sclerosing osteomyelitis. Some authors believe that it is due to organisms like *propionibacterium acne and* 

Excision of sclerotic bone, place autograft or allograft bone material if necessary

the superior constrictor and medial to the medial pterygoid.

mandibular nerve/branches and pterygoid plexus.

By the second day of admission, when the patient is fairly stable, Extractions of the causal tooth/teeth should be done and

**4. Treatment modalities of osteomyelitis** 

macrolides should be stopped.

1. sequestrectomy and 2. excision of the sinus tracts.

antibiotic-no need for empirical antibiotics Also indicated for chronic osteomyelitis is

**4.1 Focal sclerosing osteomyelitis** 

**4.2 Chronic sclerosing osteomyelitis** 

Extraction of tooth/teeth

Antibiotic coverage

All cases of suppurative osteomyelitis must be admitted.

analgesics and empirical antibiotics while waiting for M/C/S result.

will improve the mouth opening and aid the drainage of exudate.

avoid aspirations.

to three weeks.

#### **4.3 Refractory osteomyelitis**

In refractory cases, not responsive to the above treatment, resection of that part of bone involved and reconstruction with bone grafts with or without alloplastic bone substitutes and reconstruction plates will be indicated

Occasionally, hyperbaric oxygen daily for 1 month may also be required.

The average period of antibiotic coverage for the patients with soft tissue space infections and dentoalveolar abscess ranged between 5 to 14days while that for osteomyelitis was between 4 to 6 weeks. The latest broad spectrum antibiotics now used in the treatment of orofacial infections are the fourth generation cephalosporins (Cefepime) and the Imipenems/ cilastin derivatives (Bacqure). Both are exceptional in the treatment of beta lactamase producing organisms.

#### **5. Complications of orofacial infections**

#### **5.1 Early complications**

1. Regional and distant spread (abscess in any part of the body)-

Spread of odontogenic infections accounts for up to 57 % of deep neck abscesses (Mihos et al., 2004). With the potential for infection spreading to the interpleural space and mediastinal tissue, the mortality rate of mediastinitis continues to be 17–50 % despite aggressive use of antibiotics and advances in intensive care facilities (Marty-Ane et al., 1999).


Radiologic Evaluation, Principles of Management,

Igaku Zasshi 1986; 77: 373-377.

1113.[CrossRef][Medline]

143–147.[Medline]

302.[CrossRef][Medline]

118: 561-565.

406-409.

Maxillofacial Surg Clin N Am 2003: 15; 39-49.

**7. References** 

Treatment Modalities and Complications of Orofacial Infections 11

[1] Underhill TE, Laine FJ, George J. Diagnostic imaging of Maxillofacial infections. Oral

[2] Jones KC, Silver J, Millar WS, Mandel L. Chronic submasseteric abscess: anatomic, radiologic and pathologic features: Am J Neuroradiol 2003; 24: 1159-1163. [3] Furuichi H, Oka M, Takenoshita Y, Kubo K, Shinohara M, Beppu K. A marked

[4] Srirompstong S, Srirompotong S. Surgical emphysema following intraoral drainage of

[5] Baqain ZH, Newman L, Hyde N. How serious are oral infections? J Laryngol Otol 2004;

[6] Miller EJ Jr, Dodson TB. The risk of serious odontogenic infections in HIV-positive

[7] Ugboko VI, Owotade FJ, Ajike SO, Ndukwe KC, Onipede AO. A study of orofacial

[8] Ndukwe KC, Fatusi OA, Ugboko VI. Craniocervical necrotizing fasciitis in Ile-Ife,

[9] Hodgson TA, Rachanis CC. Oral fungal and bacterial infections in HIV-infected

[10] Fazakerley, M. W., McGowan, P., Hardy, P. & Martin, M. V. (1993). A comparative

acute dentoalveolar infection. Br Dent J 174, 359–363.[CrossRef][Medline] [11] Flynn, T. R., Shanti, R. M. & Hayes, C. (2006). Severe odontogenic infections, part 2:

[12] Fouad, A. F., Rivera, E. M. & Walton, R. E. (1996). Penicillin as a supplement in

[13] Jimenez, Y., Bagan, J. V., Murillo, J. & Poveda, R. (2004). Odontogenic infections.

[14] Kuriyama, T., Absi, E. G., Williams, D. W. & Lewis, M. A. (2005). An outcome audit of

[15] Lewis, M. A., McGowan, D. A. & MacFarlane, T. W. (1986). Short-course high-dosage

[16] Lewis, M. A., Carmichael, F., MacFarlane, T. W. & Milligan, S. G. (1993). A randomised

[17] Mangundjaja, S. & Hardjawinata, K. (1990). Clindamycin versus ampicillin in the treatment of odontogenic infections. Clin Ther 12, 242–249.[Medline]

dentoalveolar abscess. Br Dent J 175, 169–174.[CrossRef][Medline]

study of cephradine, amoxycillin and phenoxymethylpenicillin in the treatment of

prospective outcomes study. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 64, 1104–

resolving the localized acute apical abscess. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral

Complications. Systemic manifestations. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 9 (Suppl.),

the treatment of acute dentoalveolar infection: impact of penicillin resistance. Br

amoxycillin in the treatment of acute dento-alveolar abscess. Br Dent J 161, 299–

trial of co-amoxiclav (Augmentin) versus penicillin V in the treatment of acute

buccal space abscess. J Med Assoc Thai 2002; 85: 1314-1316.

bacterial infections in elderly Nigerians. SADJ 2002; 57: 391-394.

individuals: an overview in Africa. Oral Dis 2002; 8 Suppl 2: 80-87.

Nigeria. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2002; 40: 64-67.

Radiol Endod 81, 590–595.[CrossRef][Medline]

Dent J 198, 759–763.[CrossRef][Medline]

mandibular deviation caused by abscess of the pterygomandibular space. Fukuoka

patients: a pilot study Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod1998; 86:

and aggressive intravenous antibiotics, intravenous fluids and diet (hyperalimentation), hyperbaric oxygen and ozone therapy application may be useful but with the risk of pulmonary toxity.


#### **5.2 Late complications**


In the study of Akinbami et al., hospitalized patients were rehydrated with intravenous fluids, 5% dextrose/saline alternate with 0.9% normal saline 1litre 8hrly for 72 hrs. Dextrose fluid was avoided in patients treated for diabetics. 10 I.U of subcutaneous insulin (humulin) 4hrly was commenced for patients with diabetis mellitus and physicians were consulted to continue management. The mortality figure was 11.8%. In most studies reviewed, caries was the most predominant local factor, while diabetic mellitus and malnutrition were commonest systemic diseases.

#### **6. Conclusion**

Control of systemic factors/diseases is a vital and integral component in the management of these patients with orofacial infections, therefore holistic approach must be adopted to ensure recovery and reduce mortality.

#### **7. References**

10 Maxillofacial Surgery

3. Necrotizing fascitis marked by erythema, blistering and denudation/loss of skin, subcutaneous tissue, deep fascia and muscle due to devitalization- Excision of devitalized tissue and repititive debridemole must be done combined with intravenous antibiotics and antiseptic dressings. High protein diet and fluid intake as well as control of systemic factors are vital. Biotherapy with honey and larvatherapy are also

4. **Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy** marked by blood coming out from all orifices in the body; Blood, fresh frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate and factor VIII and

5. **Cavernose sinus thrombosis** marked by severe headache, vomiting, high temperature, redness, proptosis and painful swelling of the eyeball/lid and prominent conjunctival and schlera vessels- Massive and aggressive intravenous antibiotics with antiinflammatory analgesics must be given, subcutaneous low dose heparin, intravenous

8. **Death –** Death usually occurs due to sepsis and multi-organ failure although airway occlusion is also a significant complication and requires early management by tracheostomy. Host factors affected by the patient's general health condition play a

3. Subperiostitis osteomyelitis- the last two is common with improper treated submassetric

In the study of Akinbami et al., hospitalized patients were rehydrated with intravenous fluids, 5% dextrose/saline alternate with 0.9% normal saline 1litre 8hrly for 72 hrs. Dextrose fluid was avoided in patients treated for diabetics. 10 I.U of subcutaneous insulin (humulin) 4hrly was commenced for patients with diabetis mellitus and physicians were consulted to continue management. The mortality figure was 11.8%. In most studies reviewed, caries was the most predominant local factor, while diabetic mellitus and malnutrition were

Control of systemic factors/diseases is a vital and integral component in the management of these patients with orofacial infections, therefore holistic approach must be adopted to

pulmonary toxity.

platelet concentrate must be given.

7. **Stroke (embolic)**- Appropriate consult.

1. Ankylosis of the temporomandibular joint

4. Bone destruction and facial deformities

6. Chronic suppurative otitis media and mastoditis

applicable.

fluids and diet

significant role.

**5.2 Late complications** 

abscess

**6. Conclusion** 

2. Myositis ossificans and

5. Blindness and deafness.

commonest systemic diseases.

ensure recovery and reduce mortality.

and aggressive intravenous antibiotics, intravenous fluids and diet (hyperalimentation), hyperbaric oxygen and ozone therapy application may be useful but with the risk of


**2** 

*Nigeria* 

**Aetio-Pathogenesis and** 

*Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery,* 

*University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, Rivers State,* 

Babatunde O. Akinbami

**Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections** 

Microbial induced inflammatory disease in the orofacial/head and neck region which commonly arise from odontogenic tissues, should be handled with every sense of urgency, otherwise within a short period of time, they will result in acute emergency situations.1,2 The outcome of the management of the conditions are greatly affected by the duration of the disease and extent of spread before presentation in the hospital, severity(virulence of causative organisms) of these infections as well as the presence and control of local and

Local factors and systemic conditions that are associated with orofacial infections are listed

hyperthyroidism

1. Caries, impaction, pericoronitis Human immunodeficiency virus

4. Foreign body, calculi Diabetis mellitus, hypo- and

11. Allergic reactions Anaemia, Sickle cell disease

3. Trauma Measles, chronic malaria, tuberculosis

5. Local fungal and viral infections Liver disease, renal failure, heart failure

**1. Introduction** 

systemic diseases.

below.

1. Hard tooth tissue 2. Periodontium

Odontogenic tissues include

**2. Predisposing factors of orofacial infections** 

**Local factors Systemic factors** 

6. Post extraction/surgery Blood dyscrasias 7. Irradiation Steroid therapy 8. Failed root canal therapy Cytotoxic drugs 9. Needle injections Excessive antibiotics,

fractures Malnutrition

10. Secondary infection of tumors, cyst,

2. Poor oral hygiene, periodontitis Alcoholism


## **Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections**

#### Babatunde O. Akinbami

*Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, Rivers State, Nigeria* 

#### **1. Introduction**

12 Maxillofacial Surgery

[18] Marty-Ane, C. H., Berthet, J. P., Alric, P., Pegis, J. D., Rouviere, P. & Mary, H. (1999).

[20] Palmer, N. O. A., Martin, M. V., Pealing, R. V. & Ireland, R. S. (2000). An analysis of

[21] Gill, Y. & Scully, C. (1990). Orofacial odontogenic infections: review of microbiology

[22] Gilmore, W. C., Jacobus, N. V., Gorbach, S. L., Doku, H. C. & Tally, F. P. (1988). A

[23] Tung-Yiu, W., Jehn-Shyun, H., Ching-Hung, C. & Hung-An, C. (2000). Cervical

[24] Turner Thomas, T. (1908). Ludwig's angina. An anatomical, clinical, and statistical

[25] Wang, L. F., Kuo, W. R., Tsai, S. M. & Huang, K. J. (2003). Characterizations of life-

[26] Wang, J., Ahani, A. & Pogrel, M. A. (2005). A five-year retrospective study of

[27] Currie WJR, Ho V. An unexpected death associated with an acute dentoalveolar abscess- Report of a case. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1993; 31:296-298. [28] Akinbami BO, Akadiri OA, Gbujie DC. Spread of orofacial infections in Port Harcourt,

cases. Am J Otolaryngol 24, 111–117.[CrossRef][Medline]

Maxillofac Surg 34, 646–649.[CrossRef][Medline].

Nigeria. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2010: 68; 2472-2477.

Chemother 46, 1033–1035.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Surg 58, 1347–1352.[CrossRef][Medline]

study. Ann Surg 47, 161–163.[Medline]

972.[CrossRef][Medline]

158.[CrossRef][Medline]

Management of descending necrotizing mediastinitis: an aggressive treatment for an aggressive disease. Ann Thorac Surg 68, 212–217.[Abstract/Free Full Text] [19] Mihos, P., Potaris, K., Gakidis, I., Papadakis, D. & Rallis, G. (2004). Management of

descending necrotizing mediastinitis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 62, 966–

antibiotic prescriptions from general dental practice in England. J Antimicrob

and current treatment. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 70, 155–

prospective double-blind evaluation of penicillin versus clindamycin in the treatment of odontogenic infections. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 46, 1065–1070.[Medline]

necrotizing fasciitis of odontogenic origin: a report of 11 cases. J Oral Maxillofac

threatening deep cervical space infections: a review of one hundred ninety-six

odontogenic maxillofacial infections in a large urban public hospital. Int J Oral

Microbial induced inflammatory disease in the orofacial/head and neck region which commonly arise from odontogenic tissues, should be handled with every sense of urgency, otherwise within a short period of time, they will result in acute emergency situations.1,2 The outcome of the management of the conditions are greatly affected by the duration of the disease and extent of spread before presentation in the hospital, severity(virulence of causative organisms) of these infections as well as the presence and control of local and systemic diseases.

Odontogenic tissues include


#### **2. Predisposing factors of orofacial infections**

Local factors and systemic conditions that are associated with orofacial infections are listed below.


Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 15

the buccal space. 10

mortality figures.11,12

osteopetrosis.

patients.

sequestrum.

roots of the upper anterior teeth spread into the canine fossa, except from the lateral incisors which pass more into the palatal space intraorally because of the palatal orientation of the roots,8-10while those from the posterior teeth spread into

 Infections from the body of the mandible pass more through the relatively thinner lingual plate into the medial spaces while that from the body of the maxilla pass more via the relative thinner buccal plate into the lateral spaces. In addition, the ramus of the mandible serves as attachment on the outer side for masseter muscle which separates the submasseteric and supramasseteric spaces and on the inner aspect, there is attachment of medial pterygoid muscle which seperates the

 Infections from the gums around the crowns of the posterior teeth of the mandible and maxilla commonly spread to the submasseteric or pterygomandibular spaces, while that from the roots spread into the submandibular or buccal spaces and from the buccal spaces directly into the sub/supramasseteric spaces.6-10 Also there can be spread from the submandibular space posteriorly into pterygomandibular, lateral pharyngeal and retropharyngeal spaces in the upward and downward direction.9 Infections can track upwards into the infratemporal fossa between the attachments of the lateral pterygoid and temporalis muscle and into the supratemporal fossa leading to scalp abscesses. Infections can also spread into the paranasal sinuses and further into the skull, meninges, cavernose sinus/other sinuses and brain via the pterygoid plexus. Infections have also been found to spread downwards via the neck into the chest wall, mediastinum, pericardial and pleural spaces, pre and post

 The most alarming spread of these infections is into the blood resulting in the devastating effects of septicemia which has significantly contributed to high

Rarely does infection from the teeth, periodontium and periapical region spread beyond dentoalveolar tissue because of the vascularity and density of the basal bones. However, spread of exudates and microbes into the harversian system of bone (cancellous) below the inferior alveolar canal and beyond the maxillary sinus can occur when vascularity of the bone is reduced by excess density and cortication with aging and diseases such as

Lacunae space connections between the alveolar bone and basal bone below the inferior alveolar canal as well as connections with trabeculae bone around the maxillary sinuses, enhance spread into the whole mandible or maxilla especially in immunocompromised

Increased pressure within the bone compromises vascularity causing ischeamia, necrosis of both trabeculae and lamella bone, and sequestra formation. Exudates escape through the Volkmann's canal into the subperiosteal space, stripping the periosteum. Inflammatory periosteal reaction causes laying down and formation of new bone (involucrum) around the

pterygomandibular and lateral pharyngeal spaces.5

vertebral spaces, retroperitoneal and pelvic cavities.5-10

**4. Pathogenesis and spread of orofacial bone infections** 

In addition, low socio-economic status, level of education, neglect, self medication and ignorance are contributory factors to the development, progress and outcome of the infections2.

#### **3. The anatomical fascial spaces and spread of soft tissue space infection**

Despite the fact that there are fasciae, muscles and bones which not only separate this region into compartments, but also serve as barriers, infections can still spread beyond the dentoalveolar tissues.2-4

In cases due to highly virulent organisms and also when the defense mechanism of the patient is compromised by systemic diseases, there is usually a fast spread into neighbouring, distant and intravascular spaces

	- The deep cervical fascia has three divisions which separate the head and neck into compartments; the divisions include the investing (superficial), middle and deep layers. The investing layer is directly beneath the subcutaneous tissue and platysma, it is attached to the lower border of the mandible superiorly and the sternum and clavicle inferiorly.5 The middle layer encircles central organs which include the larynx, trachea, pharynx and strap muscles, it also forms the carotid sheath anteriorly. It extends into the mediastinum to attach to the pericardium.5
	- The deep layer is divided into the alar fascia and the prevertebral fascia.5 The alar fascia completes the carotid sheath posteriorly and also encloses the retropharyngeal space which extends from the base of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra. The prevertebral fascia bounds the potential prevertebral space anteriorly. It is attached to the fourth thoraxic vertebra. There is an actual space between the alar and prevertebral fascia which extends down to the diaphragm.
	- The floor of the mouth is separated from the anterior part of the neck by the mylohyoid muscle. Above this muscle is the sublingual space and this link directly with the opposite side and at the posterior aspect of the mouth it links with the submandibular space.5 The investing layer attached to the mandible is folded into two sheaths, the upper sheath is in close proximity to the mylohyoid muscle above while the lower sheath is above the platysma, between the two is the submandibular space. The two sides of the submandibular space are separated by connective tissue septum. The body of the mandible and maxilla separates the oral cavity and the vestibule. The buccinator muscle limits the vestibule inferiorly and separates the buccal space from the vestibule.
	- Infections commonly start from the teeth or gums and these can spread via the roots or around the crowns of the teeth. It has been documented that infections from the roots of the lower anterior teeth usually spread into the sublingual space because the mylohyoid muscle attachment is below the roots, while that of the posterior teeth usually spread into the submandibular space.6-9 Infections from the

In addition, low socio-economic status, level of education, neglect, self medication and ignorance are contributory factors to the development, progress and outcome of the

**3. The anatomical fascial spaces and spread of soft tissue space infection** 

Despite the fact that there are fasciae, muscles and bones which not only separate this region into compartments, but also serve as barriers, infections can still spread beyond the

In cases due to highly virulent organisms and also when the defense mechanism of the patient is compromised by systemic diseases, there is usually a fast spread into

Presence of teeth and the roots below or above the attachment of the soft tissues to bone

 The deep cervical fascia has three divisions which separate the head and neck into compartments; the divisions include the investing (superficial), middle and deep layers. The investing layer is directly beneath the subcutaneous tissue and platysma, it is attached to the lower border of the mandible superiorly and the sternum and clavicle inferiorly.5 The middle layer encircles central organs which include the larynx, trachea, pharynx and strap muscles, it also forms the carotid sheath anteriorly. It extends into the mediastinum to attach to the pericardium.5 The deep layer is divided into the alar fascia and the prevertebral fascia.5 The alar fascia completes the carotid sheath posteriorly and also encloses the retropharyngeal space which extends from the base of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra. The prevertebral fascia bounds the potential prevertebral space anteriorly. It is attached to the fourth thoraxic vertebra. There is an actual space between the alar and prevertebral fascia which extends down to the

 The floor of the mouth is separated from the anterior part of the neck by the mylohyoid muscle. Above this muscle is the sublingual space and this link directly with the opposite side and at the posterior aspect of the mouth it links with the submandibular space.5 The investing layer attached to the mandible is folded into two sheaths, the upper sheath is in close proximity to the mylohyoid muscle above while the lower sheath is above the platysma, between the two is the submandibular space. The two sides of the submandibular space are separated by connective tissue septum. The body of the mandible and maxilla separates the oral cavity and the vestibule. The buccinator muscle limits the vestibule inferiorly and

 Infections commonly start from the teeth or gums and these can spread via the roots or around the crowns of the teeth. It has been documented that infections from the roots of the lower anterior teeth usually spread into the sublingual space because the mylohyoid muscle attachment is below the roots, while that of the posterior teeth usually spread into the submandibular space.6-9 Infections from the

separates the buccal space from the vestibule.

Presence of contiguous potential spaces in this region which are interconnected.

infections2.

dentoalveolar tissues.2-4

neighbouring, distant and intravascular spaces

Density and vascularity of bone

diaphragm.

Attachment of deep cervical fascia.

roots of the upper anterior teeth spread into the canine fossa, except from the lateral incisors which pass more into the palatal space intraorally because of the palatal orientation of the roots,8-10while those from the posterior teeth spread into the buccal space. 10


#### **4. Pathogenesis and spread of orofacial bone infections**

Rarely does infection from the teeth, periodontium and periapical region spread beyond dentoalveolar tissue because of the vascularity and density of the basal bones. However, spread of exudates and microbes into the harversian system of bone (cancellous) below the inferior alveolar canal and beyond the maxillary sinus can occur when vascularity of the bone is reduced by excess density and cortication with aging and diseases such as osteopetrosis.

Lacunae space connections between the alveolar bone and basal bone below the inferior alveolar canal as well as connections with trabeculae bone around the maxillary sinuses, enhance spread into the whole mandible or maxilla especially in immunocompromised patients.

Increased pressure within the bone compromises vascularity causing ischeamia, necrosis of both trabeculae and lamella bone, and sequestra formation. Exudates escape through the Volkmann's canal into the subperiosteal space, stripping the periosteum. Inflammatory periosteal reaction causes laying down and formation of new bone (involucrum) around the sequestrum.

Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 17

Soft tissue space infections related to the maxilla and middle third of the face include

Infection can be localized in a single space and can also spread to involve multiple

Dentoalveolar tissues e.g. periapical, periodontium, alveolar bone, in rare cases to the

Distant sites; chest/pleura space, heart-endocardium, myocardium and pericardium,

Infections affecting the hard tissues can either be in the form of acute or chronic

Osteomyelitis is a more severe bone infection and it can be classified into suppurative or

Non-specific bacteria and specific organisms such as viral, fungi, tuberculosis, syphilis and

Spaces related to the maxilla

Canine fossa abscess, and Buccal space infections

**Based on the pattern/direction** 

 Below or above the palate **Based on the extent of spread** 

basal bone (osteomyelitis) Soft tissue space around the jaws

Below or above the floor of the mouth

Space beyond the jaws e.g. neck, orbit, brain/skull,

diaphragm, vertebra , abdomen and pelvis.

**6. Classification of orofacial bone infections** 

Focal sclerosing osteomyelitis (Garre's osteomyelitis)

Subperiostitis ossificans also described by Garre's

**7. Microbial etiology of orofacial infections** 

The aetiologies of bone, soft tissue and tissue space infections are:

dentoalveolar abscess and osteomyelitis.

 Acute suppurative osteomyelitis Chronic suppurative osteomyelitis,

Diffuse sclerosing osteomyelitis.

Intramedullary osteomyelitis,

Cortical osteomyelitis

Refractory osteomyelitis

Chronic periostitis

salmonella species9.

Acute and

It can also be classified based on the site as

spaces.

sclerosing;

In the sclerotic, subperiosteatis ossificans types, chronic inflammation due to low grade infections (less virulent organisms) induces more granulation tissue formation, organisation of fibrous tissue, consolidation and later dystrophic calcification.

### **5. Classification of orofacial soft tissue space infections**

Infections can be classified based not only on the type of organisms, it can also be

Based on the site/space involved


Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1 and 2 show Pre-operative and Post-operative Photographs of a 31-year-old patient treated for Ludwig's angina, submasseteric absess and buccal space abscess

 Spaces related to the maxilla Soft tissue space infections related to the maxilla and middle third of the face include Canine fossa abscess, and Buccal space infections Infection can be localized in a single space and can also spread to involve multiple spaces.

#### **Based on the pattern/direction**

16 Maxillofacial Surgery

In the sclerotic, subperiosteatis ossificans types, chronic inflammation due to low grade infections (less virulent organisms) induces more granulation tissue formation, organisation

 Bilateral submandibular, sublingual and submental spaces are involved in Ludwig's angina. The incidence of Ludwig's angina has declined over the years with the advent

of antibiotics1 and only 5 cases were recorded in the study of Akinbami 2010.

Fig. 1 and 2 show Pre-operative and Post-operative Photographs of a 31-year-old patient

treated for Ludwig's angina, submasseteric absess and buccal space abscess

of fibrous tissue, consolidation and later dystrophic calcification.

**5. Classification of orofacial soft tissue space infections** 

Based on the site/space involved

Submandibular, Sublingual and Submental spaces

Pterygomandibular, Lateral pharyngeal and Infratemporal spaces2.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Spaces related to the mandible include

Sub- , intra- and supramasseteric,

Infections can be classified based not only on the type of organisms, it can also be


#### **Based on the extent of spread**


#### **6. Classification of orofacial bone infections**

Infections affecting the hard tissues can either be in the form of acute or chronic dentoalveolar abscess and osteomyelitis.

