Sustainability and Challenges

## **Chapter 3**

## Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study: Thermophysical Properties of a Corncob and Cane Bagasse Ash Panel

*Rafael Alavéz-Ramírez, Fernando Chiñas-Castillo, Magdaleno Caballero-Caballero, Valentín Juventino Morales-Domínguez, Margarito Ortiz-Guzmán, Maria Eugenia Silva-Rivera, Roberto Candido Jimenez-Piñon and Angel Ramos-Alonso*

## **Abstract**

Climate change is currently an issue that worries governments and society due to its threat. It is essential to implement efficient materials with low energy consumption in construction. This work shows the use of sugarcane products in the Mexican construction sector, aiming to mitigate the impact of energy wasting. As a case study, the analysis of thermophysical properties of a light mortar panel based on cane bagasse ash and corncob is presented. The experimental thermal properties of a hybrid panel system composed of cane bagasse ash, corncob, and lime were characterized. A sandwich-type construction component was made with two outer panels of reinforced mortar and between the panel of cane and corncob bagasse ash. Measurements of the surface temperatures of the system were conducted to determine the decrement factor and thermal lag, and the results were compared to other construction systems. The decremental factor and thermal lag were 0.19 (a reduction of 82%) and 6:03 h (an increment of 2400%) compared to the control panel of ferrocement only. These results are significant because the panel prepared limits the heat flow in peak hours when high temperatures reach their maximum values. This composite panel can provide an ecological alternative for energy-saving and thermal comfort and help fight climate change.

**Keywords:** cane, corncob, bagasse ash, thermal properties, insulation

## **1. Introduction**

Due to climate change, governments have become more aware of the need to save energy and provide comfort in buildings. In this context, it is essential to develop and implement bioclimatic architectural systems that reduce energy consumption without affecting the thermal comfort of the building [1]. However, it is well known that most modern buildings and houses do not adapt to changing climatic conditions. The results are energy waste, health problems, and severe environmental effects. According to Wegertseder [2], the residential sector is responsible for 40% of the planet's emissions. Forty percent of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and one-third of black carbon emissions are from construction industries [3, 4].

On the other hand, green building analysts predicted that, by 2030, the building and construction sectors would produce more than 40 billion tons of carbon emissions [5, 6]. Imported commercial materials such as polyurethane-based insulating foams and polystyrene used to insulate the building negatively affect the ecological environment from production to disposal as waste material. The bioclimatic design provides criteria in buildings to help reduce energy demands and pollutant emissions into the atmosphere. The thermophysical characteristics of building materials are essential in minimizing thermal gains by conduction and radiation and obtaining thermal comfort conditions and energy savings. That is one of the most immediate ways to significantly reduce emissions [7] and up to 30% of energy consumption [8].

Thermal inertia is a necessary thermophysical property for extreme climates with significant thermal oscillations during the day and night. Thermal inertia represents the ability of a material to conduct and store heat, which is related to thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity. In contrast, heat transfer in the building is related to how fast or slow the interior temperatures reach the exterior temperature. Researchers are interested in developing composite materials with natural fibers, which generate thermal lag when combined with thermal inertia [9–15].

Sugar cane is a grass plant, and its stalk is fibrous. It is cultivated in several countries; It becomes an agricultural residue once the juice is extracted. The sugarcane bagasse has been used in thermal and acoustic insulation. The different procedures used to extract fibers can influence the chemical composition and fiber structure [16]. The sugarcane bagasse fiber surface can be changed to increase interfacial interactions considering the environmental criteria and produce functional components from biodegradable wastes [17]. The thermal conductivity of sugarcane bagasse fiber as an insulating material has also been investigated [18]. The results showed a thermal conductivity of 0.04610 w/mK in the average temperature range of 15.6–32°C. Aminudin [19] investigated the improvement of cement bricks by 10% weight of sugarcane bagasse fiber, decreasing thermal conductivity to 0.62 w/mK. Some studies report that the chemical composition is affected by fiber age, harvesting method, and climatic conditions such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and sugar ash [20].

Standard ASTM 618–00 defines pozzolans as "siliceous or alumino-siliceous materials which have little or no cementitious value, but when finely divided, and in the presence of water, react chemically with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 at room temperature to form compounds with cementitious properties". Chemical, physical and mechanical methods can be applied to characterize the pozzolanic reactivity of a material. The mechanical methods assess the role of the pozzolanic reaction in developing mechanical compressive strength in pozzolan-containing mortars and cement concretes. The pozzolanic reactivity indicates the pozzolan-lime reaction determined

by several methods [21]. Studies such as the one conducted by [22] have shown that these agricultural waste by-products contain high pozzolanic reactivity. The main components that govern the reactivity of a pozzolan are (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO). Payá [23] evaluated the efficiency of two siliceous pozzolans, silica fume (SF) and rice husk ash (RHA), and a metakaolin silico-aluminous pozzolan MK. The results showed the high reactivity of these materials acting as pozzolans when combined with lime and the apparent dependence on the water/cement ratio of the mix and curing time.

