*Impacts of Human Activities on the High Mountain Landscape of the Tatras… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105601*

the Western Carpathians, situated in the western part of the Carpathian Mountains. The arc of the Western Carpathians extends to the territories of the Czech Republic (namely Moravia and Silesia), Slovakia, Poland (smaller northern part), Hungary (south-eastern part) and Austria (south-western parts). The total area of the Western Carpathians is about 70,000 km2 , the length of the mountains reaches 400 km. The course of the narrow Pieniny Klippen Belt divides the Western Carpathians into external and internal, which differ significantly in their geological history, geological composition and tectonic development [19].

The Tatras are considered to be a model of a high mountain range, because all typical alpine features can be found here in a relatively small area [20]. The environment which prevailed in the Tatras in the last Ice Age significantly marked the ductility of their surface. The relatively short warmer period of the Holocene (Ice Age, the younger Quarternary) was not enough to reshape these older forms of relief [21]. The High Tatras (**Figures 2** and **3**) are the highest mountain range of the Western Carpathians, formed by glacial activity. The Belianske Tatras (**Figure 4**) are considerably smaller than the High Tatras, it is the highest carbonate mountain range of the Western Carpathians, thanks to its Mesozoic sediments characterized by a characteristic gradation of mountain massifs [22].

Climatically, the Tatras fall into a cold area with a predominantly cold and cold mountain district. The area of the upper limit of the forest is characterized by an average annual air temperature of 2–4°C, an average July temperature of 10–12°C and an average annual rainfall of 900–1,200 mm. Above the border of the forest, the temperatures are even lower and precipitation is higher [23].

**Figure 3.** *The High Tatras, the summit Belianska kopa (1835 m MSL) (Hreško, 2005).*

**Figure 4.** *The Belianske Tatras (Hreško, 2005).*

A general characteristic of the soils of the High Tatras is an acidic to very acidic soil reaction. In the Alpine landscape of the Tatras we can find the following soil types: lithosols, rankers, rendzinas, cambisols and podsols [24].

There are two national parks in the whole territory of the Tatras: in the territory of Slovakia the Tatra National Park (TANAP), declared in 1948 with effect from 1 January 1949, with an area of 1,045 km2 (of which the national park's own territory has 738 km2 , national park protection zone 307 km2 ), and in Poland Tatrzański Park Narodowy, declared in 1954 with effect from 1 January 1955, with an area of 212 km<sup>2</sup> . TANAP is the first and therefore the oldest national park in Slovakia. It was established by the Slovak National Council law No. 11/1948 Coll. on the Tatra National Park [25]. Its protection is currently provided for by Legislative Act No. 543/2002 Coll. on Nature and Landscape Protection [26], as amended.

Biosphere reserve Tatry (BR Tatras) entered into the world network of biosphere reserves on 15th February 1993 with an area of 113,251 ha. It is a bilateral biosphere reserve, which includes TANAP and its buffer zone (on the territory of the Slovak Republic) and Tatrzański Park Narodowy TPN (on the territory of Poland).

In addition to the protected areas at national level, the territory of the Tatras is also defined according to European legislation, in order to preserve the natural heritage important not only for the member state, but for the entire EU. These are the two directives: (1) Council Directive of the European Communities No. 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds (Birds Directive) [27] and (2) Council Directive No. 92/43/EEC on the conservation of habitats and of wild fauna and flora (Habitats Directive) [28]. The Natura 2000 network consists of two types of areas: areas of European importance and protected bird areas. The area of European importance for Slovakia is defined by the Decree of the Ministry of Environment of the Slovak Republic No. 3/2004–5.1 of 14 July 2004 [29], which issues a national list of areas of European importance, and the protected bird area is established by the Decree of the Ministry of Environment No. 4/2011 Coll. [30], which declares the Protected Bird Area of the Tatras.

The studied area represents the boundary area of two geologically and geomorphologically distinct parts of the Tatras. The High Tatras, mainly due to its glacial relief, rock composition and specific climatic conditions, represent the most attractive area of year-round tourism. The Belianske Tatras represent one of the highest limestone mountains in Slovakia. With its habitats of rare communities and a number of endemics and glacial relics they are among the rarest and most endangered mountains *Impacts of Human Activities on the High Mountain Landscape of the Tatras… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105601*

in Slovakia. The studied area is located in the national nature reserve Belianske Tatras, which was declared to protect a territory with a great variety of species (even rare and endemic) and communities of fauna and flora, to protect the richness of glacial forms of relief on granites and mylonites as these geosystems are very unstable. In the past, especially due to the unbearably high number of visitors of this area, the rare ecosystems of the Belianske Tatras were damaged. In the study area, grazing, mining activities, general removal of shrubland and later unbearable hiking were taking place. The Belianske Tatras ridge trail has been closed to tourists since 1978. Since 1993, a part of the Monkova dolina valley has been accessible in one direction, since 2009 in two directions.