Osteomyelitis is a more severe bone infection and it can be classified into suppurative or sclerosing;


It can also be classified based on the site as


#### **7. Microbial etiology of orofacial infections**

The aetiologies of bone, soft tissue and tissue space infections are:

Non-specific bacteria and specific organisms such as viral, fungi, tuberculosis, syphilis and salmonella species9.

Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 19

 A complex mix of strict anaerobes and facultative anaerobes accounts for most infections (59–75 %), which can prove challenging to non-specialist microbiology laboratories (Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997; Kuriyama et al., 2000a). In mixed infections, strict anaerobes outnumber facultatives by a ratio which varies between 1.5: 1 to 3 : 1, again depending on the recovery and culture conditions (Baumgartner & Xia, 2003; Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Kulekci et al., 1996; Lewis et al., 1993; Roche & Yoshimori, 1997; Sakamoto et al., 1998). The mean number of species recovered by culture from dentoalveolar aspirates is 4 with a range of between 1 and 7.5 (Fazakerley

The most commonly found facultative anaerobes belong to the viridans group streptococci

The viridans group streptococci comprise the mitis group, oralis group, salivarius

 The anginosus group (formerly referred to as 'Streptococcus milleri' or Streptococcus anginosus) has also been identified and reported with varying degrees of accuracy

Historically, Staphylococcus species have not been considered members of the oral flora or to play a major role in the pathogenesis of oral infections. However, a number of more recent studies have indicated that both 'methiccilin sensitive and resistant' staphylococci

Interestingly, Staphylococcus aureus has been reported to occur more frequently in severe dental abscesses from children (Brook et al., 1991; Coticchia et al., 2004; Coulthard & Isaacs, 1991; Dodson et al., 1989; Tan et al., 2001). Recovery rates of coagulase-negative strains of staphylococci (usually reported as Staphylococcus epidermidis) are generally higher with figures ranging from 4 to 65 % (Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997; Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Kuriyama et al., 2002b; Lewis et al., 1995; Mangundjaja & Hardjawinata, 1990; Sakamoto et al., 1998; Storoe et al., 2001). Staphylococcus species may also be associated with refractory infections not responding to endodontic treatment (Reader et al., 1994).

Similar difficulties exist for cross-study comparisons of identification and prevalence of

Black-pigmented anaerobes such as Prevotella and Porphyromonas species (Sundqvist

The nomenclature and recent changes in taxonomy have complicated the comparison of more recent studies with older studies due to the renaming of several species, specifically the Prevotella, Bacteroides and Porphyromonas species. An important group of pathogens that has undergone much in the way of taxonomic rearrangement, often referred to as the

'oral Bacteroides' and black-pigmenting anaerobes group, has been reclassified.

strict anaerobes. The most commonly isolated genera include

Anaerobic streptococci, Fusobacterium species and

may indeed be a more frequent colonizer of the oral tissues than previously thought.

et al., 1993; Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Reader et al., 1994).

group, sanguinis group and the mutans group (Facklam, 2002).

ranging. These are alpha, beta and gamma haemolytic streptococci.

**Facultative anaerobes** 

**Strict Anaerobes** 

et al., 1989).

and the anginosus group streptococci.

Other factors include, irradiation, chemicals like mercury and phosphorus.2,4

Most bacteria induce inflammation by producing various antigens e.g, M protein antigen encoded by *emm* - like gene.

Orofacial infections are caused and can be classified based on the causative organisms


Orofacial infections are usually polymicrobial comprising


The use of non-culture techniques has expanded our insight into the microbial diversity of the causative agents, identifying such organisms as Treponema species and anaerobic Grampositive rods such as Bulleidia extructa, Cryptobacterium curtum and Mogibacterium timidum.


 A complex mix of strict anaerobes and facultative anaerobes accounts for most infections (59–75 %), which can prove challenging to non-specialist microbiology laboratories (Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997; Kuriyama et al., 2000a). In mixed infections, strict anaerobes outnumber facultatives by a ratio which varies between 1.5: 1 to 3 : 1, again depending on the recovery and culture conditions (Baumgartner & Xia, 2003; Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Kulekci et al., 1996; Lewis et al., 1993; Roche & Yoshimori, 1997; Sakamoto et al., 1998). The mean number of species recovered by culture from dentoalveolar aspirates is 4 with a range of between 1 and 7.5 (Fazakerley et al., 1993; Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Reader et al., 1994).

#### **Facultative anaerobes**

18 Maxillofacial Surgery

Most bacteria induce inflammation by producing various antigens e.g, M protein antigen

 Non specific (acute bacterial; aerobic, anaerobic, mixed) Causative organisms that have been incriminated for these non-specific infections are mixed in nature, that is,

Specific (chronic bacterial infection, fungal, viral) Specific infections are caused by

 Facultative anaerobes, such as non-heamolytic Streptococci viridans group and heamolytic Streptococci anginosus group especially, Group A beta hemolytic, as well

 Both C and G are occasionally obtained from throat cultures and very responsive to the new antibiotic, Linezolid (Zyvox) of the oxazolidinone class, which blocks protein synthesis by preventing translation. It binds the 23s ribosomal RNA and then hinders

And predominantly strict anaerobes, such as anaerobic cocci, Prevotella and

 Aerobic organisms like Pseudomonas sp, Proteus sp., and Klebsiella sp. Many of them are actually nosocomial (hospital acquired) organisms . These are enterobacteria that

The use of non-culture techniques has expanded our insight into the microbial diversity of the causative agents, identifying such organisms as Treponema species and anaerobic Grampositive rods such as Bulleidia extructa, Cryptobacterium curtum and Mogibacterium

 Efforts to identify the causative pathogens involved in the development of the dental abscess have in the past been hampered by inappropriate methods of sampling. The ideal clinical sample from an acute dental abscess is an aspirate through intact mucosa disinfected by an appropriate antiseptic mouthwash or swab, e.g. chlorhexidine, although some researchers have sampled purulent exudates from within infected canals (Lewis et al., 1990; Chavez de Paz Villanueva, 2002). This will reduce contamination from the normal oral flora. Previous studies using swabs of purulent material have demonstrated poor recovery of strict anaerobes and low mean numbers of isolates per

 Pure cultures from an acute dental abscess are unusual (Reader et al., 1994), and mixed aerobic infections are also uncommon, accounting for 6 % of abscesses (Goumas et al., 1997). Dental abscesses caused solely by strict anaerobes occur in approximately 20 % of cases although there is a wide range depending on recovery conditions (6–63 %) (Brook et al., 1991; Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997;

Orofacial infections are caused and can be classified based on the causative organisms

Other factors include, irradiation, chemicals like mercury and phosphorus.2,4

facultative anaerobic, strict anaerobic and aerobic organisms.

formation of functional 70s RNA from 50s RNA subspecies.

Orofacial infections are usually polymicrobial comprising

organisms lik*e tuberculosis, syphilis, actinomycosis and viral* organisms4.

encoded by *emm* - like gene.

as Group C and Group G.

Fusobacterium species.

timidum.

are recently found in orofacial infections.

sample (range 1.0–1.6) (Lewis et al., 1990).

Khemaleelakul et al., 2002).

The most commonly found facultative anaerobes belong to the viridans group streptococci and the anginosus group streptococci.


Historically, Staphylococcus species have not been considered members of the oral flora or to play a major role in the pathogenesis of oral infections. However, a number of more recent studies have indicated that both 'methiccilin sensitive and resistant' staphylococci may indeed be a more frequent colonizer of the oral tissues than previously thought.

Interestingly, Staphylococcus aureus has been reported to occur more frequently in severe dental abscesses from children (Brook et al., 1991; Coticchia et al., 2004; Coulthard & Isaacs, 1991; Dodson et al., 1989; Tan et al., 2001). Recovery rates of coagulase-negative strains of staphylococci (usually reported as Staphylococcus epidermidis) are generally higher with figures ranging from 4 to 65 % (Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997; Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Kuriyama et al., 2002b; Lewis et al., 1995; Mangundjaja & Hardjawinata, 1990; Sakamoto et al., 1998; Storoe et al., 2001). Staphylococcus species may also be associated with refractory infections not responding to endodontic treatment (Reader et al., 1994).

#### **Strict Anaerobes**

Similar difficulties exist for cross-study comparisons of identification and prevalence of strict anaerobes. The most commonly isolated genera include


The nomenclature and recent changes in taxonomy have complicated the comparison of more recent studies with older studies due to the renaming of several species, specifically the Prevotella, Bacteroides and Porphyromonas species. An important group of pathogens that has undergone much in the way of taxonomic rearrangement, often referred to as the 'oral Bacteroides' and black-pigmenting anaerobes group, has been reclassified.

Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 21

Although other Clostridium species such as Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium bifermentans, Clostridium botulinum, 'Clostridium oedomatiens' and 'Clostridium welchii' have been recovered from carious dentine, they appear to be infrequent pathogens in the

 Analysis of the microflora of the acute dental abscess using molecular biological techniques. Close attention to specimen collection and processing on selective and nonselective agars under appropriate atmospheric conditions has improved the routine diagnostic yield from acute dental abscesses. However, despite meticulous attention to detail, it is apparent that many genera of bacteria have yet to be cultured from many

infectious diseases including the acute dental abscess (Siqueira & Rocas, 2005). The use of culture-independent or molecular diagnostic techniques has expanded our insight into the microbial ecology of the dental abscess. Genetic methods of identification are now reliable with 16S rRNA gene sequencing frequently being used for research purposes. Broadly speaking, the molecular analysis may take one of two approaches. Firstly, the use of molecular cloning and sequencing techniques to identify uncultivable micro-organisms using 16s rRNA or rDNA has led to the identification of several novel

 Secondly, is the use of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) or DNA–DNA hybridization chequerboard techniques (Siqueira et al., 2001d, 2002a) and more recently 16S rRNA gene sequencing and species-specific primers searching for the presence of specific microbes (Dymock et al., 1996; Riggio et al., 2006; Rocas & Siqueira, 2005; Sakamoto et al., 2006; Siqueira et al., 2001b, c, 2002b, 2003). There is higher prevalence of more fastidious organisms such as Treponema species in the acute dental abscess with this

Treponema species are strictly anaerobic, motile, helically shaped bacteria. Within the oral cavity they are more usually associated with diseases of the periodontium. There are a

 The treponemes are difficult to cultivate and differentiate and only T. denticola, T. pectinovorum, T. socranskii and 'T. vincentii' have been readily cultivated. Recent work using PCR detection has indicated a surprisingly high prevalence of Treponema species within the acute dental abscess. Siqueira & Rocas (2004c) found that T. denticola was present in up to 79 % of dental abscesses, with lower detection rates reported by other workers (Baumgartner et al., 2003; Siqueira et al., 2001a, c;

number of different species described from the oral cavity including

Treponema vincentii (Chan & McLaughlin, 2000).

Gomes et al., 2006; Cavrini et al., 2008).

Clostridium clostridioforme (Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Roche & Yoshimori, 1997).

 Clostridium perfringens Clostridium subterminale and

oral cavity (Van Reenan & Coogan, 1970).

species (Dymock et al., 1996).

second approach.

 Treponema amylovorum Treponema denticola Treponema maltophilum Treponema medium Treponema pectinovorum Treponema socranskii and

The Bacteroides species have been divided into the

saccharolytic genus Prevotella and the asaccharolytic genus Porphyromonas.

The genus Bacteroides has been restricted to the

fermentative Bacteroides fragilis and its closely related species.

B. fragilis, a more common isolate from intra-abdominal infections, which has only infrequently been reported from acute dentoalveolar infections, is not regarded as an oral commensal.

The member of the Bacteroides genus most likely to be recovered from an acute dental abscess is Bacteroides forsythus (now transferred to a new genus as Tannerella forsythia (Gomes et al., 2006).

The most commonly reported anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli from acute dentoalveolar infections are species from the


The Prevotella species are the most frequent isolates, found in

 10–87 % of dentoalveolar abscesses (Baumgartner et al., 2004; Fazakerley et al., 1993; Kolokotronis, 1999; Kulekci et al., 1996; Kuriyama et al., 2005; Lewis et al., 1993; Riggio et al., 2006; Roche & Yoshimori, 1997; Sakamoto et al., 1998; Siqueira et al., 2001b, d; Wade et al., 1994).

The genus Fusobacterium is frequently reported in infections of the head and neck with reports indicating that Fusobacterium species can be detected in up to 52 % of specimens (Gill & Scully, 1990; Gilmore et al., 1988; Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997; Kulekci et al., 1996; Kuriyama et al., 2000a, b, 2005, 2006; Lewis et al., 1993; Mangundjaja & Hardjawinata, 1990; Sakamoto et al., 1998; Wade et al., 1994).


The Clostridia are infrequently reported from odontogenic infections either as a sole pathogen or as part of the abscess flora. Workers have recovered


Clostridium perfringens

20 Maxillofacial Surgery

B. fragilis, a more common isolate from intra-abdominal infections, which has only infrequently been reported from acute dentoalveolar infections, is not regarded as an oral commensal.

The member of the Bacteroides genus most likely to be recovered from an acute dental abscess is Bacteroides forsythus (now transferred to a new genus as Tannerella forsythia

The most commonly reported anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli from acute dentoalveolar

pigmented Prevotella intermedia (comprising Prevotella intermedia, Prevotella

 10–87 % of dentoalveolar abscesses (Baumgartner et al., 2004; Fazakerley et al., 1993; Kolokotronis, 1999; Kulekci et al., 1996; Kuriyama et al., 2005; Lewis et al., 1993; Riggio et al., 2006; Roche & Yoshimori, 1997; Sakamoto et al., 1998; Siqueira et al., 2001b, d;

The genus Fusobacterium is frequently reported in infections of the head and neck with reports indicating that Fusobacterium species can be detected in up to 52 % of specimens (Gill & Scully, 1990; Gilmore et al., 1988; Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997; Kulekci et al., 1996; Kuriyama et al., 2000a, b, 2005, 2006; Lewis et al., 1993; Mangundjaja &

Taxonomy and nomenclature of the genus Fusobacterium also cause difficulties in

 Fusobacterium periodonticum and Fusobacterium nucleatum (which includes subsp. nucleatum, subsp. polymorphum, subsp. animalis, subsp. vincentii and subsp. fusiforme) are frequently detected with F. nucleatum recovered most frequently from the acute dental abscess (Dzink et al., 1990; Chavez de Paz Villanueva, 2002; Sassone et al., 2008). Studies utilizing non-culture techniques for analysis of the dental abscess for the presence of F. nucleatum have reported a prevalence of 73 % (Baumgartner et al., 2004).

The Clostridia are infrequently reported from odontogenic infections either as a sole

 Clostridium species from 2–20 % of specimens (Gorbach et al., 1991; Goumas et al., 1997; Khemaleelakul et al., 2002; Roche & Yoshimori, 1997). Where speciated, these

Porphyromonas endodontalis and Porphyromonas gingivalis (Jacinto et al., 2006).

saccharolytic genus Prevotella and the asaccharolytic genus Porphyromonas.

fermentative Bacteroides fragilis and its closely related species.

The Bacteroides species have been divided into the

The genus Bacteroides has been restricted to the

(Gomes et al., 2006).

infections are species from the

Wade et al., 1994).

isolates have included Clostridium hastiforme Clostridium histolyticum

nigrescens and Prevotella pallens),

The Prevotella species are the most frequent isolates, found in

Hardjawinata, 1990; Sakamoto et al., 1998; Wade et al., 1994).

comparisons across studies. Within the human oral flora,

pathogen or as part of the abscess flora. Workers have recovered


Although other Clostridium species such as Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium bifermentans, Clostridium botulinum, 'Clostridium oedomatiens' and 'Clostridium welchii' have been recovered from carious dentine, they appear to be infrequent pathogens in the oral cavity (Van Reenan & Coogan, 1970).


Treponema species are strictly anaerobic, motile, helically shaped bacteria. Within the oral cavity they are more usually associated with diseases of the periodontium. There are a number of different species described from the oral cavity including

	- The treponemes are difficult to cultivate and differentiate and only T. denticola, T. pectinovorum, T. socranskii and 'T. vincentii' have been readily cultivated. Recent work using PCR detection has indicated a surprisingly high prevalence of Treponema species within the acute dental abscess. Siqueira & Rocas (2004c) found that T. denticola was present in up to 79 % of dental abscesses, with lower detection rates reported by other workers (Baumgartner et al., 2003; Siqueira et al., 2001a, c; Gomes et al., 2006; Cavrini et al., 2008).

Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 23

Infections within the soft tissue spaces constitute about 61% of all orofacial infections and

 Cellulites in these spaces is characterized by severe pain and marked trismus Swelling is more prominent in supramasseteric space than submasseteric space, Trismus is marked in the pterygomandibular, submasseteric and infratemporal

Pain and swelling manifest more intraorally in pterygomandibular and lateral

Difficulty in lying supine; most patients want to sit up, in attempt to get enough

Systemic signs: Features of systemic spread are fever, chills, rigors, anorexia,

 Infections in the lateral pharyngeal space spread down to the posterior triangle as well as underneath and around the sternomastoid muscle. Buccal space infections are located more anteriorly and extraorally2. Infratemporal cellulitis spread more towards

Offending tooth; caries, fracture, failed crown/root filling, tenderness to percussion,

Vital signs: Temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate. Features of systemic spread are

Furuichi *et al*. reported gross mandibular deviation in a case pterygomandibular

Dentoalveolar abscess is the commonest bone infection usually secondary to local factors and it is common in all age groups with incidence of 21.7%. Osteomyelitis is about 8.7% and occurs more in the middle age and elderly due to reduced vascularity and increased bone density of bone with age. Similarly, the disease also occur more in the mandible than maxilla2. However, acute maxillitis of the newborn is a disease that is due to the primary

raised temperature, increased pulse rate and increasing respiratory rate.

infection opthalmia neonatarium acquired from organisms in the birth canal2.

Site, size and extent of swelling and restriction in mouth opening; e.g.,

loss of vitality, inflammed gingiva, recession, pockets.

Associated discharge from the gingiva sulci

**9. Evaluation of orofacial bone infections** 

they are commoner in males than females in both adult and pediatric age groups16

**8. Evaluation of orofacial soft tissue space infections** 

Toothache, pain from any of the site precede that of

pharyngeal space infections6-10

Histories of complains such as

Swelling

spaces3-5

breath

nausea

the temporal region

Paraesthesia/anaesthesia

Dento-alveolar abscess present with

moderate to severe pain

abscess.9

Examine

Dypsnea and Stridor

 Other Treponema species were found in lower numbers, including T. socranskii (in 26 % of aspirates), T. pectinovorum (14–21 % of aspirates), T. amylovorum (16 % of aspirates) and T.medium (5 % of aspirates). Other species such as Treponema lecithinolyticum, 'T. vincentii' and T. maltophilum were not detected.

Improvements in sampling, culture and identification have led to a greater insight into the diversity of the microbial flora in an acute dental abscess. This has resulted in the reporting of micro-organisms which are probably more accurately described as 'unfamiliar' rather than 'new' implying their recent appearance.

These include members of the genus Atopobium


Other unfamiliar species include anaerobic Gram-negative rods such as

	- The detection of these unfamiliar species has opened up a whole new area for possible study into the virulence factors possessed by these bacteria and their relative influence on the pathogenesis of the acute dental abscess and interactions with more commonly isolated and better understood pathogens. These techniques are not without their limitations and meticulous asepsis is required throughout the sampling and analysis procedure to avoid contamination due to the sensitivity of these methods.
	- Furthermore, until recently these techniques could only give semiquantitative analysis of aspirates and indeed some papers cited above can only show the presence or absence of the species in question. This will improve with the advent of quantitative real-time PCR. The use of species-specific primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene or similar is also limited by the fact that they cannot distinguish between transcriptionally active viable cells and those nonvital bystanders. Advanced molecular techniques using reverse transcriptase are finding methods of overcoming these limitations currently. Also, molecular techniques provide little information to guide the clinician in the choice of antibiotic required.

### **8. Evaluation of orofacial soft tissue space infections**

Infections within the soft tissue spaces constitute about 61% of all orofacial infections and they are commoner in males than females in both adult and pediatric age groups16

Histories of complains such as

	- Swelling

22 Maxillofacial Surgery

lecithinolyticum, 'T. vincentii' and T. maltophilum were not detected.

than 'new' implying their recent appearance.

Atopobium rimae.

& Rocas, 2004a).

these methods.

antibiotic required.

2003c).

These include members of the genus Atopobium

Improvements in sampling, culture and identification have led to a greater insight into the diversity of the microbial flora in an acute dental abscess. This has resulted in the reporting of micro-organisms which are probably more accurately described as 'unfamiliar' rather

(Gram-positive strictly anaerobic coccobacilli), for example Atopobium parvulum and

 Centipeda periodontii and Selenomonas sputigena are multi-flagellated, motile, anaerobic, Gram-negative rods also found recently in the acute dental abscess (Siqueira

 Catonella morbi, a Gram-negative anaerobe formerly known as Bacteroides D42, was found in 16 % of 19 aspirates, and Granulicatella adiacens, a facultative anaerobic Gram-positive coccus formerly known as nutritionally variant streptococci, was present

 The detection of these unfamiliar species has opened up a whole new area for possible study into the virulence factors possessed by these bacteria and their relative influence on the pathogenesis of the acute dental abscess and interactions with more commonly isolated and better understood pathogens. These techniques are not without their limitations and meticulous asepsis is required throughout the sampling and analysis procedure to avoid contamination due to the sensitivity of

 Furthermore, until recently these techniques could only give semiquantitative analysis of aspirates and indeed some papers cited above can only show the presence or absence of the species in question. This will improve with the advent of quantitative real-time PCR. The use of species-specific primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene or similar is also limited by the fact that they cannot distinguish between transcriptionally active viable cells and those nonvital bystanders. Advanced molecular techniques using reverse transcriptase are finding methods of overcoming these limitations currently. Also, molecular techniques provide little information to guide the clinician in the choice of

 Anaerobic Gram-positive rods include Bulleidia extructa, Cryptobacterium curtum, Eubacterium sulci, Mogibacterium timidum and Mogibacterium vescum (Sakamoto et al., 2006), Pseudoramibacter alactolyticus and Slakia exigua (Siqueira & Rocas,

Other unfamiliar species include anaerobic Gram-negative rods such as

 Filifactor alocis (Siqueira & Rocas, 2003a, 2004b; Gomes et al., 2006) and Dialister pneumosintes (Siqueira et al., 2005; Siqueira & Rocas, 2003b, 2004b).

in 11 % of 19 aspirates (Rocas & Siqueira, 2005; Siqueira & Rocas, 2006).

 Other Treponema species were found in lower numbers, including T. socranskii (in 26 % of aspirates), T. pectinovorum (14–21 % of aspirates), T. amylovorum (16 % of aspirates) and T.medium (5 % of aspirates). Other species such as Treponema


#### Examine


#### **9. Evaluation of orofacial bone infections**

Dentoalveolar abscess is the commonest bone infection usually secondary to local factors and it is common in all age groups with incidence of 21.7%. Osteomyelitis is about 8.7% and occurs more in the middle age and elderly due to reduced vascularity and increased bone density of bone with age. Similarly, the disease also occur more in the mandible than maxilla2. However, acute maxillitis of the newborn is a disease that is due to the primary infection opthalmia neonatarium acquired from organisms in the birth canal2.

Dento-alveolar abscess present with

moderate to severe pain

Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 25

Evaluation for systemic factors, , fasting blood sugar, Electrolyte/urea/cretinine

Blood films and bone marrow aspirates to rule out leukemia, polycythemia, aplastic

[1] Shafer WG. Infectious diseases. In: Hine MK, Levy BM, eds. A textbook of oral pathology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, USA: WB Saunder's Company, 1974:309-355. [2] Killey HC, Kay LW. Orofacial infections. In: Seward GR, Harris M, McGowan DA, eds.

[3] Contran RS. Infectious diseases. In: Kumar V, Collin Y, eds. Pathologic basis of disease.

[4] Soames JV. Pathological basis of infection. In: Southam JC, ed. Textbook of oral pathology. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995:245-265. [5] Sinnatamby R. Anatomy of the Head and Neck region. In: Last RJ, ed. Regional and applied anatomy. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone 1998:456-478. [6] Cawson RA. Management of infectious diseases In Cawson RA ed. Essentials of oral pathology and oral medicine. 1st ed. London: Micheal Parkinson 1981:88-95. [7] Siegert R. Ultrasonography of inflammatory soft tissue swellings of the head and neck

[8] Jones KC, Silver J, Millar WS, Mandel L. Chronic submasseteric abscess: anatomic, radiologic and pathologic features: Am J Neuroradiol 2003;24: 1159-1163. [9] Furuichi H, Oka M, Takenoshita Y, Kubo K, Shinohara M, Beppu K. A marked

[10] Srirompstong S, Srirompotong S. Surgical emphysema following intraoral drainage of

[11] Baqain ZH, Newman L, Hyde N. How serious are oral infections? J Laryngol Otol

buccal space abscess. J Med Assoc Thai 2002;85: 1314-1316.

mandibular deviation caused by abscess of the pterygomandibular space. Fukuoka

and professional publishing limited, 1989:310- 330.

region. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1987;45:842-846.

Igaku Zasshi 1986;77:373-377.

2004;118:561-565.

