**1. Introduction**

Humans have changed forests, browbeaten species, fragmented wildlife's, altered habitats, imported exotic pests and rivals, and domesticated favored species. All have had an impact on genetic diversity (both within and across species) through their effect on evolutionary developments such as destruction, assortment, implication, gene flow, and transformation. Several literatures illustrate the main impacts of human intervention causing deforestation, fragmentation, grazing, forest clearance for the development, intensive use, desertification, inappropriate forest management, agriculture, encroachment of forest land, slash burn practices, forest fire, urbanization, overharvesting, environmental deterioration, and so on.

Deforestation is one of the most significant drivers of rising greenhouse gas emissions because forests also remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Limiting global warming to 1.5°C is out of reach without immediate and significant reductions in emissions across all sectors [1]. Southeast Asia has lost regional forest cover at a rate of 1% per

year over the last 15 years [2]. Deforestation has a greater impact on tropical forests than ever before, accounting for 60% of forest loss in Latin America and Southeast Asia [3]. According to the research, logging has a disproportionate impact on deforestation processes in Southeast Asia, whereas deforestation in arid and populated regions of East Africa and South Asia appears to be driven mostly by demand for fuelwood [4].

Several studies explain that potential drivers of deforestation are international trade in Brazil [5], deforestation in Amazonia due to the comparative advantages of agriculture in South America [6], agricultural products, leading to agricultural land expansion and in turn promoting deforestation [7], weak governance in developing countries with forests often leads to higher rates of deforestation [8], and about 80% of current global deforestation is supposedly due to agricultural production [9]. Thus, agriculture, grazing, the use of firewood and charcoal, and forest fires are the primary causes of deforestation. The main reasons for deforestation are poverty and rapid population growth [10].

Fragmentation occurs due to the continuous development of cities and related infrastructure. Ledig et al. [11–13], forest fragmentation is a broad issue that affects global forest biodiversity, ecosystem function, and ecosystem services [14], forest fragmentation can affect the forest ecosystem's long-term health and vitality, leading to species extinction [15], increases in agriculture, logging, and urban growth during the past decades caused unprecedented losses of tropical forest [16]. Europe had the most fragmentation caused by humans, while South America had the least. Humans have fragmented or eliminated about half of the temperate broadleaf and mixed forest biomes, as well as roughly one-quarter of the tropical rainforest biome [17].

Grazing is responsible for the loss of forest and vegetation in many parts of the world where conventional forest management practices are used. Forest grazing is also common in Bhutan and the Himalayan coniferous forests [18]. Forest vegetation depletion is particularly severe in northern Ethiopia's highlands [19, 20]; practically all the available area is under cultivation or used for pasture and reported severe deforestation due to forest clearances [21]. The Swiss Alps have a long history of forest grazing [22]. Wood pastures are a distinguishing feature of the traditional European rural landscape [23]. Other significant factors of forest loss and degradation in the Siwaliks and midhills include overgrazing, which is a major driver in Nepal's Siwaliks and high highlands [24].

Agricultural growth is responsible for approximately 80% of worldwide deforestation, with infrastructure improvements such as roads and dams, as well as mining and urbanization, accounting for the remaining sources of deforestation [25]. Forest removal, as well as accompanying grazing and mining activities, has increased erosion and landslides in the Dolomites, the Maritime Alps, and the south-central Italian Alps [26]. According to the mining businesses, individual miners remove significant sections of forest in Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela [27, 28]. Forests and woods cover 22% of Africa's total land area. Firewood is the most important forest product, as well as the primary source of energy for the majority of African families. East Africa's annual rate of deforestation increased from 0.7% between 1981 and 1990 to 1% between 1990 and 2000 [29, 30].

Drylands represent around 38% of the Earth's land area, including much of North and southern Africa, western North America, Australia, the Middle East, and Central Asia. Approximately 2.7 billion people live in drylands. Because of scant and irregular rainfall as well as inadequate soil fertility, drylands are especially vulnerable to land degradation. Plowing, grazing, or deforestation, as well as poor

land management and agricultural growth, all contribute to this. As a result, India, Pakistan, Zimbabwe, and Mexico have been identified as being particularly vulnerable to degradation [31].

Forest fires contribute to global greenhouse gas emissions and have the potential to harm human health. Fires are a natural aspect of the dynamics in boreal forests, while they are mostly man-made in the humid tropics. Due to a lack of trustworthy data, global trends in fire-related forest loss remain ambiguous [32]. The Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2020 [33] has reported a regional total of "tree cover area burned." This was calculated by crossing a 500-m resolution burned area map [34] and a global 30-m tree cover map from the year 2000 by Hansen et al. [35].

Inadequate forest management is one of the factors contributing to the detrimental human effect on urban and suburban forests [36]. Another issue associated with the decline of forest vegetation and its consequences for human health and biodiversity is environmental degradation. Environmental degradation is due to industrial and urban emissions as well as the presence of pollutants in the atmosphere (sulfur dioxide, ozone, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5) and soil contaminants (heavy metals and acid deposition) [11]. Together with SO2, NH3 and NOx contribute to soil acidification, habitat alteration, and biodiversity loss. Groundlevel O3 harms forests by slowing their growth [37].

Protecting, restoring, and encouraging the protection and sustainable use of terrestrial and other ecosystems are all required for the survival of various sorts of life on land. Thus, Goal 15 focuses on sustainable forest management, minimizing and reversing land and natural habitat degradation, combating desertification effectively, and ending biodiversity loss. All of these projects seek to ensure that the benefits of land-based ecosystems, such as sustainable livelihoods, are available to future generations.