#### **2.2 Rare ecosystems with many endemic and glacial relics**

The Belianske Tatras represent one of the highest limestone mountains in Slovakia, with its habitats with rare communities and a number of endemics and glacial relics are among the rarest and most endangered mountains in Slovakia. The studied area is located in the Belianske Tatry National Natural Preserve (NNP), which was declared in 1991 by the Decree of the Slovak Commission for the Environment No. 166/1991 Coll. of 15.1.1991 on the State Nature Reserves and the Protected Sites in the TANAP [31]. The subject of NNP protection are habitats with rare communities and a number of endemics and glacial relics and the richness of glacial forms of relief on granites and mylonites, which are very unstable.

#### *2.2.1 Development of vegetation since the last glaciation, current endemics and relics*

After the retreat of glaciers, deep glacial valleys, morenas, lakes, rocky ridges with many peaks, towers and needles interwoven with tight saddles were created in the Tatras. After the end of the Ice Age (plesitocene), i.e. approximately 12,000 years ago, the vegetation of the Tatras began to form. On the outskirts of the Tatras, the vegetation in the glacier neighborhood had a tundra character with species of bushlike growth, such as *Dryas octopetala* (**Figure 5**) and *Salix reticulata* (**Figure 6**), which grow here to this day. Scattered tree vegetation consisted of shrub, pinus cembra, spruce, larch and birch [21].

In the preboreal (8300–6800 BC), the climate was colder on average by about 5°C than today and in the Tatras there was a dramatic change in the representation of tree and non-tree vegetation. Its ratio changed from 1:1 to 10:1. The upper limit of the forest was at a height of about 90–1000 m MSL, in addition to spruce it consisted of smaller areas of shrubs and stunted birch. Areas above 2000 m MSL were still covered by permanent snow and ice. In the boreal (6800–5500 BC), the average temperature increased by about 2°C more than at present. The upper limit of the forest was pushed to a height of 1700 m. In the forests predominated spruce, pine, fir, and towards the end of the period larches and broadleaves (lime, oak, birch). The Atlantic (5500– 2500 BC) was a period with a relatively humid and warm climate, the temperature was higher by 3°C than today, precipitation was 60–70% more abudndant. The upper limit of the forest in the Tatras consisted of continuous pine-spruce forests with representation of larch and fir. On the southern side of the Tatras it reached a height of 1800 m MSL and on the northern side up to 1700 m MSL. Above the spruce stage, a strip of shrubland extending up to 2200 m MSL was formed. The pine remained more continuous only in cliff habitats. In the Subboreal (2500–800 BC), the temperature was slightly higher than it is now, but the air was drier, especially towards the end of

**Figure 5.** *Dryas octopetala (Piscová, 2008).*

this period. In this period, we can assume the development of spruce forests, at lower altitudes beech and fir were also more abundantly represented. In mixed oak forests, oak prevailed over other plants, while elms almost disappeared completely. At the end of the Subboreal roughly the same zoning of vegetation with regard to the altitude that still exists today was formed. At the beginning of the Subatlantic (750 BC to the present day), the climate partially cooled down and was perhaps colder than it is today. The upper limit of the forest was lowered and vegetation elevational zones were stabilised as we know them today [21].

During the development of vegetation, the Tatras and their parts have become a specific territory for the occurrence of many endemics. Species such *Pinus cembra*, *Gentiana nivalis*, *Erigeron uniflorus*, *Carex lachenalii*, *Saussurea pygmaea*, *Artemisia eriantha* and *Ranunculus thora* [32] and a west-carpathian element *Luzula alpinopilosa* subsp. *obscura* [33] grow only in the Tatras. Only in the High Tatras there is *Cerastium uniflorum*, *Ranunculus pygmaeus*, *Ranunculus reptans*, *Armeria alpina* and *Juncus castaneus* [33]. Many species are found only in the Belianske Tatras [33], e.g., *Draba siliquosa*, *Draba fladnizensis*, *Draba pacheri*, *Petrocallis pyrenaica*, *Arctous alpina*, *Juncus triglumis*, *Kobresia simpliciuscula*, *Bellardiochloa variegata*, *Tofieldia pusilla*, *Carex atrofusca*. Glacial relics (remnants of the Ice Age) are represented by the species of *Dryas octopetala*, *Arctous alpina*, *Ranunculus reptans* [34]. Frequent fogs and a large amount of precipitation cause the occurrence of moist and humicolous species also in places that are exposed with occurrence of strong winds (*Arctous alpina*, *Carex atrofusca*, *Juncus triglumis*, *Pritzelago alpina*, *Pyrola carpatica*, *Saxifraga wahlenbergii*, *Tofieldia pusilla*), some of which in the Western Carpathians represent extremely rare postglacial relics.