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An outline of oral surgery Part Two. 4th ed. Oxford, Great Britain: Reed educational

Disk diffusion sensitivity tests for antibiotics sensitivity

**Sensitivity Test** 

**11. Chemical pathology** 

Retroviral screening

Packed cell volume

**13. Hematology** 

anaemia

**14. References** 

**12. Virology and immunology** 

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

White blood count; total and differential,


Acute osteomyelitis manifests with


Chronic osteomyelitis present with

	- There have been controversies over the origin and aetiology of diffuse sclerosing osteomyelitis. Some authors believe that it is due to organisms like *propionibacterium acne and peptostreptococcus intermedius* found in the deep pockets associated with generalized periodontitis. Others believe that it may be part of a bone, joint and skin {SAPHO; synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis and osteitis} syndrome probably due to allergic or autoimmune reaction in the periosteum7. Based on this fact, it has been found that corticosteroids have been useful in its management with or without prolonged antibiotic therapy and decortications

#### **10. Microbiology**

#### **Microscopy/Culture/Sensitivity**

Different types of agars for culture and sensitivity


#### **Anaerobic culture**


#### **Sensitivity Test**

24 Maxillofacial Surgery

moderate swelling of the alveolus more prominent on the buccal side

new bone formation. Formation of involucrum around the sequestrum

Gram staining techniques for microscopy and identification of organisms

 There have been controversies over the origin and aetiology of diffuse sclerosing osteomyelitis. Some authors believe that it is due to organisms like *propionibacterium acne and peptostreptococcus intermedius* found in the deep pockets associated with generalized periodontitis. Others believe that it may be part of a bone, joint and skin {SAPHO; synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis and osteitis} syndrome probably due to allergic or autoimmune reaction in the periosteum7. Based on this fact, it has been found that corticosteroids have been useful in its management with or without prolonged antibiotic therapy and

rarely, there may be intraoral sinus formation in chronic cases

tenderness to percussion of the affected teeth

 usually no altered sensation mild to moderate mobility of teeth occasionally pus discharge from the sulci

Acute osteomyelitis manifests with

deep-seated pain in the bone

pus discharge from the gingival sulci

 severe tenderness to percussion and absent sensations (anaesthesia) Chronic osteomyelitis present with

 moderate /large bony hard swellings altered sensations (paraesthesia)

decortications

**Microscopy/Culture/Sensitivity** 

Different types of agars for culture and sensitivity

 Blood agar culture: MacKonchey media Antibiotic laden vancomycin-kanamycin agar

**10. Microbiology** 

Bile agar

**Anaerobic culture** 

 Thioglycolate agar Cooked meat broth agar

persistent discharging extraoral sinuses and

moderate bone swelling, welling of the teeth

severe systemic signs

a dull pain

Disk diffusion sensitivity tests for antibiotics sensitivity

#### **11. Chemical pathology**

Evaluation for systemic factors, , fasting blood sugar, Electrolyte/urea/cretinine

#### **12. Virology and immunology**

Retroviral screening

#### **13. Hematology**


#### **14. References**


Aetio-Pathogenesis and Clinical Pattern of Orofacial Infections 27

[32] Robertson D. and Smith AJ (2009). The microbiology of the acute dental abscess. Journal

[33] Baumgartner, J. C., Khemaleelakul, S. U. & Xia, T. (2003). Identification of spirochetes (treponemes) in endodontic infections. J Endod 29, 794–797.[Medline] [34] Baumgartner, J. C., Siqueira, J. F., Jr, Xia, T. & Rocas, I. N. (2004). Geographical

[35] Brook, I. (1987). Microbiology of retropharyngeal abscesses in children. Am J Dis Child

[36] Brook, I., Frazier, E. H. & Gher, M. E. (1991). Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of

[37] Cavrini, F., Pirani, C., Foschi, F., Montebugnoli, L., Sambri, V. & Prati, C. (2008).

[38] Chan, E. C. & McLaughlin, R. (2000). Taxonomy and virulence of oral spirochetes. Oral

[39] Chavez de Paz Villanueva, L. E. (2002). Fusobacterium nucleatum in endodontic flare-

[40] Dymock, D., Weightman, A. J., Scully, C. & Wade, W. G. (1996). Molecular analysis of

[41] Gomes, B. P., Jacinto, R. C., Pinheiro, E. T., Sousa, E. L., Zaia, A. A., Ferraz, C. C. &

[42] Gorbach, S. L., Gilmore, W. C., Jacobus, N. V., Doku, H. C. & Tally, F. P. (1991).

[43] Goumas, P. D., Naxakis, S. S., Papavasiliou, D. A., Moschovakis, E. D., Tsintsos, S. J. &

[44] Kulekci, G., Inanc, D., Kocak, H., Kasapoglu, C. & Gumru, O. Z. (1996). Bacteriology of

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differences in bacteria detected in endodontic infections using polymerase chain

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ups. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 93, 179–

microflora associated with dentoalveolar abscesses. J Clin Microbiol 34, 537–

Souza-Filho, F. J. (2006). Molecular analysis of Filifactor alocis, Tannerella forsythia, and Treponema denticola associated with primary endodontic infections and failed

Microbiology and antibiotic resistance in odontogenic infections. Ann Otol Rhinol

Skoutelis, A. (1997). Periapical abscesses: causal bacteria and antibiotic sensitivity. J

dentoalveolar abscesses in patients who have received empirical antibiotic therapy.

Incidence of beta-lactamase production and antimicrobial susceptibility of anaerobic gram-negative rods isolated from pus specimens of orofacial odontogenic infections. Oral Microbiol Immunol 16, 10–15.[CrossRef][Medline] [46] Siqueira, J. F., Jr & Rocas, I. N. (2004b). Simultaneous detection of Dialister

pneumosintes and Filifactor alocis in endodontic infections by 16S rDNA-directed

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reaction. J Endod 30, 141–144.[Medline]

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[12] Miller EJ Jr, Dodson TB. The risk of serious odontogenic infections in HIV-positive

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[15] Hodgson TA, Rachanis CC. Oral fungal and bacterial infections in HIV-infected

[16] Akinbami BO. Factors associated with orofacial infections. Port Harcourt Medical

[17] Iwahara K, Kuriyama T, Shimura S, Williams DW, Yanagisawa M, Nakagawa K,

[18] Sandor GK, Low DE, Judd PL, Davidson RJ. Antimicrobial treatment options in the management of odontogenic infections. J Can. Dent Assoc 1998;64:508-514. [19] Parker MI, Khateery SM. A retrospective analysis of orofacial infection requiring

[20] Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Treatment of orofacial infections of odontogenic origin. Scand J

[21] Sandor GKB, Low DE, Judd PL, Davidson RJ. Antimicrobial treatment options in the management of odontogenic infections. J Canad Dent Asso 1998;64:508-514. [22] Greenberg RN, James RB, Marier RL. Microbiologic and antibiotic aspects of infections

[23] Moenning JE, Nelson CL, Kohler RB. The microbiology and chemotherapy of

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**3** 

*Germany* 

**The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate** 

*Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Marienhospital Gelsenkirchen, Gelsenkirchen,* 

A correct indication and specific knowledege in planning and harvesting free transplants are needed to minimize morbidity and maximize quality of life (QOL). Since the introduction of microvascular surgery in the 1970s, continuous surgical efforts and research were made to optimize the techniques. Consequently, there exist distinct technical modifications and alternatives that give the surgeon the possibility of adequate technique and flap-design selection dependent on the patient and situation. In the 1990s, the free forearm flap became the most utilised technique for free tissue transfer in the head and neck, with success rates of over 90% (Soutar & McGreagor, 1986, Swanson et al., 1990). The forearm flap was described by Yang and colleagues in 1981 for the first time and has become one of the most used transplants for reconstruction in the head and neck and a widely used transplant for other indications as well. Various complications and functional impairments at the donor site have been reported so far which are presented together with techniques to minimize them, and together with the characteristics,

In 1978, Yang Guofan und Gao Yuzhi harvested a fasciocutaneous radial free flap in the Shenyang Military Hospital for the first time. This transplant got the nickname 'Chinese flap' and became the standard transplant for many indications. In 1981, they described a study of 60 patients with a single transplant loss only. Mühlbauer et al. (1982) were the first who reported upon this transplant outside of China. Stock and contributors raised an innervated flap in 1981 and in 1983, Biemer and Stock utilised an osteocutaneous pedicled transplant for thumb reconstruction. Lovie reported upon an ulnar-based forearm flap in 1984 that was classified as alternative to avoid vascular complications at the donor site by Dost and Rudofsky (1993) (Figure 1). Soutar (1983) proposed the forearm flap for reconstruction of the oral cavity, and thereafter the flap became the most utilised technique for intraoral reconstruction. Partecke et al. described a fat fascia only transplant in 1986 which results in a cosmetic appealing scar line. The defect at the recipient site was covered with a splitthickness graft. Finally, tendons and muscles were included in the transplant as well

**1. Introduction** 

indications and design options of this flap.

**2. Historical description** 

**Selection, Complications and** 

**Functional Outcome** 

Raphael Ciuman and Philipp Dost


## **The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome**

Raphael Ciuman and Philipp Dost *Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Marienhospital Gelsenkirchen, Gelsenkirchen, Germany* 

#### **1. Introduction**

28 Maxillofacial Surgery

[47] Siqueira, J. F., Jr & Rocas, I. N. (2004c). Treponema species associated with

[48] Siqueira, J. F., Jr, Rocas, I. N., Favieri, A., Oliveira, J. C. & Santos, K. R. (2001c).

infections within root canals. Int Endod J 34, 280–284.[CrossRef][Medline] [49] Siqueira, J. F., Rocas, I. N., De Uzeda, M., Colombo, A. P. & Santos, K. R. (2002a).

[50] Storoe, W., Haug, R. H. & Lillich, T. T. (2001). The changing face of odontogenic

infections. Oral Maxillofac Surg 59, 739–748.[CrossRef][Medline].

339.[CrossRef][Medline]

1096.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

abscesses of endodontic origin. Oral Microbiol Immunol 19, 336–

Polymerase chain reaction detection of Treponema denticola in endodontic

Comparison of 16S rDNA-based PCR and checkerboard DNA-DNA hybridisation for detection of selected endodontic pathogens. J Med Microbiol 51, 1090–

> A correct indication and specific knowledege in planning and harvesting free transplants are needed to minimize morbidity and maximize quality of life (QOL). Since the introduction of microvascular surgery in the 1970s, continuous surgical efforts and research were made to optimize the techniques. Consequently, there exist distinct technical modifications and alternatives that give the surgeon the possibility of adequate technique and flap-design selection dependent on the patient and situation. In the 1990s, the free forearm flap became the most utilised technique for free tissue transfer in the head and neck, with success rates of over 90% (Soutar & McGreagor, 1986, Swanson et al., 1990). The forearm flap was described by Yang and colleagues in 1981 for the first time and has become one of the most used transplants for reconstruction in the head and neck and a widely used transplant for other indications as well. Various complications and functional impairments at the donor site have been reported so far which are presented together with techniques to minimize them, and together with the characteristics, indications and design options of this flap.

#### **2. Historical description**

In 1978, Yang Guofan und Gao Yuzhi harvested a fasciocutaneous radial free flap in the Shenyang Military Hospital for the first time. This transplant got the nickname 'Chinese flap' and became the standard transplant for many indications. In 1981, they described a study of 60 patients with a single transplant loss only. Mühlbauer et al. (1982) were the first who reported upon this transplant outside of China. Stock and contributors raised an innervated flap in 1981 and in 1983, Biemer and Stock utilised an osteocutaneous pedicled transplant for thumb reconstruction. Lovie reported upon an ulnar-based forearm flap in 1984 that was classified as alternative to avoid vascular complications at the donor site by Dost and Rudofsky (1993) (Figure 1). Soutar (1983) proposed the forearm flap for reconstruction of the oral cavity, and thereafter the flap became the most utilised technique for intraoral reconstruction. Partecke et al. described a fat fascia only transplant in 1986 which results in a cosmetic appealing scar line. The defect at the recipient site was covered with a splitthickness graft. Finally, tendons and muscles were included in the transplant as well

The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome 31

defects of the oral cavity; a

glossoalveolaris sulcus is easier

modeling in the

preserved

oral part

before

skull base

heel defects

with palate defects pretibial defects

when the mandible is

tongue reconstruction for defects > 50%; superficial tongue defects, especially the

pharynx reconstruction; also when a muscle flap was lost

middle-sized defects of the

defects of the midface and orbit oronasel fistulas associated

hand- and arm reconstruction

back of the hand, because of a declined tendency for oedema

defects of the oral cavity

and impaired function compared to the palm intraoral defects

defects of the oral cavity

tongue reconstruction; especially the oral part

trigeminus resection trauma with nerve damage

palm and sole penile and urethral construction

poor sensory potency, e.g. after

**transplant design characteristics indications** 

*sites* 

*standard transplant with the most indications and described recipient* 

*the remaining fascia decreases wound healing and functional impairment improved cosmetic result , but not improved sensory outcome* 

*improved cosmetic result at the* 

*about 10-15% shrinking at the* 

*prevention of xerostomia no reepitheliation and scar tissue formation at the recipient site silicon sheets allow an expansion of* 

*prevention of aspiration* 

*high compatibility at the recipient site*

*forearm* 

*recipient site prolonged therapy* 

*about 30-50% prolonged therapy* 

innervated transplant *improved sensory potency* 

faciocutaneous transplant

suprafascially elevated transplant

transplant

prelaminated fasciomucosal transplant

with split-thickness skin prefabricated

(Cavanagh et al., 1991). To improve the donor site morbidity, Webster and Robinson (1995) as well as S.C. Chang et al. (1996) described a suprafascial raised forearm flap in the 1990s but there were no differences demonstrable concerning the sensory outcome. Wolff and colleagues (1995) described a prefabricated fascial-split-thickness flap, and Rath and contributors (1997) widened the technical varieties by introducing a prelaminated fasciomucosal flap that was raised after six weeks. Interesting are the work of Costa and colleagues (1993) who used silicon moulds, silicone tubes and split-thickness grafts to reconstruct mouth, nose or ear, and the work of Pribaz und Fine (1994) who provided auricular cartilage into the flap to reconstruct the nose. Besides titanium mesh together with a free forearm flap can be used for reconstruction in the head and neck (Hashikawa et al., 2006; Kubo et al., 2009).

Fig. 1. The ulnar forearm free flap after harvesting and covering the donor defect with splitthickness skin graft intraoperative and three months later

To choose the functional and aesthetic most adequate and for the patient least stressful transplant, all designs fasciocutaneous/cutaneous, musculocutaneous/muscle, osteocutaneous/osteomusculocutaneous should be considered. Musculocutaneous flaps are superior to fasciocutaneous flaps for deep, poor vascularized and infected defects. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics and indications for the most adequate forearm flap designs.

(Cavanagh et al., 1991). To improve the donor site morbidity, Webster and Robinson (1995) as well as S.C. Chang et al. (1996) described a suprafascial raised forearm flap in the 1990s but there were no differences demonstrable concerning the sensory outcome. Wolff and colleagues (1995) described a prefabricated fascial-split-thickness flap, and Rath and contributors (1997) widened the technical varieties by introducing a prelaminated fasciomucosal flap that was raised after six weeks. Interesting are the work of Costa and colleagues (1993) who used silicon moulds, silicone tubes and split-thickness grafts to reconstruct mouth, nose or ear, and the work of Pribaz und Fine (1994) who provided auricular cartilage into the flap to reconstruct the nose. Besides titanium mesh together with a free forearm flap can be used for reconstruction in the head and neck (Hashikawa et al.,

Fig. 1. The ulnar forearm free flap after harvesting and covering the donor defect with split-

To choose the functional and aesthetic most adequate and for the patient least stressful transplant, all designs fasciocutaneous/cutaneous, musculocutaneous/muscle, osteocutaneous/osteomusculocutaneous should be considered. Musculocutaneous flaps are superior to fasciocutaneous flaps for deep, poor vascularized and infected defects. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics and indications for the most adequate forearm

thickness skin graft intraoperative and three months later

2006; Kubo et al., 2009).

flap designs.


The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome 33

an origination of the ulnar artery from the axillary artery in 0.93%. A median artery originates from the brachial artery and runs through the two bellies of the pronator teres muscle. A superficial ulnar artery is found in about 2-9% (Devansh MS, 1996; McCormack,1953; Weathersby 1956). It runs on the flexor muscles but beneath the palmaris longus muscle and the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. The last muscle can be absent in these cases. Radial or ulnar artery dominace can be a hint for presence of a superficial ulnar artery or median artery, which can be

The venous drainage of the forearm is guaranteed equally by the subcutaneous veins and the venae commitantes. Consequently, the subcutaneous veins can be preserved or serve for a vein graft. A transplant based on the deep venous system shows advantages in older patients (Weinzweig et al., 1994) and avoids the risk provided by veins venipunctured a few days or weeks ago (Hallock, 1986) and facilitates the prevention of cutaneous nerve damage. The superficial venous system shows high variety in size, dominance and course. Numerous anastomoses exist between the superficial veins, the deep veins and the deep and superficial

Boutros (2000) described that the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve supplies 61.8% of the potential flap area (range 48.3-71.6%), the superficial radial nerve 34.6% (range 26.8-44.1%)

The distinct qualities made the forearm flap to the workhorse in head and neck reconstruction. It is possible to place the flap more proximal or distal without risking the vitality of the flap. The forearm flap provides constant anatomy, is simple and rapid to harvest, possesses many kinds of alternatives in supplying arteries, veins and nerves and shows good vascularisation that results in high vitality and tolerance to radiotherapy (I.A. McGregor & F.M. McGregor, 1986; Soutar & Tanner, 1986). In this regards, this flap excels by its long and large-caliber vascular pedicle and nerves permitting a contralateral anastomosis and the by-passing of vascular defects, even after a neck dissection. The relative large diameter of 2 mm protects from thrombosis and the vessels show seldom sclerotic changes. But de Bree et al. reported a sclerotic impaired radial artery which precluded an anastomosis (DeBree et al., 2004). The flap is thin explaining its pliability, contourability, consistent volume and surface over time. Together with the possibility of harvesting innervated flaps and the relative few hair growth, these are the main reasons for satisfactory aesthetic and intraoral results. Ahcan et al. (2000) described high sensory potency compared to other flaps. The hair growth on the forearm shows some variety, whereas the ulnar side possesses less hair growth in general. To optimize the aesthetic outcome, skin color, texture,

The ulnar artery is a little bit shorter than the radial artery. Advantages consist in a less exposed skin area, in a defect that is easier to close, less hair growth and less risk of nerve damage or numb areas. Becker und Gilbert (1988) described a flap based on the dorsal ulnar artery, which originates from the ulnar artery 2-4 cm proximal to the os pisiforme and has a diameter of 0.8-1.2 mm. This variation can be utilised for a fasciocutaneous pedicled flap of 10x5 cm in size, but has a relative short vessel length. The advantages and disadvantages of

and the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve 33.8% (range 30.5-38.9%).

hair growth and skin thickness should be evaluated.

the forearm flap are summarized in Table 2.

used for elevation instead of the dominat artery (Bell et al., 2011; Davidson et al., 2009).

venous system.

**4. Characteristics** 


Table 1. Aspects of selecting the adequate transplant design

#### **3. Important anatomical variations**

Important anatomical variations in regards with the free forearm flap transfer were reported, and should be described briefly. The raised forearm flap area should not extend beyond the antecubital fossa and the radial or ulnar borders to avoid complications and sensory impairment. Yang et al. (1981) described a forearm flap of 35x15 cm, but the dimensions of the forearm transplant are limited by the bifurcation of the forearm arteries at the level of the antecubital fossa.

Both, the radial and the ulnar artery participate in the blood supply of the palmar arches but show in only 27-35% equal supply to the hand and fingers (Coleman & Anson, 1961; Jaschintski, 1897).

In 4,31 % (McCormack, 1953), the radial artery possesses an unusual course: a dorsal course in the distal third (Otsuka & Terauchi, 1991), a deep course beneath the pronator teres muscle (Small & Millar, 1985) and a superficial course on the brachioradialis muscle (Saski et al., 1999). These variations are explained by the origination of the radial artery from the anterior interosseous artery and the superficial brachial artery, respectively. In those cases a precise examination of the forearm vessels and its dominance is necessary preoperatively. Mc Cormack (1953) described in a study with 750 bodies, the origination of the radial artery from the axillary artery in 2.13%, in 5.7% a superficial brachial artery that courses medial to the biceps muscle, in single cases a superficial radial artery and in 4.43% a median artery. Besides, McCormack found an origination of the ulnar artery from the axillary artery in 0.93%. A median artery originates from the brachial artery and runs through the two bellies of the pronator teres muscle. A superficial ulnar artery is found in about 2-9% (Devansh MS, 1996; McCormack,1953; Weathersby 1956). It runs on the flexor muscles but beneath the palmaris longus muscle and the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. The last muscle can be absent in these cases. Radial or ulnar artery dominace can be a hint for presence of a superficial ulnar artery or median artery, which can be used for elevation instead of the dominat artery (Bell et al., 2011; Davidson et al., 2009).

The venous drainage of the forearm is guaranteed equally by the subcutaneous veins and the venae commitantes. Consequently, the subcutaneous veins can be preserved or serve for a vein graft. A transplant based on the deep venous system shows advantages in older patients (Weinzweig et al., 1994) and avoids the risk provided by veins venipunctured a few days or weeks ago (Hallock, 1986) and facilitates the prevention of cutaneous nerve damage. The superficial venous system shows high variety in size, dominance and course. Numerous anastomoses exist between the superficial veins, the deep veins and the deep and superficial venous system.

Boutros (2000) described that the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve supplies 61.8% of the potential flap area (range 48.3-71.6%), the superficial radial nerve 34.6% (range 26.8-44.1%) and the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve 33.8% (range 30.5-38.9%).

#### **4. Characteristics**

32 Maxillofacial Surgery

mandibular reconstruction for defects of up to 9 cm length; especially defects of the ramus and those with small bone and large soft-tissue defects

tongue reconstruction reconstruction of the floor of

infection, e.g. osteomyelitis hand and elbow defects

transplant to improve filling and sliding; especially for the

defects of the hand or arm

the mouth external defects

back of the hand hand and elbow oral cavity

skin defects

**transplant design characteristics indications** 

*harvestable* 

*bone up to a length of 12 cm is* 

*robust transplant, but increased* 

*harvesting a single muscle, in most cases the brachioradialis muscle, is* 

*cosmetic and functional result at the* 

*not the adequate transplant for exposed recipient sites, when coverage with split-thickness graft is* 

*possibility of local anesthesia* 

*but a flap fixation for about 14 days is* 

Important anatomical variations in regards with the free forearm flap transfer were reported, and should be described briefly. The raised forearm flap area should not extend beyond the antecubital fossa and the radial or ulnar borders to avoid complications and sensory impairment. Yang et al. (1981) described a forearm flap of 35x15 cm, but the dimensions of the forearm transplant are limited by the bifurcation of the forearm arteries at

Both, the radial and the ulnar artery participate in the blood supply of the palmar arches but show in only 27-35% equal supply to the hand and fingers (Coleman & Anson, 1961;

In 4,31 % (McCormack, 1953), the radial artery possesses an unusual course: a dorsal course in the distal third (Otsuka & Terauchi, 1991), a deep course beneath the pronator teres muscle (Small & Millar, 1985) and a superficial course on the brachioradialis muscle (Saski et al., 1999). These variations are explained by the origination of the radial artery from the anterior interosseous artery and the superficial brachial artery, respectively. In those cases a precise examination of the forearm vessels and its dominance is necessary preoperatively. Mc Cormack (1953) described in a study with 750 bodies, the origination of the radial artery from the axillary artery in 2.13%, in 5.7% a superficial brachial artery that courses medial to the biceps muscle, in single cases a superficial radial artery and in 4.43% a median artery. Besides, McCormack found

*donor site morbidity* 

*possible as well* 

*donor site* 

*necessary* 

*necessary* 

**3. Important anatomical variations** 

the level of the antecubital fossa.

Jaschintski, 1897).

Table 1. Aspects of selecting the adequate transplant design

pedicled transplant *length of the incision is reduced* 

fat-fascia transplant *highly vascularized tissue* 

osteocutaneous transplant

musculocutaneous

teno-

transplant

The distinct qualities made the forearm flap to the workhorse in head and neck reconstruction. It is possible to place the flap more proximal or distal without risking the vitality of the flap. The forearm flap provides constant anatomy, is simple and rapid to harvest, possesses many kinds of alternatives in supplying arteries, veins and nerves and shows good vascularisation that results in high vitality and tolerance to radiotherapy (I.A. McGregor & F.M. McGregor, 1986; Soutar & Tanner, 1986). In this regards, this flap excels by its long and large-caliber vascular pedicle and nerves permitting a contralateral anastomosis and the by-passing of vascular defects, even after a neck dissection. The relative large diameter of 2 mm protects from thrombosis and the vessels show seldom sclerotic changes. But de Bree et al. reported a sclerotic impaired radial artery which precluded an anastomosis (DeBree et al., 2004). The flap is thin explaining its pliability, contourability, consistent volume and surface over time. Together with the possibility of harvesting innervated flaps and the relative few hair growth, these are the main reasons for satisfactory aesthetic and intraoral results. Ahcan et al. (2000) described high sensory potency compared to other flaps. The hair growth on the forearm shows some variety, whereas the ulnar side possesses less hair growth in general. To optimize the aesthetic outcome, skin color, texture, hair growth and skin thickness should be evaluated.

