**2.1 Study area**

The study was conducted in the Serengeti National Park (14,763 km<sup>2</sup> ) situated between 33°50′ and 35°20′E and 1°28′ and 3°17′S (**Figure 1**). The park occupies a vast upland area varying in elevation from 1162 m at sea level at the Speke Gulf to 1860 m at sea level in the northeast. The park is bordered by the Maswa Game Reserve to the southwest, Ngorongoro Conservation Area to the southeast, Loliondo Game Controlled Area to the northeast, Maasai-Mara National Reserve in the north, and Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserves in the west (**Figure 2**).