*Impacts of Human Activities on the High Mountain Landscape of the Tatras… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105601*

**Figure 6.** *Salix reticulata (Piscová, 2008).*

Several different plant growth forms have adapted to grow and reproduce under harsh environmental conditions [9, 35, 36]. As the altitude increases, the temperature decreases, the length of the vegetation season decreases and precipitation and humidity increase, which also causes the composition of the flora to change. These rare cushion-forming plants are one of the most conspicuous plants found in the most exposed alpine habitats [7]. Due to their low stature and compact form, cushion plants can modify environmental conditions creating particular microclimates within their canopies [9, 37], cushions are maintaining higher temperatures than their surrounding environment [38], reduce the wind speed by up to 90% [39], create their own humus and the diversity in the cushions is higher by 30–50% [37, 40–45], suggesting that cushions may influence the survival of other species [38]. Cushion plants also occur in the study area (**Figures 7** and **8**). The cushion plant form is not endemic to any single area or plant family. Cushion plants grow very slowly, with this inhibited growth there is increased longevity, with the largest cushions of some species reaching ages of up to 350–3000 years [46, 47].

#### *2.2.2 Rare Communities of Plants*

The alpine plant communities on the limestone subsoil of the Belianske and parts of the High Tatras with tourist trails are floristically extremely rich [48]. Their nomenclature is given in accordance with the work [49]. The surroundings of the trail leading from Tatranská Javorina (1000 m MSL) to Kopské sedlo (1750 m MSL) are lined with communities *Phleo alpini-Deschampsietum caespitosae* Krajina 1933)

**Figure 7.** *Cushion plants on the Hlúpy vrch (2061 m MSL) (Piscová, 2011).*

**Figure 8.** *Cushion plants (Piscová, 2011).*

*Impacts of Human Activities on the High Mountain Landscape of the Tatras… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105601*

Coldea 1983 (1424 m MSL)*Rhodiolo-Deschampsietum caespitosae* Krajina 1933 a *Vaccinio myrtilli-Calamagrostietum villosae* Sillinger 1933 (1450 m MSL); furthermore with the high-stem community*Geranio sylvatici-Calamagrostietum variae* (Sillinger 1932) Kliment et al. 2004 (1458 m MSL); the grass-herbal association *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek (1508 m MSL) the community *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek in which two other types of associations occurr, *Seslerietum tatrae* a *Rhodiolo-Deschampsietum caespitosae* Krajina 1933 (1642 m MSL). At an altitude of 1698 m MSL, we recorded a mosaic of communities *Festuco picturatae-Calamagrostietum villosae crepidetosum conyzifoliae*, *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005, *Arenario tenellae-Caricetum firmae* (Br.-Bl. 1930) Šibík et al. 2004 and *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek. In Kopské sedlo there is a community *Juncetum trifidi* Krajina 1933.

The trail leading from the Veľ ké Biele pleso (1615 m MSL) to the Kopské sedlo (1750 m MSL) is lined by communities *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek nom. and *Festuco picturatae-Calamagrostietum villosae* Pawłowski in Pawłowski et al. 1928 corr. Kliment et al. 2004, at an altitude of 1642 m MSL communities of *Festuco picturatae-Calamagrostietum villosae* Pawłowski in Pawłowski et al. 1928 corr. Kliment et al. 2004,*Junco trifidi-Festucetum supinae* Krajina 1933 and *Festuco picturatae-Calamagrostietum villosae* Pawłowski in Pawłowski et al. 1928 corr. Kliment et al. 2004, then *Junco trifidi-Festucetum supinae* Krajina 1933 and *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek nom. (1777 m MSL), in the Predné Kopské sedlo the community *Junco trifidi-Callunetum vulgaris* (Krajina 1933) Hatcher ex Šibík et al. 2007 (1778 m MSL) and the section between the Predné Kopské sedlo and Zadné Kopské sedlo is lined by communities *Juncetum trifidi* Krajina 1933 and *Rhodiolo-Deschampsietum caespitosae* Krajina 1933.