The ulnar artery is a little bit shorter than the radial artery. Advantages consist in a less exposed skin area, in a defect that is easier to close, less hair growth and less risk of nerve damage or numb areas. Becker und Gilbert (1988) described a flap based on the dorsal ulnar artery, which originates from the ulnar artery 2-4 cm proximal to the os pisiforme and has a diameter of 0.8-1.2 mm. This variation can be utilised for a fasciocutaneous pedicled flap of 10x5 cm in size, but has a relative short vessel length. The advantages and disadvantages of the forearm flap are summarized in Table 2.

The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome 35

increased sensory capacity of the flap, even improved to the surrounding tissue. The flap should not be raised, if one palmar arch is absent, if there exists an absolute artery dominance or if one forearm artery is missing. Bone should not be included, if it shows

**Complications at the recipient site** 

fistula formation pharyngeal: 18-32%5 15 17 18 29 38 42/86% close

Table 3. Complications at the recipient site (References are listed under Annexes 9.1

**6. Complications, function loss at the donor site and techniques to minimize**  Correct planning and elevation prsupposed, there will be no clinically relevant limitatations in strength, motion and hemodynamics in the forearm and hand after free forearm flap transfer. Sensory and cosmetic outcome is perceived as non-disturbing (Ciuman et al., 2007). The complication rates and the rates of function loss at the donor site are summarized in

To optimize the functional and aesthetic outcome at the donor site, different techniques and tests can be applied. A preoperative Doppler sonography is suggested before raising the forearm flap (Dost & Rudofsky, 1993; Dost, 2001). Cases of acute ischemia of the hand were described, although a preoperative assessment with the Allen's test was performed. An absence of a forearm vessel, one palmar arch (in about 4,5%) (Partecke & Buck-Gramcko, 1984), or an absolute dominance of one vessel can lead to an inadequate blood supply of the forearm and hand. Only in those cases, vascular diseases or young patients (Kropfl et al., 1995), a vein graft seems to be profitable (Meland et al., 1993). Heller et al. (2004) described a patient with finger necrosis months after the operation, caused by an absent deep palmar arch, and the subsequent reconstruction of the radial artery. Circia-Llorens et al. (1999) could prove that the remaining forearm vessels, especially the anterior interosseous artery, show an increase in diameter and flow. It could be shown that this vessel forms an

spontaneously1

spontaneously1

oral: 05 36-9%16 33 35 /83% close

Total 1016 26 41-3922 33

partial transplant loss 116 22 –3%5 17 thrombosis 2%16-9%22 36

hematoma/seroma 421 33-7%16 24 infection 416-12%33 41 dehiscence 416 41-12%33

stricture, stenosis 81 20-30%15 reoperations 324-19%37

anastomosis with the vessel stump of the harvested artery.

obstruction of vein grafts 9%19

transplant loss 3-13%7 13 16 25 30 31 33 36 41

osteoporotic changes.

References Table 3)

Table 4.


Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of the forearm flap

#### **5. Indications**

The forearm serves for a free flap transplant and a pedicled flap as well. Because of the above mentioned advantages and in Table 1 summarized qualtities and characteristics, the forearm flap represents the first therapy option for various kinds of surgical indications with a high overall success rate (Table 3. Complications at the recipient site). It is a highly utilised flap at pretentious recipient sites like the oral cavity, the palate, after a trauma or a tumor resection. The forearm flap replaced the pectoralis major transplant in tongue reconstruction, especially for the oral part of the tongue (Schustermann et al., 1991). The forearm flap particularly serves for the reconstruction of superficial defects. It is used for jaw reconstruction or penile and urethral reconstruction and for coverage of pretibial defects as well, as it is a thin transplant (Biemer, 1988; T.S. Chang and Hwang, 1984). An innervated radial forearm flap is raised with the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve and an ulnar forearm flap with the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve. Innervated flaps could show a faster and increased sensory recovery (Santamaria et al., 1998). Nerve fibers with normal ultrastructure can be found at the recipient site immunohistochemically, in contrast to Waller degeneration and nerve fiber loss in non-innervated flaps (Katou et al., 1995). Boyd et al. (1994) and Dubner et al. (1992) could show that innervated transplants result in an

**advantages disadvantages**  constant anatomy discontent of the cosmetic outcome of this

The forearm serves for a free flap transplant and a pedicled flap as well. Because of the above mentioned advantages and in Table 1 summarized qualtities and characteristics, the forearm flap represents the first therapy option for various kinds of surgical indications with a high overall success rate (Table 3. Complications at the recipient site). It is a highly utilised flap at pretentious recipient sites like the oral cavity, the palate, after a trauma or a tumor resection. The forearm flap replaced the pectoralis major transplant in tongue reconstruction, especially for the oral part of the tongue (Schustermann et al., 1991). The forearm flap particularly serves for the reconstruction of superficial defects. It is used for jaw reconstruction or penile and urethral reconstruction and for coverage of pretibial defects as well, as it is a thin transplant (Biemer, 1988; T.S. Chang and Hwang, 1984). An innervated radial forearm flap is raised with the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve and an ulnar forearm flap with the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve. Innervated flaps could show a faster and increased sensory recovery (Santamaria et al., 1998). Nerve fibers with normal ultrastructure can be found at the recipient site immunohistochemically, in contrast to Waller degeneration and nerve fiber loss in non-innervated flaps (Katou et al., 1995). Boyd et al. (1994) and Dubner et al. (1992) could show that innervated transplants result in an

several altenatives in arteries, veins and

excellent vascularisation: the lenghth of the artery is 10-18 cm, the diameter about 2 mm, almost no sclerotic changes;→important at

surgically difficult recipient sites

thin→no airway obstruction pliability, contourability: folding in sandwich technique is possible

tolerance to radiation therapy infections like osteomyelitis or a osteoradionecrosis often show primary wound healing because of excellent

flap thickness may be varied by flap placement more distal or proximal

simple and rapid to harvest proximal as

consistent volume and surface over time skin with high sensory (protecting) potency

several skin islands can be raised at the

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of the forearm flap

nerves

well as distal

vascularisation

**5. Indications** 

perforators

exposed area is possible

forearm and the face

and the transplant may occur

to the hand

necessity of a preoperative doppler sonography to guarantee the blood supply

color differences between the skin of the

a longer, more pretentious and exhausting operation compared to a local defect closure

scar tissue fixation between the recipient site

increased sensory capacity of the flap, even improved to the surrounding tissue. The flap should not be raised, if one palmar arch is absent, if there exists an absolute artery dominance or if one forearm artery is missing. Bone should not be included, if it shows osteoporotic changes.


Table 3. Complications at the recipient site (References are listed under Annexes 9.1 References Table 3)

#### **6. Complications, function loss at the donor site and techniques to minimize**

Correct planning and elevation prsupposed, there will be no clinically relevant limitatations in strength, motion and hemodynamics in the forearm and hand after free forearm flap transfer. Sensory and cosmetic outcome is perceived as non-disturbing (Ciuman et al., 2007). The complication rates and the rates of function loss at the donor site are summarized in Table 4.

To optimize the functional and aesthetic outcome at the donor site, different techniques and tests can be applied. A preoperative Doppler sonography is suggested before raising the forearm flap (Dost & Rudofsky, 1993; Dost, 2001). Cases of acute ischemia of the hand were described, although a preoperative assessment with the Allen's test was performed. An absence of a forearm vessel, one palmar arch (in about 4,5%) (Partecke & Buck-Gramcko, 1984), or an absolute dominance of one vessel can lead to an inadequate blood supply of the forearm and hand. Only in those cases, vascular diseases or young patients (Kropfl et al., 1995), a vein graft seems to be profitable (Meland et al., 1993). Heller et al. (2004) described a patient with finger necrosis months after the operation, caused by an absent deep palmar arch, and the subsequent reconstruction of the radial artery. Circia-Llorens et al. (1999) could prove that the remaining forearm vessels, especially the anterior interosseous artery, show an increase in diameter and flow. It could be shown that this vessel forms an anastomosis with the vessel stump of the harvested artery.

The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome 37

**initial final** 

023- 32%11 32 77.144- 86.5%19 of the defects covered with split-thickness

grafts

53-14%1 11 119- 10%3 11 32

8,6 % of those areas are anesthetical44

8.6%44 of the defects covered with spiltthickness grafts

of the patients have a two-point discrimination on the defects covered with split-thickness

1412- 19.6%11 19

29.5%, but in only

pronounced19

311-36%; 6.5% of them are distinct or strong19

1,1%

grafts

sporadically, < 3% sporadically, < 3%

with time 0-32%1 3 6 7 11 12 14 24 32 43 44

single cases of heat intolerance39

(climate dependency)

manifesting subjective sensory dysfunction often signals nerve regeneration or nerve ingrowth

hypersensitiveness 1011-40.6%19

16-75% 3 5 9 11 12 21 24

32 41 43

 **Type Frequency** 

**qualitative** allesthesia sporadically, < 3% only 1011 -12.4%19

**dissociated** temperature discrimination cold intolerance with improvement

Table 5. Frequencies of sensory impairment at the donor site after fasciocutaneous forarm

flap transfer (References are listed under Annexes 9.3 References Table 5)

hyperesthesia, hyperalgesia, hyperpathia (neuroma)

causalgia/reflex sympathetic

dystrophy

scar pain

dysesthesia

**subjective** itching initially

**quantitative** hypoesthesia, hypopathia, hypoalgesia


Table 4. Frequencies of complications and function loss at the donor site (References are listed under Annexes 9.2 References Table 4)

Wound healing problems can result in impaired functional outcome. A limited wrist and finger motion and decresed muscle strength can result from graft necrosis, exposed tendons, and subsequent adherent scar formation (Kröpfl et al.). A careful coverage of the tendons with flexor muscles guarantees a plain wound for the split-thickness graft. The paratenon should be preserved, the flap can be placed more proximally and the arm should be immobilized in extension to achieve an optimal wound healing. If muscle or bone is included in the flap, the wound healing is delayed and the risk of wound healing problems is increased. Vacuumtechnique (Argenta & Morykwas, 1997) can assist wound healing in complicated cases. A short-time hyperalimentation should be considered in tumor patients as well.

A careful preparation, together with an oblique incision to avoid dead space, especially when thick subcutaneous tissue is present, avoid hematoma and seroma formation and leads to an improved healing of the split-thickness graft.

The fracture rate after an osteocutaneous ulnar or radial transplant varies between 8 and 43% but can be decreased by physiotherapy, harvesting not more than one third of the bone, performing a "boat-shaped" osteotomy, that decreases the stress concentration effect by 5% (Meland et al., 1992), and immobilizing the arm in extension for 6-8 weeks (Partecke & Buck-Gramcko, 1984). A control radiography should be performed before and after the operation.

All different kinds of objective (quantitative, qualitative, dissociated) and subjective sensory impairment were described subsequently to the free forearm flap transfer. But in general, the patient states that he is not affected in his daily activities. Table 5 summarizes the frequencies of disturbed sensory modalities and qualities after free forearm flap transfer.

**Complications at the donor site** 

8-43%3 7 8 10 32 41 43

**Function loss and long-time results at the donor site**  fasciocutaneous: intact range of wrist motion in 94.4% and free forearm rotation in 97.4%19

unsightly scar formation19 unstable scar 10.5% level differences 46.8%

Table 4. Frequencies of complications and function loss at the donor site (References are

Wound healing problems can result in impaired functional outcome. A limited wrist and finger motion and decresed muscle strength can result from graft necrosis, exposed tendons, and subsequent adherent scar formation (Kröpfl et al.). A careful coverage of the tendons with flexor muscles guarantees a plain wound for the split-thickness graft. The paratenon should be preserved, the flap can be placed more proximally and the arm should be immobilized in extension to achieve an optimal wound healing. If muscle or bone is included in the flap, the wound healing is delayed and the risk of wound healing problems is increased. Vacuumtechnique (Argenta & Morykwas, 1997) can assist wound healing in complicated cases. A

A careful preparation, together with an oblique incision to avoid dead space, especially when thick subcutaneous tissue is present, avoid hematoma and seroma formation and

The fracture rate after an osteocutaneous ulnar or radial transplant varies between 8 and 43% but can be decreased by physiotherapy, harvesting not more than one third of the bone, performing a "boat-shaped" osteotomy, that decreases the stress concentration effect by 5% (Meland et al., 1992), and immobilizing the arm in extension for 6-8 weeks (Partecke & Buck-Gramcko, 1984). A control radiography should be performed before and after the operation. All different kinds of objective (quantitative, qualitative, dissociated) and subjective sensory impairment were described subsequently to the free forearm flap transfer. But in general, the patient states that he is not affected in his daily activities. Table 5 summarizes the frequencies of disturbed sensory modalities and qualities after free forearm flap

suprafascial transplant: 0-6-%2 24

fasciocutaneous transplant: 8-24%3 16 21 32 37 44

pigmentation disturbance 58.4% strong plaster over 18.7%

**total patients with complications 14-33%16 37 41**

necrosis above a tendon 316-13%5 21 32 hematoma/seroma 216-7%37 infection 13%37 radius fracture in ostoescutaneous

osteocutaneous: intact range of wrist motion in 89-90%34 after fractures impaired range of motion in up to 50%3

discontent 2-28%11 24 27 28 32 41

leads to an improved healing of the split-thickness graft.

listed under Annexes 9.2 References Table 4)

impaired muscle strength 0-16%11 32 39 40; after fractures: 50%3 32

1.3%19

short-time hyperalimentation should be considered in tumor patients as well.

delayed wound healing at the

mean circumference loss in fasciocutaneous flaps

donor site

flaps

transfer.


Table 5. Frequencies of sensory impairment at the donor site after fasciocutaneous forarm flap transfer (References are listed under Annexes 9.3 References Table 5)

The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome 39

Microvascular surgery often presents the only possibility to reach satisfactory functional, and cosmetic outcomes and to achieve acceptable quality of life for reconstruction in the head and neck. Due to distinct charactersitics the forearm flap is one of the most used transplants for reconstruction in the head and neck and a widely used transplant for other indications as well. Correct planning and elevation presupposed the flap success rates average at least 90% with no relevant limitations in strength, motion and hemodynanics in the forearm or hand and non-disturbing sensory and cosmetic outcome at the donor site.

Frequencies of sensory impairment at the donor site after fasciocutaneous forarm flap

[1] Anthony JP, Singer MI, Deschler DG. Dougherty ET, Reed CG & Kaplan MJ. (1994).

[3] Bardsley AF, Soutar DS, Elliot D & Batchelor AG. (1990). Reducing morbidity in the

[4] Becker C & Gilbert A. (1988) The ulnar flap. (German). *Handchir Mikrochir Plast Chir,* 

[5] Blackwell KE. (1999). Unsurpassed reliability of free flaps for head and neck

[6] Bootz F, Becker D & Fliesek J. (1993). Functional results and survival of tumor patients

[8] Boyd JB, Rosen I, Rotstein L, Freeman J, Gullane P, Manktelow R & Zuker R. (1990). The

reconstruction. *Am J Surg,* 159(3), pp. 301-308. ISSN:0002-9610

radial forearm flap. (German). *HNO,* 41(8), pp. 542-552. ISSN: 0017-6192 [7] Boorman JG, Brown JA & Sykes PJ. (1987). Morbidity in the forearm flap donor arm. *Br J* 

radial forearm free flap. *Am J Surg,* 168(5), pp. 441-445. ISSN: 0002-9610 [2] Avery CM, Pereira J & Brown AE. (2001). Suprafascial dissection of the radial forearm

Long-term functional results after pharyngoesophageal reconstruction with the

flap and donor site morbidity. *Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg,* 30(1), pp. 42-48. ISSN:

radial forearm flap donor site. *Plast Reconstr Surg,* 86(2), pp. 287-294. ISSN: 0032-

reconstruction. *Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg,* 125(3), pp. 295-299. ISSN: 0886-

after reconstruction of the mouth cavity and oropharynx using a microvascular

iliac crest and the radial forearm flap in vascularized oromandibular

**8. Conclusion** 

**9. Annexes** 

transfer

**9.1 References Table 3** 

**9.2 References Table 4** 

**9.3 References Table 5** 

0901-5027

1052

4470

Complications at the recipient site

Frequencies of complications and function loss at the donor site

20(4), pp. 180-183. ISSN: 0722-1819

*Plast Surg,* 40(2), pp. 207-212. ISSN: 0007-1226

Initially, sensory disturbances can be found in 17-75% but decrease during the next months. Hypersensitiveness, paresthesias and dysesthesias can signal sensory regeneration. However, hyperesthesia and neuralgia could signal nerve section, but decrease in the following months, too. Together with pain due to neuroma formation or causalgia, they are difficult to treat, what underlines the importance of careful preparation and good vascularisation to prevent perineural scar formation and assist nerve regeneration. Richardson et al. (1997) described four neuromas in a group of 86 patients making a surgical neuroma excision necessary (Anthony et al., 1994). The nerve endings should be covered with muscle and not come into contact with the split-thickness skin graft. Although it is not possible to preserve the cutaneous nerves in each case, e.g. the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve or the superficial radial nerve, an ulnar-based flap and the limitated dimension to the radial or ulnar border can improve sensory outcome (Lovie et al., 1984).

It is not surprising that women are more pretentious with regard to the aesthetic outcome at the forearm. Alternatives for achieving the optimal cosmetic result are dicussed in Table 1 and the following paragraph. Hülsbergen-Krüger et al. (1996) described in their group of 267 patients after closing the defect with split-thickness graft, reduced pigmentation in 43.4%, increased pigmentation in 15%, level differences > 0.1 cm in 46.8%, but in only 12% >0.4 cm, an unstable scar in 10.5% and an adherence of the defect in 18.7%. Adequate compression, first with dressings and later with compression stockings, and the application of 2 mm metal plates can assist the wound healing.

#### **7. Closure of the donor site**

The most utilised technique to close the defect at the donor site is the coverage with 0.2-0.6 mm split-thickness skin grafts. Lutz and colleagues described a success rate of 98% compared with 84% in full skin grafts (Lutz et al., 1999). However, if the wound is not plain, e.g. above a tendon, opposite results can be found as well. Other studies showed a complete loss of the split-thickness skin graft in 8 (Evans et al., 1994) -16% (Richardson et al., 1997), a partial loss in 16-35% (Bardsley et al., 1990; A.D. McGregor, 1987; Meland et al., 1993, Richardson et al., 1997; Swanson et al., 1990; Timmons et al., 1986), and a loss of splitthickness skin grafts in suprafascial elevated flaps in 0-4% (Avery et al., 2001, Chang et al., 1996, Lutz et al., 1999). Patients are more content with full skin grafts than with splitthickness grafts: 92% to 57% (Lutz et al., 1999). Defects up to 4x8 cm in size can be closed with a V-Y transposition flap (Elliot et al., 1996). Enough skin should be disposable to avoid limitations in wrist extension, chronic lymphatic edema, sensory disturbance of the forearm or necrosis. Another alternative of closure is skin expansion that can be primary (Bardsley et al., 1990; Herndl & Mühlbauer, 1986) or secondary. Because of wound healing problems in about 30%, Hallock (1988) recommends for the secondary skin expansion a coverage with split-thickness skin graft , in the first instance. After six weeks, it is possible to begin the expansion. A secondary shrinking and a thinning out of the subcutaneous tissue needs to be considered. The skin area of the harvested transplant should never be expanded as a shrinking at the recipient site would be the consequence. The flap preparation should begin from the region opposite to the expanded area to avoid shrinking during the operation. However, a disturbance of the microcirculation with venous congestion might still occur. Dehiscence after expansion was described in up to 40% (Bootz et al., 1993; Lovie et al., 1984), but other studies showed complication rates of less than 10% (Makitie et al., 1997).

#### **8. Conclusion**

38 Maxillofacial Surgery

Initially, sensory disturbances can be found in 17-75% but decrease during the next months. Hypersensitiveness, paresthesias and dysesthesias can signal sensory regeneration. However, hyperesthesia and neuralgia could signal nerve section, but decrease in the following months, too. Together with pain due to neuroma formation or causalgia, they are difficult to treat, what underlines the importance of careful preparation and good vascularisation to prevent perineural scar formation and assist nerve regeneration. Richardson et al. (1997) described four neuromas in a group of 86 patients making a surgical neuroma excision necessary (Anthony et al., 1994). The nerve endings should be covered with muscle and not come into contact with the split-thickness skin graft. Although it is not possible to preserve the cutaneous nerves in each case, e.g. the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve or the superficial radial nerve, an ulnar-based flap and the limitated dimension to the radial or ulnar border can improve sensory outcome (Lovie et al., 1984).

It is not surprising that women are more pretentious with regard to the aesthetic outcome at the forearm. Alternatives for achieving the optimal cosmetic result are dicussed in Table 1 and the following paragraph. Hülsbergen-Krüger et al. (1996) described in their group of 267 patients after closing the defect with split-thickness graft, reduced pigmentation in 43.4%, increased pigmentation in 15%, level differences > 0.1 cm in 46.8%, but in only 12% >0.4 cm, an unstable scar in 10.5% and an adherence of the defect in 18.7%. Adequate compression, first with dressings and later with compression stockings, and the application

The most utilised technique to close the defect at the donor site is the coverage with 0.2-0.6 mm split-thickness skin grafts. Lutz and colleagues described a success rate of 98% compared with 84% in full skin grafts (Lutz et al., 1999). However, if the wound is not plain, e.g. above a tendon, opposite results can be found as well. Other studies showed a complete loss of the split-thickness skin graft in 8 (Evans et al., 1994) -16% (Richardson et al., 1997), a partial loss in 16-35% (Bardsley et al., 1990; A.D. McGregor, 1987; Meland et al., 1993, Richardson et al., 1997; Swanson et al., 1990; Timmons et al., 1986), and a loss of splitthickness skin grafts in suprafascial elevated flaps in 0-4% (Avery et al., 2001, Chang et al., 1996, Lutz et al., 1999). Patients are more content with full skin grafts than with splitthickness grafts: 92% to 57% (Lutz et al., 1999). Defects up to 4x8 cm in size can be closed with a V-Y transposition flap (Elliot et al., 1996). Enough skin should be disposable to avoid limitations in wrist extension, chronic lymphatic edema, sensory disturbance of the forearm or necrosis. Another alternative of closure is skin expansion that can be primary (Bardsley et al., 1990; Herndl & Mühlbauer, 1986) or secondary. Because of wound healing problems in about 30%, Hallock (1988) recommends for the secondary skin expansion a coverage with split-thickness skin graft , in the first instance. After six weeks, it is possible to begin the expansion. A secondary shrinking and a thinning out of the subcutaneous tissue needs to be considered. The skin area of the harvested transplant should never be expanded as a shrinking at the recipient site would be the consequence. The flap preparation should begin from the region opposite to the expanded area to avoid shrinking during the operation. However, a disturbance of the microcirculation with venous congestion might still occur. Dehiscence after expansion was described in up to 40% (Bootz et al., 1993; Lovie et al., 1984),

but other studies showed complication rates of less than 10% (Makitie et al., 1997).

of 2 mm metal plates can assist the wound healing.

**7. Closure of the donor site** 

Microvascular surgery often presents the only possibility to reach satisfactory functional, and cosmetic outcomes and to achieve acceptable quality of life for reconstruction in the head and neck. Due to distinct charactersitics the forearm flap is one of the most used transplants for reconstruction in the head and neck and a widely used transplant for other indications as well. Correct planning and elevation presupposed the flap success rates average at least 90% with no relevant limitations in strength, motion and hemodynanics in the forearm or hand and non-disturbing sensory and cosmetic outcome at the donor site.

#### **9. Annexes**

#### **9.1 References Table 3**

Complications at the recipient site

#### **9.2 References Table 4**

Frequencies of complications and function loss at the donor site

#### **9.3 References Table 5**

Frequencies of sensory impairment at the donor site after fasciocutaneous forarm flap transfer


The Forearm Flap – Indications, Appropriate Selection, Complications and Functional Outcome 41

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**4** 

*Brazil* 

Melina Spinosa Tiussi

*Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal* 

**Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia** 

Everton Da Rosa, Júlio Evangelista De Souza Júnior and

The term symmetry was dened as the mathematical identity between the mirror images of the right and left halves of an object. However, it is rare for humans to have such mathematical symmetry in the craniofacial skeleton1. Robinson et al reported that a beautiful face should be harmonious with comparable size and position of the skeletal structures and soft tissues2. They stated that a favorable face can be shown by the soft tissues2. For patients with maxillofacial deformity, facial asymmetry is a common chief complaint, although patients might have other sagittal or vertical jaw imbalances concomitantly1. In contrast, facial asymmetry might be masked by severe facial skeletal imbalance, dental malalignment, soft tissue compensation, or tilting of head posture1. The documented prevalence of facial asymmetry ranges from 21% to 85%1. Usually the

Bishara et al, 1994, in a review of dental and facial asymmetries, showed that many factors are implicated in asymmetry: genetic or congenital malformations such as hemifacial microsomia, environmental factors such as habits and trauma, functional deviations, and so on3. Asymmetry can have different characteristics even with the same etiology because it can be inuenced by other factors such as onset, individual growth, and compensation3.

