**4. Woodlands and forest ecosystems, adaptation and mitigation**

Forest is an ecosystem that is dominated by trees (perennial woody plants) that are taller than 5 m at maturity and occupy a land area larger than 0.5 ha, with a tree crown cover of more than 10% [13, 14]. The forest ecosystem as defined could be used for production, protection, conservation, or multiple uses. Woodland is an ecosystem with a tree crown cover of 5–10% of trees able to reach a height of 5 m at maturity, a crown cover of more than 10% of trees not able to reach a height of 5 m at maturity, or shrub and bush cover of more than 10% [15]. These ecosystems in Ghana dominate the northern part of the country and have played important ecological and socioeconomic roles in the development of the country. They have served as a buffer zone for both livelihood adaptation and mitigation activities (see **Figure 6**) [12].

The part of the country often described as Northern Ghana lies between latitudes 8°0′N and 11°5′N and longitudes 3°0′W and 0°32′E (**Figure 6**). It covers about 41%

**Figure 6.**

*Northern Ghana in the national context (source: authors' construct, 2022).*

of the total area of Ghana with 52 patches of forests/game reserves. Poverty is high in rural areas with high dependence on woodland and forest ecosystems. While these ecosystems, through natural regeneration and human effort, mitigate the effects of climate change; humans through the same ecosystems adapt to climate change by deriving alternative livelihoods such as charcoal production, firewood harvesting, timber logging, and mineral exploitation [12, 16].

*Nexus between Savannah Woodland Degradation and Climate Change in Northern Ghana DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107265*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Monthly trend of charcoal production compared to the annual production in Northern Ghana for 2016 (Sou rce of data: [21]).*

Woodland and forest ecosystems in the Savannah areas are fundamental to the livelihoods of those who reside in rural woodland areas in Ghana [12]. Woodlands provide economic, social, cultural, and spiritual services, which are critical in the era of increasing climate change impacts [17]. For instance, charcoal production and logging of trees for timber and firewood in the country have become major climate change adaption strategies in the rural areas rather than conventional livelihood activities. Most charcoal producers in the 1970s and 1980s were perceived as the Sissala people [18, 19] but today, many other tribes are engaged in charcoal production as a supplement to the failing mainstream food crop farming (see [19, 20]). Charcoal production has been on the increase in northern Ghana, question the woodland and forest-based climate change mitigation strategies and efforts because the rate at which the trees are harvested for charcoal production is certainly greater than the rate of regeneration of shrubs. For instance, the trend of the monthly charcoal production in Northern Ghana for 2016 is presented in **Figure 7**, with an annual production of 171,624 metric tons. Other woodland related activities namely logging of rosewood for timber became lamplight livelihood activity in the early 2000s and escalated around 2017.

Adaptation and mitigation activities largely target the woodland and the forest ecosystems (**Figure 8**). Unfortunately, the intensity, extent, and rate of adaptation are

#### **Figure 8.**

*Relationship between climate change and woodland-based adaptation strategies in Ghana. Source: Adapted from [22].*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Relationship among climate change adaptation strategies, mitigation strategies, and woodland and forest ecosystems at the rural Ghanaian community level.*

not same as that of mitigation, thus creating a net imbalance between the effects of adaptation and mitigation activities.

Ideally, a net effect in mitigation is desirable in the relationship between adaptation, mitigation strategies, and woodland and forest ecosystems taking into account the strenghs, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the adaptation and mitigation activities (**Table 1**). Many poor people are seeking woodland and forest-based adaptation strategies with high intensity compared to those working to improve in the capacity of the woodland and forest ecosystems at the community level (see **Figure 9**). This indicates that many more portions of the woodland and forest ecosystems in the Savannah areas are exploited for adaptation strategies than those being developed for mitigation strategies.

Thus, these ecosystems are under-stressed to support adaptation strategies namely charcoal production, logging rosewood, hunting for wildlife, and recently minerals exploitation [16]. For instance, it is indicated that a lot of the charcoal produced in the country comes from woodland areas of the country. Also, the rosewood that is exported to other countries is harvested in the same woodland and forest ecosystems.

The effects of climate change have been overwhelming and the element of the human face has greatly influenced adaption and mitigation activities disproportionately resulting in maladaptation.

The need to adapt to climate change impacts was given media and policy hype which created anxiety among the vulnerable and affected population. In the climate change–adaptation and mitigation nexus, adaptation is heightened to the detriment of mitigation (**Table 1**). The negative impacts on livelihoods were blown out of proportion creating fear and anxiety in people, especially the poor and the vulnerable. It is difficult to have effective adaptation to anxiety because people under duress in emergencies can make dangerous, unsafe choices, which may have tragic or fatal consequences [23]. The current climate change impacts are partly fatal consequences of the maladaptation decisions that were taken in anxiety in the past. Adaptation without mitigation is adaptation without resilience and sustainability. Maladaptation is therefore the bane of mitigation and further over-emphasis on adaptation without mitigation is a fight in support of worsening impacts of climate change. A win-win situation


**Table 1.** *Strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis of climate change adaptation and mitigation in Northern Ghana.*