The hiking trail leading from the Široké sedlo (1825 m MSL) to the Kopské sedlo (1750 m MSL) passes through the communities *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek nom., *Rhodiolo-Deschampsietum caespitosae* Krajina 1933 and *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005, then at an altitude of 1831–1907 m MSL by the community *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005. and at the altitude of 1919 m MSL passes through the arcto-alpine community of strongly blown ridges and edges, the association *Drabo siliquosae-Festucetum versicoloris* Petrík in Petrík et al. 2006 and the association *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005. The trail continues through the community *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek and at an altitude of 1927 m MSL, the community *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis*, however, this community is accompanied by association species *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin. 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005. From Vyšné Kopské sedlo (1933 m MSL) the trail continues to fall and passes through *the communities of Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek and *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin. 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005 (1907 MSL), then a mosaic of communities *Junco trifidi-Festucetum supinae* Krajina 1933, *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005 and *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek (1826 m MSL), which extend up to Kopské sedlo (1750 m MSL).

The closed trail leading from the Široké sedlo (1825 m MSL) to the Ždiarska vidla (2142 m MSL) is lined near the saddle by communities *Seslerietum tatrae* Domin 1929 corr. Kliment et al. 2005, *Junco trifidi-Festucetum supinae* Krajina 1933 and *Ranunculo pseudomontani-Caricetum sempervirentis* (Krajina 1933) Dúbravcová ex Dúbravcová et Jarolímek (2025 m MSL).

The closed trail leading from Vyšné Kopské sedlo (1933 m MSL) through a part of the Belianske Tatras, Front Medďodoly is lined near the saddle by the community *Festuco versicoloris-Oreochloetum distichae* Pawłowski et Stecki 1927 corr. Petrík et al. 2006 nom. Invers. propos. (2018 m MSL).

Only in the ridge positions of the Belianske Tatras are there Central European relic communities of strongly blown ridges and edges of the alpine to subnival zone *Oxytropido-Elynetalia* Oberdorfer ex Albrecht 1969 on strongly blown ridges and edges on neutral to slightly base substrates in the alpine zone. These are rare communities not only because of their limited occurrence, but mainly because of their floristic composition with a large number of Arctic-Alpine species. There are also Alpine grassy, cushion and shrubby communities of rock walls and fine skeletal rubble on mylonites in the alpine to subnival zones *Festucion versicoloris* Krajina 1933. These are the communities threatened all year round by alpine tourism. Rare is the occurrence of the species *Carex rupestris*, which more rarely penetrates the vegetation in the ridge part of the Belianske Tatras, into the union *Caricion firmae*. The main ridge of the Belianske Tatras (from Ždiarská Vidla to Predné Jatky) is also covered by the occurrence of the species *Elyna myosuroides*. An open, floristically rich community *Oxytropido carpaticae-Elynetum myosuroides* (Puşcaru et al. 1956) Coldea 1991 usually inhabits rocky edges or rock terraces. In the community *Drabo siliquosae-Festucetum versicoloris* Petrík in Petrík et al. 2006, there are a number of rare and phyto-geographically significant species such as *Bellardiochloa violacea*, *Draba fladnizensis*, *D. siliquosa*. Plants *Pyrolo carpaticae-Salicetum reticulatae* Petrík in Petrík et al. 2006 by their character represent the Arctic-Alpine tundra. On the wind-blown flat, only slightly inclined, sometimes almost flat places in ridge, less often in sub-ridge positions occurs the cushion-turf community *Festuco versicoloris-Oreochloetum distichae* Pawłowski et Stecki 1927 corr. Petrík et al. 2006 nom. Invers. propos. (2018 m MSL). The community *Silenetum acaulis* Country 1933 developed in the most extreme alpine locations where survival conditions are very limited. Growths of *Agrostio alpinae-Festucetum versicoloris* Pawłowski in Pawłowski et al. 1928 nom. Invers. propos. Inhabit terraces of almost vertical rock walls and rock ribs. The rubble habitats under the steep rock walls are inhabited by the communities of *Salicetum kitaibelianae* Krajina 1933.

#### *2.2.3 The rarest animals living in the territory, endemic*

The current state of animal distribution in the territory of the Tatra National Park is the result of long-term effects of natural and human factors. The Tatra fauna was particularly influenced by the cold periods (in the ice ages), from which the descendants of species inhabiting the northern taiga and tundra came [50]. The cold seasons were followed by warmer seasons with thermophilic species from eastern and southeastern Europe. The Tatra fauna is therefore characterised by various geographical components, including mainly cosmopolitan, Palearctic, European (Euro-Siberian, Boreoalpine, Boreal, Samaric, Sudeten Carpathian) and endemic species.