Although the nature of asymmetry is complex and its characteristics are diverse, approaches to systematic classication of facial asymmetry have been few4. Hinds et al, 1960, classied mandibular asymmetry into 2 categories: unilateral condylar hyperplasia and deviation prognathism5. Rowe, 1960 classied asymmetry into 3 groups: unilateral condylar hyperplasia, unilateral macrognathia conned to the skeletal element only, and unilateral macrognathia of both osseous and muscular components6. Bruce and Hayward, in 1968, classied mandibular asymmetry into deviation prognathism, unilateral condylar hyperplasia and unilateral macrognathia7. Obwegeser, 1986, suggested classifying asymmetries as either a hemimandibular elongation or a hemimandibular hyperplasia8. Bishara et al, 1994, classied dentofacial asymmetry into dental, skeletal, muscular, and

Asymmetries can be assessed by clinical evaluation, photographs, posteroanterior (PA) cephalograms and 3D computed tomography (CT) scans. On physical examination,

structures of the lower face are more asymmetric than those of the upper face1.

**1. Introduction 1.1 Asymmetry** 

functional3.


## **Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia**

Everton Da Rosa, Júlio Evangelista De Souza Júnior and Melina Spinosa Tiussi *Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal Brazil* 

#### **1. Introduction**

46 Maxillofacial Surgery

Wolff KD, Ervens J & Hoffmeister B. (1995). Improvement of the radial forearm donor site

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transplantation. *Natl Med J China,* 61:139-141. ISSN: 0376-2491.

358-361. ISSN: 0032-1052

by prefabrication of fascial-split-thickness skin grafts. *Plast Reconstr Surg,* 98(2), pp.

#### **1.1 Asymmetry**

The term symmetry was dened as the mathematical identity between the mirror images of the right and left halves of an object. However, it is rare for humans to have such mathematical symmetry in the craniofacial skeleton1. Robinson et al reported that a beautiful face should be harmonious with comparable size and position of the skeletal structures and soft tissues2. They stated that a favorable face can be shown by the soft tissues2. For patients with maxillofacial deformity, facial asymmetry is a common chief complaint, although patients might have other sagittal or vertical jaw imbalances concomitantly1. In contrast, facial asymmetry might be masked by severe facial skeletal imbalance, dental malalignment, soft tissue compensation, or tilting of head posture1. The documented prevalence of facial asymmetry ranges from 21% to 85%1. Usually the structures of the lower face are more asymmetric than those of the upper face1.

Bishara et al, 1994, in a review of dental and facial asymmetries, showed that many factors are implicated in asymmetry: genetic or congenital malformations such as hemifacial microsomia, environmental factors such as habits and trauma, functional deviations, and so on3. Asymmetry can have different characteristics even with the same etiology because it can be inuenced by other factors such as onset, individual growth, and compensation3.

Although the nature of asymmetry is complex and its characteristics are diverse, approaches to systematic classication of facial asymmetry have been few4. Hinds et al, 1960, classied mandibular asymmetry into 2 categories: unilateral condylar hyperplasia and deviation prognathism5. Rowe, 1960 classied asymmetry into 3 groups: unilateral condylar hyperplasia, unilateral macrognathia conned to the skeletal element only, and unilateral macrognathia of both osseous and muscular components6. Bruce and Hayward, in 1968, classied mandibular asymmetry into deviation prognathism, unilateral condylar hyperplasia and unilateral macrognathia7. Obwegeser, 1986, suggested classifying asymmetries as either a hemimandibular elongation or a hemimandibular hyperplasia8. Bishara et al, 1994, classied dentofacial asymmetry into dental, skeletal, muscular, and functional3.

Asymmetries can be assessed by clinical evaluation, photographs, posteroanterior (PA) cephalograms and 3D computed tomography (CT) scans. On physical examination,

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 49

in facial asymmetry should consist of correlated maxillary midline to facial midline, level oral commissures, symmetric appearance of bilateral maxillary canines and correlated chin point to facial midline. Ideally the planned surgical prediction of the frontal occlusal plane should be parallel to the orbital plane on PA cephalograms; the central contact of maxillary inci-sors and chin point (menton) should be in the mid-sagittal plane; and the axis of the

Fig. 2. Face balance after orthognathic surgery with high condylectomy in treatment of

Mandibular condylar hyperplasia (CH) is a non-neoplasic rare malformation that changes morphology and size of mandibular condyles11. It was rst described by Robert Adams in 1836 as a condition that causes overdevelopment of the mandible, creating functional and esthetic problems12. The excessive unilateral growth of the mandibular condyle can lead to facial asymmetry, occlusal disturbance, and joint dysfunction13. It represents a challenge to both surgeons and orthodontists and because of the severe dentofacial deformity it can create14. A complete understanding of the nature of the deformity, etiology, clinical presentation, options for treatment, and timing of treatment is required in order to achieve

The etiology of condylar hyperplasia is controversial and not well understood15. CH usually develops during puberty and rarely begins after the age of 2014. The identification of sex hormone receptors in and around the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and the pubertal

front teeth should parallel the midsagittal plane1.

**2. Mandibular condylar hyperplasia (CH)** 

condylar hiperplasia

optimal treatment outcomes14.

**2.1 Etiology and diagnosis** 

asymmetries becomes most apparent when the patient smiles9. At rest, however, the presence of an elevated labial commissure or alar base on one side is often an indication of vertical skeletal asymmetry9. This should be documented during routine evaluation of patients for orthodontic or orthognathic surgical treatment. To measure occlusal canting, a wooden tongue depressor can be placed across the right and left posterior teeth, and the parallelism or the angle of the tongue depressor to the interpupillary plane can be documented9. Alternatively, the vertical distance between the maxillary canines and the medial canthi of the eyes can be measured9.

#### Fig. 1. Measuring occlusal canting

Other important tools for objective evaluation of face symmetry are photographs. Ferrario et al used digitized photographic analysis to determine angulation of the occlusal plane1. A mean angulation from 2.15° to 2.90° was found in healthy normal patients1. For evaluation of skeletal and dental structures, posteroanterior (PA) cephalogram is commonly used as an effective tool to quantify asymmetry. By identifying the horizontal and midsagittal reference planes, the difference in the distance of the counterpart land-marks on each half of the skeleton can be measured and calculated1. Analysis of the PA cephalogram also can be used to determine occlusal cant9. A line is drawn connecting the occlusal surfaces of the left and right maxillary first molars. The angle of this plane relative to the transverse axis of the skull, that is, the angle of occlusal cant, is measured9.

On last decades, 3D computed tomography (CT) scans has helped surgeons to improve evaluation, planning and accuracy of orthognathic surgery. With this new technology, it is possible to create 3D models of the face that incorporate accurate renditions of the teeth, skeleton, and soft tissues. These techniques are more important in the assessment of asymmetries, since in PA cephalograms all facial structures are projected onto a single sagittal plane10.

The decision of surgical correction of facial asymmetry might depend on patients awareness of the esthetic problem, extent of occlusal deterioration, and concomitant sagittal or vertical jaw imbalance1. It has been suggested that a level occlusal plane is a prerequisite for success in all orthognathic surgeries1. Two-jaw orthognathic surgery might be necessary in cases with obvious cant of the frontal occlusal plane1. Treatment goals of orthognathic correction

asymmetries becomes most apparent when the patient smiles9. At rest, however, the presence of an elevated labial commissure or alar base on one side is often an indication of vertical skeletal asymmetry9. This should be documented during routine evaluation of patients for orthodontic or orthognathic surgical treatment. To measure occlusal canting, a wooden tongue depressor can be placed across the right and left posterior teeth, and the parallelism or the angle of the tongue depressor to the interpupillary plane can be documented9. Alternatively, the vertical distance between the maxillary canines and the

Other important tools for objective evaluation of face symmetry are photographs. Ferrario et al used digitized photographic analysis to determine angulation of the occlusal plane1. A mean angulation from 2.15° to 2.90° was found in healthy normal patients1. For evaluation of skeletal and dental structures, posteroanterior (PA) cephalogram is commonly used as an effective tool to quantify asymmetry. By identifying the horizontal and midsagittal reference planes, the difference in the distance of the counterpart land-marks on each half of the skeleton can be measured and calculated1. Analysis of the PA cephalogram also can be used to determine occlusal cant9. A line is drawn connecting the occlusal surfaces of the left and right maxillary first molars. The angle of this plane relative to the transverse axis of the

On last decades, 3D computed tomography (CT) scans has helped surgeons to improve evaluation, planning and accuracy of orthognathic surgery. With this new technology, it is possible to create 3D models of the face that incorporate accurate renditions of the teeth, skeleton, and soft tissues. These techniques are more important in the assessment of asymmetries, since in PA cephalograms all facial structures are projected onto a single

The decision of surgical correction of facial asymmetry might depend on patients awareness of the esthetic problem, extent of occlusal deterioration, and concomitant sagittal or vertical jaw imbalance1. It has been suggested that a level occlusal plane is a prerequisite for success in all orthognathic surgeries1. Two-jaw orthognathic surgery might be necessary in cases with obvious cant of the frontal occlusal plane1. Treatment goals of orthognathic correction

medial canthi of the eyes can be measured9.

Fig. 1. Measuring occlusal canting

sagittal plane10.

skull, that is, the angle of occlusal cant, is measured9.

in facial asymmetry should consist of correlated maxillary midline to facial midline, level oral commissures, symmetric appearance of bilateral maxillary canines and correlated chin point to facial midline. Ideally the planned surgical prediction of the frontal occlusal plane should be parallel to the orbital plane on PA cephalograms; the central contact of maxillary inci-sors and chin point (menton) should be in the mid-sagittal plane; and the axis of the front teeth should parallel the midsagittal plane1.

Fig. 2. Face balance after orthognathic surgery with high condylectomy in treatment of condylar hiperplasia

#### **2. Mandibular condylar hyperplasia (CH)**

Mandibular condylar hyperplasia (CH) is a non-neoplasic rare malformation that changes morphology and size of mandibular condyles11. It was rst described by Robert Adams in 1836 as a condition that causes overdevelopment of the mandible, creating functional and esthetic problems12. The excessive unilateral growth of the mandibular condyle can lead to facial asymmetry, occlusal disturbance, and joint dysfunction13. It represents a challenge to both surgeons and orthodontists and because of the severe dentofacial deformity it can create14. A complete understanding of the nature of the deformity, etiology, clinical presentation, options for treatment, and timing of treatment is required in order to achieve optimal treatment outcomes14.

#### **2.1 Etiology and diagnosis**

The etiology of condylar hyperplasia is controversial and not well understood15. CH usually develops during puberty and rarely begins after the age of 2014. The identification of sex hormone receptors in and around the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and the pubertal

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 51

Fig. 4. Cephalogram radiograph and ct with three dimensional reconstruction

used as the only determinant for surgical treatment16.

In order to develop the correct surgical plan, it is essential to distinguish active from inactive forms. Active CH growth can be determined by worsening functional and esthetic changes in time and might be detected by serial assessments consisting of clinical evaluation; dental model analysis and radiographic evaluation. Bone single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scan is an essential diagnostic tool for visualizing hyperactivity in the condyle16, especially in unilateral cases. Various studies have shown the clinical signicance of this technique in such patients because this method identies those with persistent unilateral condylar activity16. The radioactive isotope is technetium 99 methylene bisphosphonate. Increased radionuclide uptake by the hyperplastic condyle can be an indication of continued abnormal growth16. It has been reported that when there is a difference in activity of 10 % or more between the two condyles, it can be indicative of CH16. SPECT may be most effective in unilateral cases, especially if applied after the normal growing years, when condylar growth should have ceased. It might be inconclusive in younger patients, bilateral cases and those with slow growing CH. It is important to emphasize that SPECT results should be interpreted associated with clinical, radiographic, and cephalometric evaluation16. It should be borne in mind that this method of bone scanning, though highly sensitive, is nonspecic and does not necessarily correlate with active growth because it can also be the result of inammatory conditions, infection, healing after traumatic injuries, and neoplastic lesions16. Bone SPECT scintigraphy should not be

onset of CH strongly suggest a hormonal influence in the etiology14. Suggested theories include trauma followed by excessive proliferation in repair, infection, hormonal inuences, arthrosis, hypervascularity, and a possible ge-netic role16. Obwegeser and Makek suggested that different growth factors individually controlling generalized hypertrophy and elongation might be responsible for the deformities8. Another possible cause being taken into consideration, but thus far not substantiated, is an increase in functional loading of the TMJ16.

CH occurs with equal frequency in males and females, as well as unilaterally and bilaterally14. These patients usually demonstrate a Class I or mild Class III skeletal and occlusal relationship before the onset of CH and develop into a Class III or severe Class III relationship as their growth accelerates14. CH usually begins during the second decade of life around the pubertal growth phase and can continue into the middle or late 20s14. The condyles growth pattern, in terms of magnitude, rate, and direction, can influence the timing of surgery and the types of corrective surgical procedures necessary14. Ninety-eight percent of facial growth is completed by age 15 in females and by age 17 or 18 in males19. During the pubertal growth, the mandible grows and lengthens from condylion to point B at a yearly growth rate of 1.6 mm for females and 2.2 mm for males 19. Growth at a significantly accelerated rate or for a prolonged postpubertal time interval usually indicates active CH19.

The diagnosis of CH may be achieved by a combination of clinical and radiologic ndings. Various methods have been used, including radiographic studies, bone scintigraphy, and histopathologic assessment. Panoramic and postero-anterior (PA) radiographs are useful for surveying the shapes of the mandibular condyles on both sides because the midlines of the face and dentition can be recorded and evaluated15. The lateral radiograph provides useful information, such as ramal height and mandibular condyle length. CT can also provide a three-dimensional rendition of both the soft tissue of the face and the underlying bone. TMJ radiographs may show abnormalities in the size and morphology of the condylar head and/or neck regions.

Fig. 3. Panoramic radiograph showing elongation of left condyle

onset of CH strongly suggest a hormonal influence in the etiology14. Suggested theories include trauma followed by excessive proliferation in repair, infection, hormonal inuences, arthrosis, hypervascularity, and a possible ge-netic role16. Obwegeser and Makek suggested that different growth factors individually controlling generalized hypertrophy and elongation might be responsible for the deformities8. Another possible cause being taken into consideration, but thus far not substantiated, is an increase in functional loading of the

CH occurs with equal frequency in males and females, as well as unilaterally and bilaterally14. These patients usually demonstrate a Class I or mild Class III skeletal and occlusal relationship before the onset of CH and develop into a Class III or severe Class III relationship as their growth accelerates14. CH usually begins during the second decade of life around the pubertal growth phase and can continue into the middle or late 20s14. The condyles growth pattern, in terms of magnitude, rate, and direction, can influence the timing of surgery and the types of corrective surgical procedures necessary14. Ninety-eight percent of facial growth is completed by age 15 in females and by age 17 or 18 in males19. During the pubertal growth, the mandible grows and lengthens from condylion to point B at a yearly growth rate of 1.6 mm for females and 2.2 mm for males 19. Growth at a significantly accelerated rate or for a prolonged postpubertal time interval usually indicates

The diagnosis of CH may be achieved by a combination of clinical and radiologic ndings. Various methods have been used, including radiographic studies, bone scintigraphy, and histopathologic assessment. Panoramic and postero-anterior (PA) radiographs are useful for surveying the shapes of the mandibular condyles on both sides because the midlines of the face and dentition can be recorded and evaluated15. The lateral radiograph provides useful information, such as ramal height and mandibular condyle length. CT can also provide a three-dimensional rendition of both the soft tissue of the face and the underlying bone. TMJ radiographs may show abnormalities in the size and morphology of the condylar head

Fig. 3. Panoramic radiograph showing elongation of left condyle

TMJ16.

active CH19.

and/or neck regions.

In order to develop the correct surgical plan, it is essential to distinguish active from inactive forms. Active CH growth can be determined by worsening functional and esthetic changes in time and might be detected by serial assessments consisting of clinical evaluation; dental model analysis and radiographic evaluation. Bone single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scan is an essential diagnostic tool for visualizing hyperactivity in the condyle16, especially in unilateral cases. Various studies have shown the clinical signicance of this technique in such patients because this method identies those with persistent unilateral condylar activity16. The radioactive isotope is technetium 99 methylene bisphosphonate. Increased radionuclide uptake by the hyperplastic condyle can be an indication of continued abnormal growth16. It has been reported that when there is a difference in activity of 10 % or more between the two condyles, it can be indicative of CH16. SPECT may be most effective in unilateral cases, especially if applied after the normal growing years, when condylar growth should have ceased. It might be inconclusive in younger patients, bilateral cases and those with slow growing CH. It is important to emphasize that SPECT results should be interpreted associated with clinical, radiographic, and cephalometric evaluation16. It should be borne in mind that this method of bone scanning, though highly sensitive, is nonspecic and does not necessarily correlate with active growth because it can also be the result of inammatory conditions, infection, healing after traumatic injuries, and neoplastic lesions16. Bone SPECT scintigraphy should not be used as the only determinant for surgical treatment16.

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 53

 CH type 1 is the most frequently occurring form and involves an accelerated growth rate of the mandibular condyle with relatively normal architecture but elongation of the condylar head, neck, and mandibular body. It has a predominant horizontal growth vector, causing a Class III occlusal and skeletal relationship, although occasionally a vertical growth vector may occur. Type 1A is the bilateral form of CH with symmetric growth or asymmetric growth. Type 1B involves only one condyle, creating a progressively worsening facial asymmetry as the condyle growths. The accelerated mandibular growth usually occurs during puberty, and the mandibular growth can continue into the mid 20s but is self-limiting. The prevalence ratio between types 1 and

 CH type 2 occurs unilaterally and involves enlargement of the condylar head. Usually the condylar neck increases in thickness and the vertical height of the mandibular ramus and body increases on the ipsilateral side, often accompanied by a compensatory downward growth of the ipsilateral maxilla. CH type 2 can occur at any age and is not self-limiting. It can be caused by an osteochondroma, osteoma, or other rare forms of

1. Increased length of the condylar head and neck, with normal architecture. 2. Accelerated rate of mandibular growth, beyond normal growth years.

6. Decreased angulation of lower incisors and increased angulation of upper incisors

1. TMJ articular disc displacement on the contralateral side as a result of increased loading of that joint caused by the condylar hyperplasia on the opposite side 2. Worsening facial and occlusal asymmetry, with the mandible progres-sively shifting

1. Unilateral elongation of the face, causing facial asymmetry and worsening esthetics

3. Increased vertical height of the entire mandible on the involved side (except for the

5. Compensatory vertical overdevelopment of the maxilla on the involved side

The CH can be classified in two types:

2 is approximately 15:1.

condylar enlargement.

4. Worsening aesthetics. 5. Obtuse gonial angles

(dental compensations)

8. High mandibular plane angle

toward the contralateral side

coronoid process) 4. Open bite on the involved side

6. Dental compensations.

Clinical and radiographic characteristics in CH type 119

3. Worsening Class III skeletal and occlusal relationship

7. Decreased vertical height of the posterior mandibular body

3. Unilateral posterior cross-bite on the contralateral side

Clinical and radiographic characteristics in CH type 214

Aditional clinical and radiographic characteristics in CH type 1B19

4. Transverse bowing of the mandibular body on the ipsilateral side 5. Transverse flattening of the mandibular body on the contralateral side

2. Increased length, size, and diameter of the condylar head and neck

Fig. 5. Bone spect scintigraphy showing increased radionuclide uptake on left condyle

#### **2.2 Classification and characteristics**

Since 1836, when was first described by Adams12, many cases of CH have been reported in the literature, but the key to understanding this clinical condition is attributed to Obwegeser and Makek, 19868. They classied the asymmetry associated with CH into 3 categories: hemimandibular hyperplasia, causing asymmetry in the vertical plane; hemimandibular elongation, resulting in asymmetry in the transverse plane; and a combination of the 2 entities8. The rst type is caused by unilateral growth in the vertical plane and is characterized by increased height of the maxillary alveolar bone and downward deviation of the occlusal plane in the ipsilateral side with almost no deviation of the chin8. If the maxillary plane fails to follow the mandibular plane, then an open bite may develop on the same side8. Most commonly, the mandibular midline is straight, but it may shift ipsilaterally8. Radiologically, Obewegeser and Makek reported that the condyle appears enlarged and that its head is usually irregular and deformed and its neck thickened and elongated, with coarse trabeculae lling the condyle8. Hemimandibular elongation, the second type of CH, is associated with chin deviation toward the contralateral side with no vertical asymmetry8. Intraorally, the mandibular midline deviates to the un-affected side, while the contralateral mandibular molars deviate lingually in attempt to remain in occlusion; however, cross-bite may develop in the contralateral side8. The occlusal plane is maintained with no deviation8. The condyle is of normal shape and size, but its neck can be either slender or normal, with an elongated ascending ramus8. The third type of CH is a combination of the rst 2 types8.

Wolford et. al, in 2002 and 2009, proposed a simple classification to identify the various types of CH based on the frequency of occurrence, the types of jaw deformity created, and the surgical procedures necessary to get the best treatment outcomes14, 19. This new classification seems to fit better the clinical findings in CH and can be correlated with planning treatment and prognosis.

Fig. 5. Bone spect scintigraphy showing increased radionuclide uptake on left condyle

Since 1836, when was first described by Adams12, many cases of CH have been reported in the literature, but the key to understanding this clinical condition is attributed to Obwegeser and Makek, 19868. They classied the asymmetry associated with CH into 3 categories: hemimandibular hyperplasia, causing asymmetry in the vertical plane; hemimandibular elongation, resulting in asymmetry in the transverse plane; and a combination of the 2 entities8. The rst type is caused by unilateral growth in the vertical plane and is characterized by increased height of the maxillary alveolar bone and downward deviation of the occlusal plane in the ipsilateral side with almost no deviation of the chin8. If the maxillary plane fails to follow the mandibular plane, then an open bite may develop on the same side8. Most commonly, the mandibular midline is straight, but it may shift ipsilaterally8. Radiologically, Obewegeser and Makek reported that the condyle appears enlarged and that its head is usually irregular and deformed and its neck thickened and elongated, with coarse trabeculae lling the condyle8. Hemimandibular elongation, the second type of CH, is associated with chin deviation toward the contralateral side with no vertical asymmetry8. Intraorally, the mandibular midline deviates to the un-affected side, while the contralateral mandibular molars deviate lingually in attempt to remain in occlusion; however, cross-bite may develop in the contralateral side8. The occlusal plane is maintained with no deviation8. The condyle is of normal shape and size, but its neck can be either slender or normal, with an elongated ascending ramus8. The third type of CH is a

Wolford et. al, in 2002 and 2009, proposed a simple classification to identify the various types of CH based on the frequency of occurrence, the types of jaw deformity created, and the surgical procedures necessary to get the best treatment outcomes14, 19. This new classification seems to fit better the clinical findings in CH and can be correlated with

**2.2 Classification and characteristics** 

combination of the rst 2 types8.

planning treatment and prognosis.

The CH can be classified in two types:


Clinical and radiographic characteristics in CH type 119


Aditional clinical and radiographic characteristics in CH type 1B19


Clinical and radiographic characteristics in CH type 214


Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 55

Fig. 7. CH type 2 on left condyle, presenting left elongation of mandible, left open bite and

The treatment of CH is directly related to its activity. Patients with arrested CH (the abnormal condylar growth has stopped and become stable) can usually be treated with routine orthodontics and orthognathic surgery14. Treatment of active CH is primarily surgical, with or without orthodontics, and depends on the degree of severity and the status of condylar growth16. Different surgical options have been proposed for treating this entity,

\* Case provided by Dr. Elvidio de Paula e Silva

maxillary canting on left side.

**2.3 Treatment planning** 

Fig. 6. CH type 1 on left condyle with facial assymetry, presenting mandibular midline deviation toward right side and right cross bite.

Fig. 6. CH type 1 on left condyle with facial assymetry, presenting mandibular midline

deviation toward right side and right cross bite.

\* Case provided by Dr. Elvidio de Paula e Silva

Fig. 7. CH type 2 on left condyle, presenting left elongation of mandible, left open bite and maxillary canting on left side.

#### **2.3 Treatment planning**

The treatment of CH is directly related to its activity. Patients with arrested CH (the abnormal condylar growth has stopped and become stable) can usually be treated with routine orthodontics and orthognathic surgery14. Treatment of active CH is primarily surgical, with or without orthodontics, and depends on the degree of severity and the status of condylar growth16. Different surgical options have been proposed for treating this entity,

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 57

2. The high condylectomy with disc repositioning is performed with simultaneous orthognathic surgery. This technique is helpful when patients have passed through orthodontic treatment previously and would be benefit with on staged surgery. The benets of concomitant surgery provided to patients with coexisting TMJ pathology and dentofacial deformities include the following: 1) that it requires one operation and general anesthetic; 2) that it balances occlusion, TMJs, jaws, and neuromuscular structures, at the same time; 3) that it decreases overall treatment time; 4) that it eliminates unfavorable TMJ sequelae that can occur when performing orthognathic surgery only; and 5) that it avoids

iatrogenic malocclusion that can occur when performing open TMJ surgery only21. In CH type 2, the treatment is similar as described above. However, in cases of condylar enlargement by ostoeocondromas or other benign tumors, it might be necessary a more aggressive approach, with total resection of the tumor and reconstruction with autogenus grafts or total joint prosthesis. Traditional treatment of almost all reported cases of osteochondroma has included radical resection of the tumor, including the complete condylar process23,24,25. Free autogenous bone grafts, costochondral grafts, prosthetic devices, or local pedicled osseous grafts have been used to reconstruct the TMJ region26. Wolford et. al, 2002, proposed a conservative condylectomy below the head but high in the neck of the condyle, to entirely remove the lesion27. The remaining condylar stump is recontourned to function as a "new" condylar head. The articular disc is then repositioned onto the "new" condyle and stabilized27. Additional orthognathic procedures, if indicated,

can be performed concomitantly for the correction of associated facial deformities27.

CH type 2

Table 1. Surgical techinque

\* in cases of large osteocondromas or other benign tumors.

and attached with mini anchors or mini screws.

Classification Treatment Arrested CH Orthodontics and orthognathic surgery Active CH in infants High condylectomy and observation Active CH in adults High condylectomy and orthognathic

OR

The surgical approach to TMJ structures is pre-auricular approach. The incision is marked on intersection of pre-auricular facial skin and ear helix. After preoperative drawing and landmark placement, a cutaneous incision is performed and deepened until reaching the deep temporal fascia. The supercial layer of the deep fascia is cut, reaching the fat tissue between the two layers of the temporal fascia28. The dissection is proceeded deeper to the supercial layer of the fascia and reached the TMJ capsule caudal to the zygomatic arch. This is opened with a ''T'' incision, which identify the condylar head and disc. The condylar head is gently split from the articular disc, and condylar protectors are set medially to the head. A horizontal osteotomy line is drawn 4 e 5 mm caudal to the edge of the condylar head. The osteotomy is completed with chisel, the resected part is removed and the surface of the condylar head reshaped. Then, the articular disc is repositioned on condylar surface

reconstruction\*.

surgery in one or two stages

Condylectomy and orthognatic surgery

Condylar resection and total joint

ranging from high condylectomy to orthognathic surgery or a combination of both16. The high condylectomy arrests the excessive and disproportionate growth of the mandible by surgically removing one of the important mandibular growth sites and the site responsible for the CH pathological growth process19. The high condylectomy stops forward growth of the mandible, with only normal appositional growth remaining at pogonion and vertical alveolar growth if the surgery is performed before normal facial growth is completed20. There is also controversy with respect to the time of surgery, with some authors preferring to perform surgery as soon as possible and others waiting for cessation of excessive activity to perform any intervention16.

The aim in immature patients is prevention of the progression of deformities and the spontaneous normalization of facial asymmetry and occlusion. The one surgical procedure that is able to stop disease progression and allow spontaneous resolution of dento-alveolar problems is condylectomy, if performed early (10 to 12 years old). This procedure leads to the removal of the hyperactive growth center, with physiological mandibular and dento-alveolar reshaping, and consequent normalization of the face and occlusion.

In adults, most dental compensations, functional problems and facial deformities are already in development. There are some options of treatment that have been reported. Previously, some authors advocated that corrective surgery could be deferred until growth was complete; this often means waiting until the middle or late 20s22. In these cases, the patient might suffer from functional problems (mastication and speech), worsening esthetic disfigurement, pain, and psychosocial stigmata associated with a severe facial deformity. Additionally, the magnitude of the deformity, if allowed to fully manifest by this delay in treatment, may preclude an ideal result later. This hyperplastic condylar growth may result in severe deformation of the mandible. Compensatory changes will occur in the maxilla, dentoalveolar structures, and associated soft tissue structures, significantly compromising the clinical treatment outcome. This treatment has been advocated by many surgeons in previous reports. However, with the full comprehensive of progression of CH and its consequences, it doesn´t seems to be a good choice. Other authors have reported that orthognathic surgery could be performed during active CH growth, with consideration for overcorrection of the mandible. The accelerated mandibular condylar growth will continue after surgery, and repeat surgery will be needed if the estimated overcorrection is greater or lesser than necessary.

Based on surgical results of previous reports14,19 and many reports of bad results with other techniques14, is believed that the two best treatment options for achieving favorable functional and esthetics results, with long-term stability are as follows:

1. The high condilectomy with disc repositioning is performed as soon as possible to arrest condyle and mandibular growth. Then, the orthodontic treatment aims to align and level the teeth over the basal bone and to remove dental compensations, regardless of the magnitude of skeletal and dental malalignment. In a second staged surgery, the conventional orthognathic surgery is performed. Usually, due to severe skeletal and dental deformity, bimaxillary surgery is necessary to achieve both functional and esthetic results. This treatment might be the choice when the orthodontic treatment will delay the condilectomy, with worsening of face and dental deformity.

ranging from high condylectomy to orthognathic surgery or a combination of both16. The high condylectomy arrests the excessive and disproportionate growth of the mandible by surgically removing one of the important mandibular growth sites and the site responsible for the CH pathological growth process19. The high condylectomy stops forward growth of the mandible, with only normal appositional growth remaining at pogonion and vertical alveolar growth if the surgery is performed before normal facial growth is completed20. There is also controversy with respect to the time of surgery, with some authors preferring to perform surgery as soon as possible and others waiting for cessation of excessive activity

The aim in immature patients is prevention of the progression of deformities and the spontaneous normalization of facial asymmetry and occlusion. The one surgical procedure that is able to stop disease progression and allow spontaneous resolution of dento-alveolar problems is condylectomy, if performed early (10 to 12 years old). This procedure leads to the removal of the hyperactive growth center, with physiological mandibular and dento-alveolar reshaping, and consequent normalization of the face and

In adults, most dental compensations, functional problems and facial deformities are already in development. There are some options of treatment that have been reported. Previously, some authors advocated that corrective surgery could be deferred until growth was complete; this often means waiting until the middle or late 20s22. In these cases, the patient might suffer from functional problems (mastication and speech), worsening esthetic disfigurement, pain, and psychosocial stigmata associated with a severe facial deformity. Additionally, the magnitude of the deformity, if allowed to fully manifest by this delay in treatment, may preclude an ideal result later. This hyperplastic condylar growth may result in severe deformation of the mandible. Compensatory changes will occur in the maxilla, dentoalveolar structures, and associated soft tissue structures, significantly compromising the clinical treatment outcome. This treatment has been advocated by many surgeons in previous reports. However, with the full comprehensive of progression of CH and its consequences, it doesn´t seems to be a good choice. Other authors have reported that orthognathic surgery could be performed during active CH growth, with consideration for overcorrection of the mandible. The accelerated mandibular condylar growth will continue after surgery, and repeat surgery will be needed if the estimated overcorrection is greater or

Based on surgical results of previous reports14,19 and many reports of bad results with other techniques14, is believed that the two best treatment options for achieving favorable

1. The high condilectomy with disc repositioning is performed as soon as possible to arrest condyle and mandibular growth. Then, the orthodontic treatment aims to align and level the teeth over the basal bone and to remove dental compensations, regardless of the magnitude of skeletal and dental malalignment. In a second staged surgery, the conventional orthognathic surgery is performed. Usually, due to severe skeletal and dental deformity, bimaxillary surgery is necessary to achieve both functional and esthetic results. This treatment might be the choice when the orthodontic treatment will

functional and esthetics results, with long-term stability are as follows:

delay the condilectomy, with worsening of face and dental deformity.

to perform any intervention16.

occlusion.

lesser than necessary.

2. The high condylectomy with disc repositioning is performed with simultaneous orthognathic surgery. This technique is helpful when patients have passed through orthodontic treatment previously and would be benefit with on staged surgery. The benets of concomitant surgery provided to patients with coexisting TMJ pathology and dentofacial deformities include the following: 1) that it requires one operation and general anesthetic; 2) that it balances occlusion, TMJs, jaws, and neuromuscular structures, at the same time; 3) that it decreases overall treatment time; 4) that it eliminates unfavorable TMJ sequelae that can occur when performing orthognathic surgery only; and 5) that it avoids iatrogenic malocclusion that can occur when performing open TMJ surgery only21.

In CH type 2, the treatment is similar as described above. However, in cases of condylar enlargement by ostoeocondromas or other benign tumors, it might be necessary a more aggressive approach, with total resection of the tumor and reconstruction with autogenus grafts or total joint prosthesis. Traditional treatment of almost all reported cases of osteochondroma has included radical resection of the tumor, including the complete condylar process23,24,25. Free autogenous bone grafts, costochondral grafts, prosthetic devices, or local pedicled osseous grafts have been used to reconstruct the TMJ region26. Wolford et. al, 2002, proposed a conservative condylectomy below the head but high in the neck of the condyle, to entirely remove the lesion27. The remaining condylar stump is recontourned to function as a "new" condylar head. The articular disc is then repositioned onto the "new" condyle and stabilized27. Additional orthognathic procedures, if indicated, can be performed concomitantly for the correction of associated facial deformities27.


\* in cases of large osteocondromas or other benign tumors.

Table 1. Surgical techinque

The surgical approach to TMJ structures is pre-auricular approach. The incision is marked on intersection of pre-auricular facial skin and ear helix. After preoperative drawing and landmark placement, a cutaneous incision is performed and deepened until reaching the deep temporal fascia. The supercial layer of the deep fascia is cut, reaching the fat tissue between the two layers of the temporal fascia28. The dissection is proceeded deeper to the supercial layer of the fascia and reached the TMJ capsule caudal to the zygomatic arch. This is opened with a ''T'' incision, which identify the condylar head and disc. The condylar head is gently split from the articular disc, and condylar protectors are set medially to the head. A horizontal osteotomy line is drawn 4 e 5 mm caudal to the edge of the condylar head. The osteotomy is completed with chisel, the resected part is removed and the surface of the condylar head reshaped. Then, the articular disc is repositioned on condylar surface and attached with mini anchors or mini screws.

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 59

handicapped because of its mobile nature30. By combining the merits of surgical navigation and stereolithographic model planning, Xia et. al (2010) have formulated a new treatment strategy, which involves correction of occlusal disharmony and skeletal deformity in one operation with a shorter time31. In the appropriate delegation of responsibility, surgeons need to prepare the model surgery planning and the transfer of the model surgery data to

Fig. 9. Treatment planning using surgical simulation on a stereolithographic provided by

the surgical navigation system.

Dr. Cesar Oleskovicz.

Fig. 8. Surgical exposure of right condyle (a) and high condylectomy with disc repositioning with mini-anchors (b).

If bimaxillary orthognathic surgery is planned to be performed concomitant with TMJ surgery, 2 choices of sequencing are possible. The rst sequence will follow maxilla repositioning first, TMJ surgery, and then the mandibular osteotomy. The second sequence would be to rst perform the TMJ surgery, then the mandibular osteotomy, and then to reposition the maxilla. Both techniques can provide the same results30. However, the rst sequence would make it much more difcult to maintain sterility during the TMJ surgery30. One would have to try and maintain separate surgical elds (TMJ and oral cavity) and have a second set of sterile instruments available for the TMJ surgery30. When performing TMJ surgery rst, the same set of instruments used for the TMJ can be used for the mandibular and, subsequently, maxillary surgery30.

#### **2.4 3-Dimensional (3D) surgical planning and use of navigation**

To facilitate the estimation of condylectomy and other mandibular contouring surgeries, 3 dimensional (3D) surgical planning by use of computed tomography (CT) data is now available and can be extremely helpful31. Surgical planning can be performed either with a stereolithographic or a virtual model generated by commercial softwares31. Surgical navigation is preferred as data export, because the surgical splint is considered bulky for precise placement during condylectomy and contouring surgeries31. Although various options are available for surgical planning and simulation, a precise data transfer to the real surgical environment still appears to be challenging to surgeons31. Currently, there are 2 approaches available for such a transfer: 1) surgical locating splint and; 2) real-time surgical navigation.

The surgical splint can be generated either from 1) a stereolithographic model planning with the help from laboratory technicians or 2) a virtual model planning by use of computeraided design/computer-aided manufacturing technology31. The stereolitho-graphic model planning is a relatively straightforward approach31. However, the seating of a surgical splint is highly dependent on sound anatomic structure with well-dened surface geometry for its tting31. In situations such as condylectomy and mandibuloplasty, splint placement may be complicated because of limited surgery access30. Although surgical navigation allows location of the drilling path under standard surgical exposure, the use in the mandible is

a b Fig. 8. Surgical exposure of right condyle (a) and high condylectomy with disc repositioning

If bimaxillary orthognathic surgery is planned to be performed concomitant with TMJ surgery, 2 choices of sequencing are possible. The rst sequence will follow maxilla repositioning first, TMJ surgery, and then the mandibular osteotomy. The second sequence would be to rst perform the TMJ surgery, then the mandibular osteotomy, and then to reposition the maxilla. Both techniques can provide the same results30. However, the rst sequence would make it much more difcult to maintain sterility during the TMJ surgery30. One would have to try and maintain separate surgical elds (TMJ and oral cavity) and have a second set of sterile instruments available for the TMJ surgery30. When performing TMJ surgery rst, the same set of instruments used for the TMJ can be used for the mandibular

To facilitate the estimation of condylectomy and other mandibular contouring surgeries, 3 dimensional (3D) surgical planning by use of computed tomography (CT) data is now available and can be extremely helpful31. Surgical planning can be performed either with a stereolithographic or a virtual model generated by commercial softwares31. Surgical navigation is preferred as data export, because the surgical splint is considered bulky for precise placement during condylectomy and contouring surgeries31. Although various options are available for surgical planning and simulation, a precise data transfer to the real surgical environment still appears to be challenging to surgeons31. Currently, there are 2 approaches available for such a transfer: 1) surgical locating splint and; 2) real-time surgical navigation.

The surgical splint can be generated either from 1) a stereolithographic model planning with the help from laboratory technicians or 2) a virtual model planning by use of computeraided design/computer-aided manufacturing technology31. The stereolitho-graphic model planning is a relatively straightforward approach31. However, the seating of a surgical splint is highly dependent on sound anatomic structure with well-dened surface geometry for its tting31. In situations such as condylectomy and mandibuloplasty, splint placement may be complicated because of limited surgery access30. Although surgical navigation allows location of the drilling path under standard surgical exposure, the use in the mandible is

with mini-anchors (b).

and, subsequently, maxillary surgery30.

**2.4 3-Dimensional (3D) surgical planning and use of navigation** 

handicapped because of its mobile nature30. By combining the merits of surgical navigation and stereolithographic model planning, Xia et. al (2010) have formulated a new treatment strategy, which involves correction of occlusal disharmony and skeletal deformity in one operation with a shorter time31. In the appropriate delegation of responsibility, surgeons need to prepare the model surgery planning and the transfer of the model surgery data to the surgical navigation system.

Fig. 9. Treatment planning using surgical simulation on a stereolithographic provided by Dr. Cesar Oleskovicz.

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 61

Fig. 12. First surgery - surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion (sarme)

Fig. 13. Final frontal and profile view

Fig. 14. Final occlusion

#### **3. Case presentation**

#### **3.1 Case 1**

Fig. 10. Initial front and profile view

Fig. 11. Presurgical occlusion


LIST OF PROBLEMS TREATMENT PLAN

surgery

and leveling.

(SARME) - First surgery

High condylectomy with orthognathic

repositioning and maxillary advancement

Le Fort I osteotomy with superior

forward repositioning genioplasty.

Facial asymmetry Surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion

Open bite Mandibular advancement with superior and

Class III malocclusion Presurgical orthodontic treatment

**3. Case presentation** 

Fig. 10. Initial front and profile view

Fig. 11. Presurgical occlusion

vertical growth vector

Cross bite on left side

Vertical excess of lower face

on left side

CH type 1 on right side with horizontal and

Transverse maxillary deficiency and canting

**3.1 Case 1** 

Fig. 12. First surgery - surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion (sarme)

Fig. 13. Final frontal and profile view

Fig. 14. Final occlusion

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 63

Fig. 17. CT images showing left condyle enlargment

Fig. 18. Final front and profile view

\* Case provided by Dr. Elvidio de Paula e Silva

Fig. 19. Final occlusion

#### **3.2 Case 2**

Fig. 15. Inicial frontal and profile view

Fig. 16. Pretreatment occlusion


LIST OF PROBLEMS TREATMENT PLAN

osteoplasty on left body and chin

Le Fort I osteotomy with maxillary

repositioning and setback genioplasty

advancement and leveling

Facial asymmetry High condylectomy and mandibular

Class III malocclusion Presurgical othodontic treatment

Maxillary canting on left side Mandibular setback with superior

**3.2 Case 2** 

Fig. 15. Inicial frontal and profile view

Fig. 16. Pretreatment occlusion

Cross bite on left side Vertical excess of chin

CH type 2 on left side with mandibular midline deviation towards left side

Fig. 17. CT images showing left condyle enlargment

Fig. 18. Final front and profile view

\* Case provided by Dr. Elvidio de Paula e Silva Fig. 19. Final occlusion

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 65

Fig. 22. Final front and profile view and preauricular region showing small residual scar

Fig. 23. Final occlusion

Fig. 24. Final cephalogram radiographs

#### **3.3 Case 3**

Fig. 20. Initial front and profile view

Fig. 21. Initial occlusion


LIST OF PROBLEMS TREATMENT PLAN

surgery

and leveling.

Le Fort I osteotomy with superior

forward repositioning genioplasty.

repositioning and maxillary advancement

Facial asymmetry Presurgical orthodontic treatment

Class III malocclusion High condilectomy with orthognathic

Anterior cross bite Mandibular setback with superior and

**3.3 Case 3** 

Fig. 20. Initial front and profile view

CH type 1 on right side with midline

deviation towards left side

Cross bite on left side

Vertical excess of chin

Fig. 21. Initial occlusion

Fig. 22. Final front and profile view and preauricular region showing small residual scar

Fig. 23. Final occlusion

Fig. 24. Final cephalogram radiographs

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 67

Fig. 26. Final frontal and profile view one year after surgery

Fig. 27. Final occlusion

#### **3.4 Case 4**

Fig. 25. Initial front and profile view (above) and initial occlusal (bellow)


Fig. 25. Initial front and profile view (above) and initial occlusal (bellow)

LIST OF PROBLEMS TREATMENT PLAN

Class III malocclusion High condilectomy with orthognathic surgery

Cross bite on left side Augmentation of left mandibular angle with a

Le Fort I osteotomy with superior repositioning and maxillary advancement and leveling.

high-density polyethylene implant (MEDPOR®)

Mandibular setback with superior and forward repositioning genioplasty.

Facial asymmetry Presurgical orthodontic treatment

CH type 1 on right side with mandibular midline deviation towards left side

Maxillary midline deviation towards right

Flattening of left mandibular angle

side

Vertical excess of chin

**3.4 Case 4** 

Fig. 26. Final frontal and profile view one year after surgery

Fig. 27. Final occlusion

Mandibular Condylar Hiperplasia 69

[9] Padwa, B.L; Kaiser, M.O; Kaban, L.B. Occlusal Cant in the Frontal Plane as a Reflection

[10] New Clinical Protocol to Evaluate Craniomaxillofacial Deformity and Plan Surgical

[11] Iannetti, G.; Cascone, P.; Belli, E.; Cordaro, L. Condylar hiperplasia: Cephalometric

[12] Adams R. The disease in the temporomandibular articulation or joint of the lower jaw.

[13] Nitzan, D.W.; Katsnelson, A.; Bermanis, I.; Brin, I; Casap, N. The Clinical Characteristics

[14] Wolford LM, Mehra P, Reiche-Fischel O, Morales-Ryan CA, Garcia-Mo-rales P. Efficacy

[15] Kaneyama, K.; Segami, N.; Hatta, N. Congenital deformities and developmental

[16] Villanueva-Alcojol, L.; Monje, F.; González-García, R. Hyperplasia of the Mandibular

[17] Norman JE, Painter DM: Hyperplasia of the mandibular condyle: A historical review of

[18] Saridin, C.P; Raijmakers, P.G.H.M.; Slootweg, P.J; Tuinzing, D.B.; Becking, A.G.; van

[19] Surgical management of mandibular condylar hyperplasia type 1. Wolford LM,

[20] Brusati, R..; Pedrazzo, M.; Colletti, G. Functional results after condylectomy in active laterognathia. Journal of Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery (2010) 38 , 179e184 [21] Wolford, L.M. Concomitant Temporomandibular Joint and Orthognathic Surgery. J

[22] Marchetti C, Cocchi R, Gentile L, Bianchi A: Hemimandibular hyperplasia: treatment

[23] Karras SC, Wolford LM, Cottrell DA: Concurrent osteochon-droma of the mandibular

[24] Schajowicz F, Ackerman LV, Sissons HA: International Histo-logical Classication of

[25] Koga K, Toyama M, Kurita K: Osteochondroma of the mandib-ular angle: Report of a

review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 54:640, 1996

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of Condylar Hyperplasia: Experience With 61 Patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg

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important early cases with a presentation and analysis of twelve patients. J

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strategies. J Craniofac Surg 11: 46e 53, 2000

Fig. 28. Final cephalogram and panoramic radiographs showing mini-anchors on right condyle

#### **4. Conclusions**

Treatment of facial asymmetry can be challenging for both orthodontists and oral and maxillofacial surgeons. They can be assessed by photographs, posteroanterior cephalograms and 3D computed tomography (CT) scans, but clinical examinations is mandatory in order to obtain optimal functional and aesthetics results.

Mandibular condylar hiperplasia with active growth represents an important role in facial asymmetry and its treatment can be achieved by correct diagnosis, orthodontic treatment associated with correct surgical techniques.

#### **5. References**


Fig. 28. Final cephalogram and panoramic radiographs showing mini-anchors on right

mandatory in order to obtain optimal functional and aesthetics results.

associated with correct surgical techniques.

Orthod 1994;64:89-98.

1960;108:64-96.

Am J Surg 1960;100:825-34.

Oral Surg 1968;26:281-90.

J Maxillofac Surg 1986;14:183-208;

Treatment of facial asymmetry can be challenging for both orthodontists and oral and maxillofacial surgeons. They can be assessed by photographs, posteroanterior cephalograms and 3D computed tomography (CT) scans, but clinical examinations is

Mandibular condylar hiperplasia with active growth represents an important role in facial asymmetry and its treatment can be achieved by correct diagnosis, orthodontic treatment

[1] Ko,E.W.C; Huang,C.S.; Chen, Y.R.J. Characteristics and Corrective Outcome of Face Asymmetry by Orthognathic Surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 67:2201-2209, 2009. [2] Lee, M.; Chung, D.H; Lee, J.; Cha, K. Assessing soft-tissue characteristics of facial asymmetry with photographs. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop; 138:23-31, 2010. [3] Bishara SE, Burkey PS, Kharouf JG. Dental and facial asymmetries: a review. Angle

[4] Hwang, H-S; Youn, S.; Lee, K-H; Lim, H-J. Classication of facial asymmetry by cluster

[5] Hinds EC, Reid LC, Burch RJ. Classication and management of mandibular asymmetry.

[6] Rowe NL. Aetiology, clinical features, and treatment of mandib-ular deformity. Br Dent J

[7] Bruce RA, Hayward JR. Condylar hyperplasia and mandibular asymmetry: a review. J

[8] Obwegeser HL, Makek MS. Hemimandibular hyperplasia—hemimandibular elongation.

analysis. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop; 132:279.e1-279.e6; 2007.

condyle

**4. Conclusions** 

**5. References** 


**5** 

*Greece* 

**The Mandibular Nerve:** 

*1,3,4,5,6Department of Anatomy,* 

*Medical School, University of Athens* 

M. Piagkou1, T. Demesticha2, G. Piagkos3,

*2Department of Anesthesiology, Metropolitan Hospital* 

Chrysanthou Ioannis4, P. Skandalakis5 and E.O. Johnson6

**The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment** 

The trigeminal nerve (TN) is a mixed cranial nerve that consists primarily of sensory neurons. It exists the brain on the lateral surface of the pons, entering the trigeminal ganglion (TGG) after a few millimeters, followed by an extensive series of divisions. Of the three major branches that emerge from the TGG, the mandibular nerve (MN) comprises the 3rd and largest of the three divisions. The MN also has an additional motor component, which may run in a separate facial compartment. Thus, unlike the other two TN divisions, which convey afferent fibers, the MN also contains motor or efferent fibers to innervate the muscles that are attached to mandible (muscles of mastication, the mylohyoid, the anterior belly of the digastric muscle, the tensor veli palatini, and tensor tympani muscle). Most of these fibers travel directly to their target tissues. Sensory axons innervate skin on the lateral side of the head, tongue, and mucosal wall of the oral cavity. Some sensory axons enter the mandible to innervate the teeth and emerge from the mental foramen to innervate the skin

An entrapment neuropathy is a nerve lesion caused by pressure or mechanical irritation from some anatomic structures next to the nerve. This occurs frequently where the nerve passes through a fibro-osseous canal, or because of impingement by an anatomic structure (bone, muscle or a fibrous band), or because of the combined influences on the nerve entrapment between soft and hard tissues. Any mechanical injury of the nerve therefore could be considered a compression or entrapment neuropathy **(Kwak et al., 2003).** A usual position of TN compression is the ITF **(Nayak et al., 2008),** a deep retromaxillary space, situated below the middle cranial fossa of the skull, the pharynx and the mandibular ramus. The ITF contains several of the mastication muscles, the pterygoid venous plexus, the maxillary artery (MA) and the MN ramification **(Prades et al., 2003) (Figure 1).** The MA is in contact with the inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) and lingual nerve (LN) **(Trost et al., 2009)**. Recently, it is believed that some cases of temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJS), persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP) and myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) may be due to entrapment neuropathies of the MN in the ITF **(Loughner et al., 1990).** Various muscle anomalies in the ITF have been reported when considering unexplained neurological

**1. Introduction** 

of the lower jaw.