A colourful metallic coloured *Carabus auronitens*, *Carabus fabricii* get into the subalpine and alpine zones. From the butterflies there are, for example, species of the genus *Erebia* - *Erebia pandrose* and *Erebia manta*, a glacial relic *Parnassius apollo*. Few species of amphibians get into the alpine zone, e.g. *Rana temporaria*, *Triturus alpestris* [50]. Only two reptile species, and even these only rarely, get into the alpine zone,

*Impacts of Human Activities on the High Mountain Landscape of the Tatras… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105601*

namely *Lacerta vivipara* and *Vipera berus*. Regarding birds, alpine meadows and rocky habitats are inhabited by *Prunella collaris* and *Anthus spinoletta*, as well as *Phoenicurus ochruros*, *Oenanthe oenanthe* and*Lyrurus tetrix*. A frequent visitor to these locations is *Aquila chrysaetos*, *Falco tinnunculus* and *Corvus corax*.

The mammals in the subalpine and alpine zones, include relict species of the*Pitymys tatricus*, t*Microtus nivalis mirhanreini*, *Marmota marmota latirostris* and *Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica*, which are existentially bound only to these habitats. Sporadically, *Ursus arctos*, *Canis lupus*, *Lynx lynx*, *Vulpes vulpes* [50] get into the habitats of the alpine zone. Insectivores are represented by the species *Talpa europaea*, *Sorex araneus*, *Sorex minutus* and *Sorex alpinus*.

## **3. History of human activities in the territory and their consequences**

The Tatras were surrounded by one large primary forest until the 11th century. Until the 14th century, only isolated shepherds, treasure hunters and lumberjacks [13] had strayed into the valleys. Later, the territory was influenced by pastoralism, mining, hunting and poaching, hiking, mountaineering and tourism. Thus, the scale and structure of the original landscape of the mountain range have been disrupted by human activity for centuries.

#### **3.1 Pastoralism**

Major changes occurred in the 14th−17th centuries, when Wallachian colonization was directed to higher mountain areas. The foothills of the Belianske Tatras were chronologically grazed as the first of the entire Tatras. Pastoralism used almost all vegetation cover, the average height of the upper limit of pastures reached up to 2000 m MSL and grazing took place even on very poorly accessible terrain [13]. Wooden huts of mountain sheep farming in the Belianske Tatras lay at an average height of almost 1500 m MSL. In the years 1891–1895 there was also a cheese factory north of the Belianska kopa. According to statistical data, the grazing culminated in the Belianske Tatras in 1803 [51]. At the time of the enactment of TANAP, landowners in the Belianske Tatras continued to have herds. The year 1955 was the last year of grazing in the Belianske Tatras [52].

The considerable consumption of wood at the salaše, but also the deliberate destruction of stands with the intention of expanding the grazing area contributed substantially to the disruption of the climatic upper limit of the forest (up to 200– 300 m) and in many places the zone of shrubland almost completely disappeared. Meadow and pasture communities have become replacement communities after felled forests or burnt shrublands. The originally vast shrublands have been removed. On the secondary mountain grasslands (**Figure 9**) we may find *Calamagrostis villosa*, *Avenella flexuosa*, *Crepis conyzifolia*, *Trommsdorffia uniflora*, *Pulsatilla scherfelii*, *Homogyne alpina*, *Anemone narcissiflora* and others. However, fellings outside the peak subalpine zone paradoxically also contributed to greater landscape and biological diversity by creating pastures, larger meadows and polonyas in the forests [53].

The burning of shrublands in order to spread grazing seriously disturbed the original ecosystem, which led to erosion of the soil cover and violation of the water regime with all associated negative consequences (e.g. deterioration of the absorption ratios [53].

After the end of grazing, there was a change in the herbaceous vegetation. Favourable results were apparent within two years of the end of grazing [54].

**Figure 9.** *A territory grazed in the past (Piscová, 2013).*

The number of synanthrope species decreased significantly, grass representation decreased and the number of vascular plants increased, secondary plant communities thus gradually disappeared, shrubland became naturally younger and succession progressed. However, on former pastures there are abandoned soils that are not able to produce and are difficult to regenerate, and there are, for example, old roads to sheepfolds left by shepherds, which are only slowly being overgrown. Negatives associated with the succession and overgrowth of former flowery mountainous grasslands with monotonous overgrowth of competitively very strong species of the genus *Calamagrostis*, oat (*Avenula* sp.) or the species of thistle (*Deschampsia cespitosa*), which usually cause irreversible changes in the composition of the original phytocenoses [55], have also been shown. However, negative effects that persist to this day include the inability to restore vegetation on soils damaged by wind and rain erosion, the formation of snow and stone avalanches [13].