## **The Mandibular Nerve: The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment**

M. Piagkou1, T. Demesticha2, G. Piagkos3, Chrysanthou Ioannis4, P. Skandalakis5 and E.O. Johnson6 *1,3,4,5,6Department of Anatomy, 2Department of Anesthesiology, Metropolitan Hospital Medical School, University of Athens Greece* 

#### **1. Introduction**

70 Maxillofacial Surgery

[26] Iizuka T, Schroth G, Laeng RH, et al: Osteochondroma of the mandibular condyle. J

[27] Wolford, L.M.; Mehra, P.; Franco, P. Use of Conservative Condylectomy for Treatment

[28] Al-Kayat A, Bramley P: A modified pre-auricular approach to the temporomandibular

[29] Perez, D.; Ellis III, E. Sequencing Bimaxillary Surgery: Mandible First. J Oral Maxillofac

[30] Lo, J.; Xia, J.J; Zwahlen, R.A.; Cheung, L.K. Surgical Navigation in Correction of

joint and malar arch. Br J Oral Surg 17(2):91e103, 1979

of Osteochondroma of the Mandibular Condyle. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 60:262-268,

Hemimandibular Hyperplasia: A New Treatment Strategy. J Oral Maxillofac Surg

Oral Maxillofac Surg 54:495, 1996

Surg. Article in press.

68:1444-1450, 2010

2002

The trigeminal nerve (TN) is a mixed cranial nerve that consists primarily of sensory neurons. It exists the brain on the lateral surface of the pons, entering the trigeminal ganglion (TGG) after a few millimeters, followed by an extensive series of divisions. Of the three major branches that emerge from the TGG, the mandibular nerve (MN) comprises the 3rd and largest of the three divisions. The MN also has an additional motor component, which may run in a separate facial compartment. Thus, unlike the other two TN divisions, which convey afferent fibers, the MN also contains motor or efferent fibers to innervate the muscles that are attached to mandible (muscles of mastication, the mylohyoid, the anterior belly of the digastric muscle, the tensor veli palatini, and tensor tympani muscle). Most of these fibers travel directly to their target tissues. Sensory axons innervate skin on the lateral side of the head, tongue, and mucosal wall of the oral cavity. Some sensory axons enter the mandible to innervate the teeth and emerge from the mental foramen to innervate the skin of the lower jaw.

An entrapment neuropathy is a nerve lesion caused by pressure or mechanical irritation from some anatomic structures next to the nerve. This occurs frequently where the nerve passes through a fibro-osseous canal, or because of impingement by an anatomic structure (bone, muscle or a fibrous band), or because of the combined influences on the nerve entrapment between soft and hard tissues. Any mechanical injury of the nerve therefore could be considered a compression or entrapment neuropathy **(Kwak et al., 2003).** A usual position of TN compression is the ITF **(Nayak et al., 2008),** a deep retromaxillary space, situated below the middle cranial fossa of the skull, the pharynx and the mandibular ramus. The ITF contains several of the mastication muscles, the pterygoid venous plexus, the maxillary artery (MA) and the MN ramification **(Prades et al., 2003) (Figure 1).** The MA is in contact with the inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) and lingual nerve (LN) **(Trost et al., 2009)**. Recently, it is believed that some cases of temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJS), persistent idiopathic facial pain (PIFP) and myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) may be due to entrapment neuropathies of the MN in the ITF **(Loughner et al., 1990).** Various muscle anomalies in the ITF have been reported when considering unexplained neurological

The Mandibular Nerve: The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment 73

The MN, the largest of the three divisions of the ΤΝ, leaves the skull through the foramen ovale (FO) and enters the ITF and medial to the LPt; it divides into a smaller anterior trunk and a larger posterior trunk. The anterior trunk passes between the roof of the ITF and the LPt and the posterior trunk descends medially to the LPt, which might entrap the nerve

Fig. 2. The mandibular division of the TN emerging for the Foramen Ovale deep in the ITF.

**The Buccal Nerve (BN)** mainly supplies the LPt while passing through it and may give off the Anterior Deep Temporal Nerve (ADTN). It supplies the skin over the anterior part of the buccinator and the buccal mucous membrane, together with the posterior part of the buccal gingivae, adjacent to the 2nd and 3rd molar teeth. It proceeds between the two parts of the LPt, descending deep then anteriorly to the tendon of the temporalis muscle. This normal course is a potential site of entrapment. If LPt spasm occurs, the BN could be compressed, and this compression could provoke in cheek numbness. BN compression has been reported by a hyperactive temporalis muscle and may result in neuralgia-like paroxysmal pain **(Loughner al., 1990). Kim et al (2003**) found that in 8 cadavers (33.3%) the BN was

**The Masseteric nerve** passes laterally, above the LPt, on the skull base, anterior to the TMJ and posterior to the tendon of the temporalis; it crosses the posterior part of the mandibular coronoid notch with the masseteric artery, ramifies on, and enters the deep surface of masseter. It also supplies the TMJ. Compression of the masseteric nerve anterior to the TMJ was found in 1 joint with excessive condylar translation **(Johansson** 

**2. Typical course of mandibular nerve and its branches** 

**(Isberg et al., 1987; Loughner et al., 1990) (Figure 2).** 

**3. The anterior trunk of the MN** 

**et al., 1990).**

entrapped within the anterior muscle fibres of the temporalis.

symptoms attributed to MN branches. The variations of the typical nerve course are important for adequate local anaesthesia, dental, oncological and reconstructive operations **(Akita et al., 2001).** Whenever observed these variations must be reported as they can cause serious implications in any surgical intervention in the region, and may lead to false neurological differential diagnosis. If anomalous ΜΝ branches occur in combination with the ossified ligaments, then cutaneous sensory fibres might pass through one of the foramina formed by the ossified bars **(Shaw, 1993).** The MN can be compressed as a result of both its course and its relation to the surrounding structures, particularly when passing between the medial pterygoid (MPt) and lateral pterygoid (LPt) muscles. When the pterygoid muscles contract, both the IAN and the LN may be compressed. This results in pain, particularly during chewing; and may eventually cause trigeminal neuralgia (TGN) **(Anil et al., 2003).** MN entrapment can lead to numbness of all peripheral regions innervated from it. It could also lead to pain during speech **(Peuker et al., 2001).**

Fig. 1. The distribution of the mandibular nerve and its branches in the infratemporal fossa (ITF)

symptoms attributed to MN branches. The variations of the typical nerve course are important for adequate local anaesthesia, dental, oncological and reconstructive operations **(Akita et al., 2001).** Whenever observed these variations must be reported as they can cause serious implications in any surgical intervention in the region, and may lead to false neurological differential diagnosis. If anomalous ΜΝ branches occur in combination with the ossified ligaments, then cutaneous sensory fibres might pass through one of the foramina formed by the ossified bars **(Shaw, 1993).** The MN can be compressed as a result of both its course and its relation to the surrounding structures, particularly when passing between the medial pterygoid (MPt) and lateral pterygoid (LPt) muscles. When the pterygoid muscles contract, both the IAN and the LN may be compressed. This results in pain, particularly during chewing; and may eventually cause trigeminal neuralgia (TGN) **(Anil et al., 2003).** MN entrapment can lead to numbness of all peripheral regions

innervated from it. It could also lead to pain during speech **(Peuker et al., 2001).**

Fig. 1. The distribution of the mandibular nerve and its branches in the infratemporal fossa (ITF)

### **2. Typical course of mandibular nerve and its branches**

The MN, the largest of the three divisions of the ΤΝ, leaves the skull through the foramen ovale (FO) and enters the ITF and medial to the LPt; it divides into a smaller anterior trunk and a larger posterior trunk. The anterior trunk passes between the roof of the ITF and the LPt and the posterior trunk descends medially to the LPt, which might entrap the nerve **(Isberg et al., 1987; Loughner et al., 1990) (Figure 2).** 

Fig. 2. The mandibular division of the TN emerging for the Foramen Ovale deep in the ITF.

#### **3. The anterior trunk of the MN**

**The Buccal Nerve (BN)** mainly supplies the LPt while passing through it and may give off the Anterior Deep Temporal Nerve (ADTN). It supplies the skin over the anterior part of the buccinator and the buccal mucous membrane, together with the posterior part of the buccal gingivae, adjacent to the 2nd and 3rd molar teeth. It proceeds between the two parts of the LPt, descending deep then anteriorly to the tendon of the temporalis muscle. This normal course is a potential site of entrapment. If LPt spasm occurs, the BN could be compressed, and this compression could provoke in cheek numbness. BN compression has been reported by a hyperactive temporalis muscle and may result in neuralgia-like paroxysmal pain **(Loughner al., 1990). Kim et al (2003**) found that in 8 cadavers (33.3%) the BN was entrapped within the anterior muscle fibres of the temporalis.

**The Masseteric nerve** passes laterally, above the LPt, on the skull base, anterior to the TMJ and posterior to the tendon of the temporalis; it crosses the posterior part of the mandibular coronoid notch with the masseteric artery, ramifies on, and enters the deep surface of masseter. It also supplies the TMJ. Compression of the masseteric nerve anterior to the TMJ was found in 1 joint with excessive condylar translation **(Johansson et al., 1990).**

The Mandibular Nerve: The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment 75

second premolars, where it divides into the terminal incisive and mental branches **(Khan et al., 2009).** Because the IAN is a mixed nerve, it is suggested that during development, the sensory and motor fibres are guided separately, and take different migration pathways. When the motor component of the nerve leaves for its final destination, the sensory fibres reunite **(Krmpotic-Nemanic et al., 1999).** It was also found that the IAN and the LN may pass close to the medial part of the condyle. In joints with this nerve topography, a medially displaced disc could interfere mechanically with these nerves. These findings could explain the sharp, shooting pain felt locally in the joint with jaw movements and the pain and other sensations projecting to the terminal area of distribution of the nerve branches near the TMJ such as the ear, temple, cheek, tongue,

**The Mylohyoid Nerve** branches from the IAN as the latter descends between the SML and the mandibular ramus. The mylohyoid nerve (motor nerve) passes forward in a groove to reach the mylohyoid muscle and the anterior belly of the digastric muscle. **Loughner et al. (1990)** found an unusual entrapment of the mylohyoid nerve in the LPt in one cadaver. Nerve compression may cause a poorly localized deep pain from the muscles it innervates. Chronic compression of the nerve results in muscular paresis. Nerve entrapment bilaterally

**The Lingual Nerve (LN)** is the smallest sensory branch of the posterior trunk of the MN. Below the FO, it is united closely with the IAN. Separating from the IAN, usually 5- 10mm below the cranial base, it begins its course from the ITF near the otic ganglion **(Kim et al., 2004).** Data on LN topography in the ITF remain incomplete **(Trost et al., 2009).** LN runs between the tensor veli palatine and the LPt where it is joined by the chorda tympani (CT) (branch of the FN). The CT carrying taste fibres for the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and parasympathetic fibres to the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands **(Zur et al., 2004).** The LN emerging from the cover of the LPt, proceeds down and forwards lying on the surface of the MPt and moves progressively closer to the medial surface of the mandibular ramus until it is intimately related to the bone a few millimetres below and behind the junction of the vertical and horizontal mandible rami. Here, it lies anterior to, and slightly deeper than, the IAN. It then passes below the mandibular attachment of the superior pharyngeal constrictor and pterygomandibular raphe, closely applied to the periosteum of the medial surface of the mandible, until it lies opposite the posterior root of the 3rd molar tooth, where it is covered only by the gingival mucoperiosteum. At the level of the upper end of the mylohyoid line, the nerve turns in a sharp curve anteriorly to continue horizontally on the superior surface of the mylohyoid muscle into the oral cavity. The LN is, at this point in close relation with to the upper pole of the submandibular gland. Farther anteriorly, the LN lies close to the posterior part of the sublingual gland and then turns medially spiraling under the submandibular duct and divides into a variable number of branches, entering the substance of the tongue. The nerve lays first on styloglossus and then on the lateral surface of the hyoglossus and genioglossus, before dividing into terminal branches which supply the overlying lingual mucosa **(Peuker et al., 2001; Zur et al.,2004).** In addition to receiving the CT and a branch from the IAN, the LN is connected to the submandibular ganglion by two or three branches and at the anterior margin of the hyoglossus, it forms connecting loops with hypoglossal nerve twigs **(Gray's 1995).** The LN supplies general sensation to the mucosa,

and teeth **(Johansson et al., 1990).**

may provoke swallowing difficulties.

**The Deep temporal nerves (DTN)** usually an anterior and a posterior branch pass above the LPt to enter the deep surface of the temporalis. The small Posterior Deep Temporal Nerve (PDTN) sometimes arises in common with the masseteric nerve. The Anterior Deep Temporal Nerve (ADTN), a branch of the BN, ascends over the upper head of the LPt. A middle branch often occurs. **Johannson et al. (1990)** found that the DPTN may pass close to the anterior insertion of the joint capsule on the temporal bone, exposing them to the risk of mechanical irritation in condylar hypermobility. **Loughner et al. (1990)** observed the mylohyoid nerve and ADTN passing through the LPt. A spastic condition of the LPt may be causally related to compression of an entrapped nerve that leads to numbness, pain or both in the respective nerve distribution areas. *Compression of sensory branches* of the DTN by the temporalis muscle is a cause of neuropathy, (neuralgia or paresthesia) neuralgia or paresthesia **(Madhavi et al., 2006).** 

**The Nerve to the LPt** enters the deep surface of the muscle and may arise separately from the anterior division or with the BN.

#### **4. The posterior trunk of the MN**

**The Auriculotemporal Nerve (ATN)** usually has 2 roots, arising from the posterior division of MN. It encircles the middle meningeal artery (MMA) and runs posteriorly passing between the sphenomandibular ligament (SML) and the neck of the mandible. It then runs laterally behind the TMJ to emerge deep in the upper part of the parotid gland. The nerve carries somatosensory and secremotor fibres of the MN and the glossopharyngeal nerve (GPhN). The ATN communicates with the facial nerve (FN) at the posterior border of the ramus where the ATN passes posterior to the neck of the condyle. If fibres cross over from the ATN to the FN and not vice versa, this communication may represent a pathway for FN sensory impairment; i.e. pain in the muscles of facial expression may occur due to an entrapped and compressed ATN. An entrapped ATN in the LPt could be the aetiology behind a painful neuropathy in a distal ATN branch supplying sensory innervation to a deranged TMJ **(Akita et al., 2001).** 

The ATN is in close anatomic relation to the condylar process, the TMJ, the superficial temporal artery (STA) and the LPt. ATN compression by hypertrophied LPt may result in neuralgia or paresthesia of TMJ, exernal acoustic meatus and facial muscles. Further it may result in functional impairment of salivation ipsilaterally. In addition, the altered position of the ATN and its extensive or multiple loops may render the ATN more liable to entrapment neuropathy. Temple headaches occur frequently due to entrapment of ATN, which sometimes is throbbing in nature, due to its proximity to STA **(Soni et al., 2009). Johannson et al. (1990)** revealed the existence of topographical prerequisites for mechanical influence upon the MN branches passing in the TMJ region. In joints, with a displaced disc, the ATN trunk was almost in contact with the medial aspect of the condyle instead of exhibiting its normal sheltered course at the level of the condylar neck, thus exposing the nerve possible mechanical irritation during anteromedial condylar movements.

**The Inferior alveolar Nerve (IAN)** normally descends medial to the LPt. At its lower border, the nerve passes between the SML and the mandibular ramus, and then enters the mandibular canal through the mandibular foramen. In the mandibular canal it runs downwards and forwards, generally below the apices of the teeth until below the first and

**The Deep temporal nerves (DTN)** usually an anterior and a posterior branch pass above the LPt to enter the deep surface of the temporalis. The small Posterior Deep Temporal Nerve (PDTN) sometimes arises in common with the masseteric nerve. The Anterior Deep Temporal Nerve (ADTN), a branch of the BN, ascends over the upper head of the LPt. A middle branch often occurs. **Johannson et al. (1990)** found that the DPTN may pass close to the anterior insertion of the joint capsule on the temporal bone, exposing them to the risk of mechanical irritation in condylar hypermobility. **Loughner et al. (1990)** observed the mylohyoid nerve and ADTN passing through the LPt. A spastic condition of the LPt may be causally related to compression of an entrapped nerve that leads to numbness, pain or both in the respective nerve distribution areas. *Compression of sensory branches* of the DTN by the temporalis muscle is a cause of neuropathy, (neuralgia or paresthesia) neuralgia or

**The Nerve to the LPt** enters the deep surface of the muscle and may arise separately from

**The Auriculotemporal Nerve (ATN)** usually has 2 roots, arising from the posterior division of MN. It encircles the middle meningeal artery (MMA) and runs posteriorly passing between the sphenomandibular ligament (SML) and the neck of the mandible. It then runs laterally behind the TMJ to emerge deep in the upper part of the parotid gland. The nerve carries somatosensory and secremotor fibres of the MN and the glossopharyngeal nerve (GPhN). The ATN communicates with the facial nerve (FN) at the posterior border of the ramus where the ATN passes posterior to the neck of the condyle. If fibres cross over from the ATN to the FN and not vice versa, this communication may represent a pathway for FN sensory impairment; i.e. pain in the muscles of facial expression may occur due to an entrapped and compressed ATN. An entrapped ATN in the LPt could be the aetiology behind a painful neuropathy in a distal ATN branch supplying sensory innervation to a

The ATN is in close anatomic relation to the condylar process, the TMJ, the superficial temporal artery (STA) and the LPt. ATN compression by hypertrophied LPt may result in neuralgia or paresthesia of TMJ, exernal acoustic meatus and facial muscles. Further it may result in functional impairment of salivation ipsilaterally. In addition, the altered position of the ATN and its extensive or multiple loops may render the ATN more liable to entrapment neuropathy. Temple headaches occur frequently due to entrapment of ATN, which sometimes is throbbing in nature, due to its proximity to STA **(Soni et al., 2009). Johannson et al. (1990)** revealed the existence of topographical prerequisites for mechanical influence upon the MN branches passing in the TMJ region. In joints, with a displaced disc, the ATN trunk was almost in contact with the medial aspect of the condyle instead of exhibiting its normal sheltered course at the level of the condylar neck, thus exposing the nerve possible

**The Inferior alveolar Nerve (IAN)** normally descends medial to the LPt. At its lower border, the nerve passes between the SML and the mandibular ramus, and then enters the mandibular canal through the mandibular foramen. In the mandibular canal it runs downwards and forwards, generally below the apices of the teeth until below the first and

mechanical irritation during anteromedial condylar movements.

paresthesia **(Madhavi et al., 2006).** 

the anterior division or with the BN.

**4. The posterior trunk of the MN** 

deranged TMJ **(Akita et al., 2001).** 

second premolars, where it divides into the terminal incisive and mental branches **(Khan et al., 2009).** Because the IAN is a mixed nerve, it is suggested that during development, the sensory and motor fibres are guided separately, and take different migration pathways. When the motor component of the nerve leaves for its final destination, the sensory fibres reunite **(Krmpotic-Nemanic et al., 1999).** It was also found that the IAN and the LN may pass close to the medial part of the condyle. In joints with this nerve topography, a medially displaced disc could interfere mechanically with these nerves. These findings could explain the sharp, shooting pain felt locally in the joint with jaw movements and the pain and other sensations projecting to the terminal area of distribution of the nerve branches near the TMJ such as the ear, temple, cheek, tongue, and teeth **(Johansson et al., 1990).**

**The Mylohyoid Nerve** branches from the IAN as the latter descends between the SML and the mandibular ramus. The mylohyoid nerve (motor nerve) passes forward in a groove to reach the mylohyoid muscle and the anterior belly of the digastric muscle. **Loughner et al. (1990)** found an unusual entrapment of the mylohyoid nerve in the LPt in one cadaver. Nerve compression may cause a poorly localized deep pain from the muscles it innervates. Chronic compression of the nerve results in muscular paresis. Nerve entrapment bilaterally may provoke swallowing difficulties.

**The Lingual Nerve (LN)** is the smallest sensory branch of the posterior trunk of the MN. Below the FO, it is united closely with the IAN. Separating from the IAN, usually 5- 10mm below the cranial base, it begins its course from the ITF near the otic ganglion **(Kim et al., 2004).** Data on LN topography in the ITF remain incomplete **(Trost et al., 2009).** LN runs between the tensor veli palatine and the LPt where it is joined by the chorda tympani (CT) (branch of the FN). The CT carrying taste fibres for the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and parasympathetic fibres to the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands **(Zur et al., 2004).** The LN emerging from the cover of the LPt, proceeds down and forwards lying on the surface of the MPt and moves progressively closer to the medial surface of the mandibular ramus until it is intimately related to the bone a few millimetres below and behind the junction of the vertical and horizontal mandible rami. Here, it lies anterior to, and slightly deeper than, the IAN. It then passes below the mandibular attachment of the superior pharyngeal constrictor and pterygomandibular raphe, closely applied to the periosteum of the medial surface of the mandible, until it lies opposite the posterior root of the 3rd molar tooth, where it is covered only by the gingival mucoperiosteum. At the level of the upper end of the mylohyoid line, the nerve turns in a sharp curve anteriorly to continue horizontally on the superior surface of the mylohyoid muscle into the oral cavity. The LN is, at this point in close relation with to the upper pole of the submandibular gland. Farther anteriorly, the LN lies close to the posterior part of the sublingual gland and then turns medially spiraling under the submandibular duct and divides into a variable number of branches, entering the substance of the tongue. The nerve lays first on styloglossus and then on the lateral surface of the hyoglossus and genioglossus, before dividing into terminal branches which supply the overlying lingual mucosa **(Peuker et al., 2001; Zur et al.,2004).** In addition to receiving the CT and a branch from the IAN, the LN is connected to the submandibular ganglion by two or three branches and at the anterior margin of the hyoglossus, it forms connecting loops with hypoglossal nerve twigs **(Gray's 1995).** The LN supplies general sensation to the mucosa,

The Mandibular Nerve: The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment 77

Fig. 4. A right ITF with a wide and large lateral pterygoid lamina

Reaction of neurons to physical trauma has been studied most extensively in motor neurons with peripheral axons, and centrally where their axons form well-defined tracts. When an axon is crushed or severed, changes occur on both sides of the lesion **(Nauta et al., 1974; Johnson et al., 2005).** Distally the axon initially swells and subsequently breaks up into a series of membrane-bound spheres. This process begins near the point of damage and progresses distally. These anterograde changes which also involve the axon

**5. Reaction of neurons to injury** 

the floor of the mouth, the lingual gingiva and the mucosa of the anterior two thirds (presulcal part) of the tongue, being slightly overlapped posteriorly by lingual fibers of the glossopharyngeal nerve **(Rusu et al., 2008).** The nerve transfers neural sensory fibres for general sensitivity (pressure, temperature, pain, touch) and gustatory fibers for taste sensation to the anterior part of the tongue through the CT. The CT also carries preganglionic parasympathetic fibers providing secretomotor innervation to the submandibular, sublingual and minor salivary glands of the oral cavity **(Trost et al., 2009).** The medial and lateral branches bear anastomotic connections with the hypoglossal nerve in the tongue body. Knowledge of the precise anatomical distribution of the LN may aid the surgeon to ensure a safe and effective procedure **(Zur et al., 2009).** The LN can sometimes be entrapped, either through an ossified pterygospinous ligament, based on the outer part of the cranial base, or through an extremely wide lateral lamina of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, or through the medial fibres of the lower belly of the LPt, or between the anterior margin of the pterygoid muscle and the mandibular lingual border or after its penetration in the MPt **(Loughner et al., 1990; Peuker et al., 2001; Von Ludinghausen et al., 2006) (Figures 3,4).** LN compression could lead to a weakening of taste transmission from the taste buds on the anterior two thirds of the tongue unilaterally **(Loughner et al., 1990; Kim et al., 2004).** 

Fig. 3. The existence of pterygoalar foramen as a site of lingual nerve entrapment

the floor of the mouth, the lingual gingiva and the mucosa of the anterior two thirds (presulcal part) of the tongue, being slightly overlapped posteriorly by lingual fibers of the glossopharyngeal nerve **(Rusu et al., 2008).** The nerve transfers neural sensory fibres for general sensitivity (pressure, temperature, pain, touch) and gustatory fibers for taste sensation to the anterior part of the tongue through the CT. The CT also carries preganglionic parasympathetic fibers providing secretomotor innervation to the submandibular, sublingual and minor salivary glands of the oral cavity **(Trost et al., 2009).** The medial and lateral branches bear anastomotic connections with the hypoglossal nerve in the tongue body. Knowledge of the precise anatomical distribution of the LN may aid the surgeon to ensure a safe and effective procedure **(Zur et al., 2009).** The LN can sometimes be entrapped, either through an ossified pterygospinous ligament, based on the outer part of the cranial base, or through an extremely wide lateral lamina of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, or through the medial fibres of the lower belly of the LPt, or between the anterior margin of the pterygoid muscle and the mandibular lingual border or after its penetration in the MPt **(Loughner et al., 1990; Peuker et al., 2001; Von Ludinghausen et al., 2006) (Figures 3,4).** LN compression could lead to a weakening of taste transmission from the taste buds on the anterior two thirds of the

tongue unilaterally **(Loughner et al., 1990; Kim et al., 2004).** 

Fig. 3. The existence of pterygoalar foramen as a site of lingual nerve entrapment

Fig. 4. A right ITF with a wide and large lateral pterygoid lamina

#### **5. Reaction of neurons to injury**

Reaction of neurons to physical trauma has been studied most extensively in motor neurons with peripheral axons, and centrally where their axons form well-defined tracts. When an axon is crushed or severed, changes occur on both sides of the lesion **(Nauta et al., 1974; Johnson et al., 2005).** Distally the axon initially swells and subsequently breaks up into a series of membrane-bound spheres. This process begins near the point of damage and progresses distally. These anterograde changes which also involve the axon

The Mandibular Nerve: The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment 79

**Compression neuropathies** are highly prevalent, debilitating conditions with variable functional recovery following surgical decompression. **Chronic nerve compression** induces concurrent Schwann cell proliferation and apoptosis in the early stages, without morphological and electrophysiological evidence of axonal damage. Proliferating Schwann cells down regulate myelin proteins, leading to local demyelination and remyelination in the region of injury. Axonal sprouting is related to the down regulation of myelin proteins, such as myelin-associated glycoprotein. This is contrast to acute crush or transection injuries, which are characterized by axonal injury followed by Wallerian degeneration **(Pham and** 

**The posterior trunk of the MN** might be entrapped occasionally from ligament's ossification between the lateral pterygoid process and the sphenoid spine near the FO

Although specific information regarding the clinical significance of ossified ligaments near the FO is limited, ossified ligaments appear to be very important from a practical clinical standpoint in relation to the different methods of block anesthesia of the MN **(Lepp and Sandner, 1968).** Additionally, these occasional structures may be important by producing various neurological disturbances **(Shaw, 1993). Krmpotic-Nemanic et al. (2001)** noted that a pterygospinous foramen replacing the FO could provoke trigeminal

Fig. 5. Complete pterygospinous osseous bar and the enlarged pterygospinous foramen on

**6. Mechanisms of entrapment neuropathies** 

**(Isberg et al., 1987; Loughner et al., 1990; Kapur et al., 2000).** 

**Gupta, 2009).** 

neuralgia **(Figure 5).** 

the left side of a Greek dry skull

terminal continue to total degeneration and removal of the cytoplasmic debris. Proximally, a similar series of changes may occur close to the point of injury, followed by a number of sequential, retrograde changes in the cell body **(Boyd and Gordon, 2003).** The process of degeneration is followed by the formation of new protein synthesizing organelles that produce distinctive proteins, destined for the regrowth of the axon **(Fenrich and Gordon, 2004).** Where regrowth of the axon is possible, the presence of an intact endoneurial sheath near to and beyond the region of injury is important if the axon is to reestablish satisfactory contact with its previous end organ or a closely adjacent one. The myelin sheath distal to the point of injury degenerates and is accompanied by mitotic proliferation of the Schwann cells, which fill the space inside the basal lamina of the old endoneurial tube **(Quarles, 2002).** Where a gap is present between the severed ends of the nerve, proliferating Schwann cells emerge from the stumps and form a series of nucleated cellular cords which bridge the interval **(Fenrich and Gordon,2004).** This may persist for a long time even in the absence of satisfactory nerve regeneration. Successful sprouts enter the proximal end of the endoneurial tube and grow distally in close contact with the surfaces of the Schwann cells it contains. This involves a process of contact guidance between the tip of the axon and the Schwann cell surfaces in the endoneurial tube and when present those which form Bungners bands. When the axon tip has reached and successfully reinnervated an end organ, the surrounding Schwann cells commence to synthesize myelin sheaths. Before full functional regeneration can occur, a considerable period of growth of both axonal diameter and myelin sheath thickness is necessary. This occurs when a high number of effective peripheral connections have been established. Regeneration of central axons does not normally occur, perhaps because of the absence of definite endoneurial tubes **(Fenrich and Gordon, 2004).** In general, when an axon is cut, Wallerian degeneration leads to axon degeneration and loss of conduction by 4 days. As a result of interruption of the post-ganglionic sympathetic efferent fibers, vaso- and sudomotor paralysis is observed, resulting in red and dry skin in the area innervated by the nerve **(Johnson et al., 2005).** Various progressive changes take place in the target organs, skin blood vessels and sensory receptors. Peripherally, the muscle target losses its function, and centrally, motor neurons undergo atrophy and are often lost. One to 3 days after an axon is cut, the tips of the proximal stump forms growth cones that send out exploratory pseudopodia. Motor axonal regeneration is compromised by chronic distal nerve stump denervation, induced by delayed repair or prolonged regeneration distance, suggesting that the pathway for regeneration is progressively impaired with time and distance. Poor functional recovery after peripheral nerve injury has been generally attributed to inability of deneravated muscles to accept reinnervation and recover from denervation atrophy. On the other hand, deterioration of the environment produced by Schwann cells may play a more vital role. For the most part, atrophic Schwann cells retain their capacity to remyelinate regenerated axons, although they may loose their capacity to support axonal regeneration when chronically denervated. The importance of axonal regeneration through Schwann cell tubes surrounded by a basal lamina in the distal stump explains, in part, the different degrees of regeneration that are seen after crush injuries compared to transection. Although axons may be severed in crush injury, the Schwann cells, basal lamina and perineurium maintain continuity and, thus, facilitate regeneration. Considerable debate remains concerning the extent of axonal damage following chronic compression of axons **(Johnson et al., 2005).** 

#### **6. Mechanisms of entrapment neuropathies**

78 Maxillofacial Surgery

terminal continue to total degeneration and removal of the cytoplasmic debris. Proximally, a similar series of changes may occur close to the point of injury, followed by a number of sequential, retrograde changes in the cell body **(Boyd and Gordon, 2003).** The process of degeneration is followed by the formation of new protein synthesizing organelles that produce distinctive proteins, destined for the regrowth of the axon **(Fenrich and Gordon, 2004).** Where regrowth of the axon is possible, the presence of an intact endoneurial sheath near to and beyond the region of injury is important if the axon is to reestablish satisfactory contact with its previous end organ or a closely adjacent one. The myelin sheath distal to the point of injury degenerates and is accompanied by mitotic proliferation of the Schwann cells, which fill the space inside the basal lamina of the old endoneurial tube **(Quarles, 2002).** Where a gap is present between the severed ends of the nerve, proliferating Schwann cells emerge from the stumps and form a series of nucleated cellular cords which bridge the interval **(Fenrich and Gordon,2004).** This may persist for a long time even in the absence of satisfactory nerve regeneration. Successful sprouts enter the proximal end of the endoneurial tube and grow distally in close contact with the surfaces of the Schwann cells it contains. This involves a process of contact guidance between the tip of the axon and the Schwann cell surfaces in the endoneurial tube and when present those which form Bungners bands. When the axon tip has reached and successfully reinnervated an end organ, the surrounding Schwann cells commence to synthesize myelin sheaths. Before full functional regeneration can occur, a considerable period of growth of both axonal diameter and myelin sheath thickness is necessary. This occurs when a high number of effective peripheral connections have been established. Regeneration of central axons does not normally occur, perhaps because of the absence of definite endoneurial tubes **(Fenrich and Gordon, 2004).** In general, when an axon is cut, Wallerian degeneration leads to axon degeneration and loss of conduction by 4 days. As a result of interruption of the post-ganglionic sympathetic efferent fibers, vaso- and sudomotor paralysis is observed, resulting in red and dry skin in the area innervated by the nerve **(Johnson et al., 2005).** Various progressive changes take place in the target organs, skin blood vessels and sensory receptors. Peripherally, the muscle target losses its function, and centrally, motor neurons undergo atrophy and are often lost. One to 3 days after an axon is cut, the tips of the proximal stump forms growth cones that send out exploratory pseudopodia. Motor axonal regeneration is compromised by chronic distal nerve stump denervation, induced by delayed repair or prolonged regeneration distance, suggesting that the pathway for regeneration is progressively impaired with time and distance. Poor functional recovery after peripheral nerve injury has been generally attributed to inability of deneravated muscles to accept reinnervation and recover from denervation atrophy. On the other hand, deterioration of the environment produced by Schwann cells may play a more vital role. For the most part, atrophic Schwann cells retain their capacity to remyelinate regenerated axons, although they may loose their capacity to support axonal regeneration when chronically denervated. The importance of axonal regeneration through Schwann cell tubes surrounded by a basal lamina in the distal stump explains, in part, the different degrees of regeneration that are seen after crush injuries compared to transection. Although axons may be severed in crush injury, the Schwann cells, basal lamina and perineurium maintain continuity and, thus, facilitate regeneration. Considerable debate remains concerning the extent of axonal damage

following chronic compression of axons **(Johnson et al., 2005).** 

**Compression neuropathies** are highly prevalent, debilitating conditions with variable functional recovery following surgical decompression. **Chronic nerve compression** induces concurrent Schwann cell proliferation and apoptosis in the early stages, without morphological and electrophysiological evidence of axonal damage. Proliferating Schwann cells down regulate myelin proteins, leading to local demyelination and remyelination in the region of injury. Axonal sprouting is related to the down regulation of myelin proteins, such as myelin-associated glycoprotein. This is contrast to acute crush or transection injuries, which are characterized by axonal injury followed by Wallerian degeneration **(Pham and Gupta, 2009).** 

**The posterior trunk of the MN** might be entrapped occasionally from ligament's ossification between the lateral pterygoid process and the sphenoid spine near the FO **(Isberg et al., 1987; Loughner et al., 1990; Kapur et al., 2000).** 

Although specific information regarding the clinical significance of ossified ligaments near the FO is limited, ossified ligaments appear to be very important from a practical clinical standpoint in relation to the different methods of block anesthesia of the MN **(Lepp and Sandner, 1968).** Additionally, these occasional structures may be important by producing various neurological disturbances **(Shaw, 1993). Krmpotic-Nemanic et al. (2001)** noted that a pterygospinous foramen replacing the FO could provoke trigeminal neuralgia **(Figure 5).** 

Fig. 5. Complete pterygospinous osseous bar and the enlarged pterygospinous foramen on the left side of a Greek dry skull

The Mandibular Nerve: The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment 81

muscles, both nerves can be compressed **(Figure 4).** The lateral pterygoid plate is an important landmark for mandibular anesthesia and a wide lateral pterygoid plate may confuse anesthetists or surgeons exploring the para- and retro-pharyngeal space **(Kapur et** 

Fig. 6. Incomplete pterygospinous foramen on the left side of a Greek dry skull

Fig. 7. Incomplete pterygoalar bar on the right side of a Greek dry skull

**al., 2000; Das and Paul, 2007).** 

#### **7. The injury of the lingual nerve (LN)**

Injury to peripheral branches of the (TN) is a known sequelae of oral and maxillofacial surgical procedures. The two prime mechanisms of LN injury included crushing and transection. Although crush injuries are considered less severe than transection injuries, the axon distal to the injury site in both cases degenerates **(Sunderland, 1951).** However, unlike transection injuries, the connective tissue elements remain in continuity after crushing, which provides guidance for axonal sprouts from the regenerating central stump **(Sunderland, 1951; Johnson et al., 2005).** Injury to the LN is associated with changes in the epithelium of the tongue, particularly in the differentiation of the papillae and taste buds. Structural studies around the site of the injury show an apparent increase in the number of fascicles distal the crush site, suggesting considerable damage to the perineurium **(Holland et al., 1996).** The number of nonmyelinated axons distal to site of injury is double after crush injuries compared to control counts. This suggests that axonal sprouting persists for at least 12 weeks, with a rapid restoration of near-normal fibers for good functional recovery **(Holland et al., 1996).** Centrally, the principle change proximal to the nerve crush site is a loss of small-diameter myelinated axons from the chorda tympani. In addition, there is also an increase in the number of non-myelinated axons proximal to the crush site, indicative of continued sprouting following degeneration.

#### **8. The entrapment of the lingual nerve (LN)**

LN compression causes numbness, hypoesthesia, dysaesthesia, paraesthesia, or even anesthesia in all innervated regions. The patient may also present with dysgeusia, difficulty in chewing and loss of gustatory function on the side of the compression. Numbness of one lateral half or of the tip of the tongue can affect speech articulation of the frontal lingual consonants **(Isberg et al., 1987; Antonopoulou et al., 2008).** The LN can be entrapped, either through an ossified pterygospinous or pterygoalar ligament, based on the outer part of the cranial base, or through an extremely wide lateral lamina of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, or through the medial fibers of the lower belly of the LPt **(Sunderland, 1991) (Figures 4, 6,7,8).** Recently, it is believed that, some cases of TMJ syndrome or myofascial pain syndrome could be a result of nerve entrapment in the ITF **(Kopell and Thompson, 1976; Von Ludinghausen et al., 2006).** A usual position of LN compression is the ITF contains the muscles of mastication, the pterygoid venous plexus, the MA and the ramification of the MN. The presence of a partially or completely ossified pterygospinous or pterygoalar ligament can obstruct the passage of a needle into the FO and disable the anesthesia of the trigeminal ganglion or the MN for relief of trigeminal neuralgia **(Lepp and Sandner, 1968; Skrzat et al., 2005) (Figures 5,6,7,8).** The presence of ossified LPs may compress the surrounding neurovascular structures causing lingual numbness and pain associated with speech impairment **(Peuker et al., 2001; Das and Paul, 2007).** Considering the close relationship of the CT, it may also be compressed by the anomalous bone bar and thus, result in abnormal taste sensation in the anterior two thirds of the tongue. The lateral lamina of the pterygoid process and the median pterygoid muscle forms the medial wall of the ITF. Elongation of the lateral lamina could result in weakening of the MPt and paresthesia of the buccal region **(Skrzat et al., 2006).** In cases of extremely large lateral laminae, the LN and IAN in the ITF are forced to take a longer more curved course, to follow the shape of the enlarged lamina. As a result, during contraction of the pterygoid

Injury to peripheral branches of the (TN) is a known sequelae of oral and maxillofacial surgical procedures. The two prime mechanisms of LN injury included crushing and transection. Although crush injuries are considered less severe than transection injuries, the axon distal to the injury site in both cases degenerates **(Sunderland, 1951).** However, unlike transection injuries, the connective tissue elements remain in continuity after crushing, which provides guidance for axonal sprouts from the regenerating central stump **(Sunderland, 1951; Johnson et al., 2005).** Injury to the LN is associated with changes in the epithelium of the tongue, particularly in the differentiation of the papillae and taste buds. Structural studies around the site of the injury show an apparent increase in the number of fascicles distal the crush site, suggesting considerable damage to the perineurium **(Holland et al., 1996).** The number of nonmyelinated axons distal to site of injury is double after crush injuries compared to control counts. This suggests that axonal sprouting persists for at least 12 weeks, with a rapid restoration of near-normal fibers for good functional recovery **(Holland et al., 1996).** Centrally, the principle change proximal to the nerve crush site is a loss of small-diameter myelinated axons from the chorda tympani. In addition, there is also an increase in the number of non-myelinated axons proximal to the crush site, indicative of

LN compression causes numbness, hypoesthesia, dysaesthesia, paraesthesia, or even anesthesia in all innervated regions. The patient may also present with dysgeusia, difficulty in chewing and loss of gustatory function on the side of the compression. Numbness of one lateral half or of the tip of the tongue can affect speech articulation of the frontal lingual consonants **(Isberg et al., 1987; Antonopoulou et al., 2008).** The LN can be entrapped, either through an ossified pterygospinous or pterygoalar ligament, based on the outer part of the cranial base, or through an extremely wide lateral lamina of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, or through the medial fibers of the lower belly of the LPt **(Sunderland, 1991) (Figures 4, 6,7,8).** Recently, it is believed that, some cases of TMJ syndrome or myofascial pain syndrome could be a result of nerve entrapment in the ITF **(Kopell and Thompson, 1976; Von Ludinghausen et al., 2006).** A usual position of LN compression is the ITF contains the muscles of mastication, the pterygoid venous plexus, the MA and the ramification of the MN. The presence of a partially or completely ossified pterygospinous or pterygoalar ligament can obstruct the passage of a needle into the FO and disable the anesthesia of the trigeminal ganglion or the MN for relief of trigeminal neuralgia **(Lepp and Sandner, 1968; Skrzat et al., 2005) (Figures 5,6,7,8).** The presence of ossified LPs may compress the surrounding neurovascular structures causing lingual numbness and pain associated with speech impairment **(Peuker et al., 2001; Das and Paul, 2007).** Considering the close relationship of the CT, it may also be compressed by the anomalous bone bar and thus, result in abnormal taste sensation in the anterior two thirds of the tongue. The lateral lamina of the pterygoid process and the median pterygoid muscle forms the medial wall of the ITF. Elongation of the lateral lamina could result in weakening of the MPt and paresthesia of the buccal region **(Skrzat et al., 2006).** In cases of extremely large lateral laminae, the LN and IAN in the ITF are forced to take a longer more curved course, to follow the shape of the enlarged lamina. As a result, during contraction of the pterygoid

**7. The injury of the lingual nerve (LN)** 

continued sprouting following degeneration.

**8. The entrapment of the lingual nerve (LN)** 

muscles, both nerves can be compressed **(Figure 4).** The lateral pterygoid plate is an important landmark for mandibular anesthesia and a wide lateral pterygoid plate may confuse anesthetists or surgeons exploring the para- and retro-pharyngeal space **(Kapur et al., 2000; Das and Paul, 2007).** 

Fig. 6. Incomplete pterygospinous foramen on the left side of a Greek dry skull

Fig. 7. Incomplete pterygoalar bar on the right side of a Greek dry skull

The Mandibular Nerve: The Anatomy of Nerve Injury and Entrapment 83

anteromedial condylar movements. Topographically, the **IAN** may pass close to the medial part of the condyle. As such, a medially displaced disc could interfere mechanically with this nerve. This could explain the sharp, shooting pain felt locally in the joint with jaw movements as well as the pain and other sensations projecting to the terminal area of distribution of the nerve branches near the TMJ, such as the ear, temple, cheek, tongue, and

An unusual **entrapment of the mylohyoid nerve** in the LPt may cause a poorly localized deep pain from the muscles it innervates. Chronic compression of the nerve results in muscular paresis. This symptom would be subclinical unless the nerve entrapment is

Entrapment neuropathies are specific forms of compressive neuropathies occurring when nerves are confined to narrow anatomic passageways including soft and/or hard tissues making them susceptible to constricting pressures. Chronic nerve compression alters the normal anatomical and functional integrity of the nerve. Dentists and oral maxillofacial surgeons should be very suspicious of possible signs of neurovascular compression in the

Akita K, Shimokawa T, Sato T. 2000. Positional relationships between the masticatory

Akita K, Shimokawa T, Sato T. 2001. Aberrant muscle between the Temporalis and the

Anil A, Peker T, Turgut HB, Gulekon IN, Liman F. 2003. Variations in the anatomy of the

Antonopoulou M, Piagkou M, Anagnostopoulou S. 2008. An anatomical study of the

Boyd JG, Gordon T. 2003. Neurotrophic factors and their receptors in axonal regeneration and functional recovery after peripheral nerve injury. Mol Neurobiol 27:277–324. Das S, Paul S. 2007. Ossified pterygospinous ligament and its clinical implications. Bratisl

De Froe, Wagennar JH. 1935. Die Bedeutung des porus crotaphitico-buccinatorius and des

Fenrich K, Gordon T. 2004. Canadian Association of Neuroscience review: Axonal

regeneration in the peripheral and central nervous systems—current issues and

Foramen pterygospinosum fur Neurologic and Rontgenologic

Gray's Anatomy. 1995. Churchill Livingstone, New York, 28th edition, p. 380-381.

of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery 36: 104-108.

advances. Can J Neurol Sci 31:142–156.

Lek Listy 108:141–143.

muscles and their innervating nerves with special reference to the lateral pterygoid and the midmedial and discotemporal muscle bundles of temporalis. J Anat 197:

Lateral Pterygoid Muscles: M. pterygoideus proprius (Henle). Clin Anat 14: 288-

inferior alveolar nerve. British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 41: 236-

pterygospinous and pterygoalar bars and foramina- their clinical relevance. Journal

bilateral; then swallowing difficulties may ensue **(Loughner et al., 1990).** 

teeth **(Johansson et al., 1990).** 

**10. Conclusions** 

region of the ITF.

**11. References** 

291-302.

291.

239.

Fig. 8. Complete pterygoalar bar and a pterygoalar foramen on the left side of a Greek dry skull

LN entrapment can potentially occur between the median pterygoid bundles, or in the inferior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle, indicating that LPt spasm could cause LN compression and result in tongue numbness, anesthesia, or paresthesia at the tip of the tongue and speech articulation problems.

#### **9. The entrapment of the remaining branches of the MN posterior trunk**

**An entrapped auriculotemporal nerve (ATN)** in the lateral pterygoid muscle (LPt) could be the etiology behind a painful neuropathy in a distal ATN branch supplying sensory innervation to a deranged TMJ **(Akita et al., 2001).** The ATN is in close anatomic relation to the condylar process, the TMJ, the superficial temporal artery and the LPt. ATN compression by the hypertrophied LPt may result in neuralgia or paresthesia of TMJ, external acoustic meatus and facial muscles. Further it may result in functional impairment of salivation ipsilaterally. In addition, the altered position of the ATN and its extensive or multiple loops may render the ATN more liable to entrapment neuropathy. Temple headaches occur frequently due to entrapment of ATN, which sometimes is throbbing in nature, due to its proximity to superficial temporal artery **(Soni et al., 2009).** In joints, with a displaced disc, the ATN trunk can be almost in contact with the medial aspect of the condyle **(Johansson et al., 1990).** Thus, instead of exhibiting its normal sheltered course at the level of the condylar neck, the nerve is exposed to possible mechanical irritation during anteromedial condylar movements. Topographically, the **IAN** may pass close to the medial part of the condyle. As such, a medially displaced disc could interfere mechanically with this nerve. This could explain the sharp, shooting pain felt locally in the joint with jaw movements as well as the pain and other sensations projecting to the terminal area of distribution of the nerve branches near the TMJ, such as the ear, temple, cheek, tongue, and teeth **(Johansson et al., 1990).** 

An unusual **entrapment of the mylohyoid nerve** in the LPt may cause a poorly localized deep pain from the muscles it innervates. Chronic compression of the nerve results in muscular paresis. This symptom would be subclinical unless the nerve entrapment is bilateral; then swallowing difficulties may ensue **(Loughner et al., 1990).** 

#### **10. Conclusions**

82 Maxillofacial Surgery

Fig. 8. Complete pterygoalar bar and a pterygoalar foramen on the left side of a Greek dry

LN entrapment can potentially occur between the median pterygoid bundles, or in the inferior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle, indicating that LPt spasm could cause LN compression and result in tongue numbness, anesthesia, or paresthesia at the tip of the

**An entrapped auriculotemporal nerve (ATN)** in the lateral pterygoid muscle (LPt) could be the etiology behind a painful neuropathy in a distal ATN branch supplying sensory innervation to a deranged TMJ **(Akita et al., 2001).** The ATN is in close anatomic relation to the condylar process, the TMJ, the superficial temporal artery and the LPt. ATN compression by the hypertrophied LPt may result in neuralgia or paresthesia of TMJ, external acoustic meatus and facial muscles. Further it may result in functional impairment of salivation ipsilaterally. In addition, the altered position of the ATN and its extensive or multiple loops may render the ATN more liable to entrapment neuropathy. Temple headaches occur frequently due to entrapment of ATN, which sometimes is throbbing in nature, due to its proximity to superficial temporal artery **(Soni et al., 2009).** In joints, with a displaced disc, the ATN trunk can be almost in contact with the medial aspect of the condyle **(Johansson et al., 1990).** Thus, instead of exhibiting its normal sheltered course at the level of the condylar neck, the nerve is exposed to possible mechanical irritation during

**9. The entrapment of the remaining branches of the MN posterior trunk** 

skull

tongue and speech articulation problems.

Entrapment neuropathies are specific forms of compressive neuropathies occurring when nerves are confined to narrow anatomic passageways including soft and/or hard tissues making them susceptible to constricting pressures. Chronic nerve compression alters the normal anatomical and functional integrity of the nerve. Dentists and oral maxillofacial surgeons should be very suspicious of possible signs of neurovascular compression in the region of the ITF.

#### **11. References**


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### *Edited by Leon Assael*

Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a specialty rooted in dentistry and forged in academic medical centers in departments of surgery, as the surgical specialty well equipped to care for conditions of the mouth, jaws, head and neck. Today oral and maxillofacial surgeons are advancing cancer care, neurosciences, understanding the pathology of the region, managing congenital and acquired deformities among others. In the process this specialty is improving the lives of our patients with better function, appearance, self esteem and longevity.

Maxillofacial Surgery

Maxillofacial Surgery

*Edited by Leon Assael*

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