When sugarcane bagasse is burned, sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), a mineral residue rich in silica and alumina, is produced. Its structure depends on the combustion temperature [24]. This product can be used as a pozzolan in cement-based pastes. Several authors [25–28] have found that using SCBA as a partial replacement for portland cement improves the durability and mechanical properties of cementitious materials. The benefits developed by SCBA are due to physical and chemical effects linked to its ability to provide amorphous silica that will react with Ca (OH)2 in water during cement hydration. SCBA is usually obtained under uncontrolled burning conditions [27]. Thus, the ash may contain black particles due to the presence of carbon and crystalline silica when burning occurs at high temperatures (above 800°C) or for prolonged times. The ash quality can be improved by controlling temperature, heating rate, soaking time, and atmosphere, as previously reported for the highly pozzolanic rice husk ash (RHA) [29]. On the other hand, carbon and unburned material can lower the pozzolanic activity of sugarcane bagasse ash [25]. Particle size, calcination temperature, amorphous structure, and chemical composition all affect the pozzolanic activity of bagasse ash [30–32]. The calcination temperature at 600°C is essential for producing sugarcane bagasse ash with pozzolanic activity [31]. It presents amorphous silica, low carbon content, and high specific surface area [23, 27]. Laboratory tests on the pozzolanic reactivity of Cuban sugar cane wastes (straw and bagasse) revealed that the ashes have intense pozzolanic activity and can be used as active additives in cement manufacture [32].

### **1.1 Recent reserch on sugarcane bagasse ash**

This section highlights recent research using sugarcane bagasse ash as a pozzolanic material. Nengsen Wu [33] developed ultra-high performance green concrete (UHPC) with sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) as a replacement for cement. SCBA's effects on UHPC flowability, setting time, compressive strength, and shrinkage were investigated. The results showed that using SCBA in UHPC as a cement replacement maintains compressive strength, improves workability, and reduces shrinkage of the UHPC paste. Autogenous shrinkage was reduced by 24.48%, but compressive strength was nearly identical. Yadav [34] conducted an experimental investigation to demonstrate the effectiveness, availability, and cheap cost of geopolymers generated from mechanical milled sugarcane bagasse ash and metakaolin. According to this investigation, the sugarcane bagasse ash and metakaolin need mechanical and chemical treatment to increase their pozzolanic reactivity. Mehrzad et al. [35] fabricated and tested fibrous sugarcane bagasse (SBW) samples with different densities, thicknesses, surface morphology, and tensile properties. They conclude that sugarcane bagasse fiber samples can be a new sustainable building material in terms of thermal and acoustic qualities. Brito [36] studied sugarcane and bamboo-based particleboards. Three proportions of blends (25, 50, and 75%) were adopted for particle boards. The boards

made with 75% bamboo particles and 25% sugarcane bagasse particles achieved the values required by the standard for thickness swelling in 24 h.

Gharieb [37] studied the use of carbonation and lime wastes from sugar beets (CLR) to partially replace cement as a cementitious material. The optimal level of CLR was 5%, which increased compressive strength and microstructure. The results confirmed that it is possible to use CLR as a cementitious material. Jagadesh [38] explored the use of Processed Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash (PSCBA) in various proportions in cementitious mortar. Portland cement with PSCBA lowers energy usage, reduces domestic gas emissions, and enhances cement characteristics. It was observed that cement mortar's mechanical and fracture properties with 10% substitution of PSCBA in ordinary Portland cement show improved properties. Jittin & Bahurudeen [39] examined the rheological performance and compressive strength of sugarcane bagasse and rice husk ash using a ternary-based hybrid cementitious system. The yield strength, plastic viscosity, and consistency index increase with added sugarcane bagasse ash and rice husk ash. The highest compressive strength was observed for ternary mixed concrete with 10% bagasse ash and 5% rice husk ash, followed by binary concrete mixed with 20% bagasse ash. SCBA as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) and supplemental filler material (SFM) for usage in the construction sector has awakened the interest of researchers. Processed SCBA has improved characteristics compared to its unprocessed counterpart, with an optimum replacement of 20% [40]. Therefore, it is very effective as a supplementary binder and filler material.

Souza [41] investigated the development of lightweight mortars from sintering SBA. Two different SBA were evaluated; one was produced in a ball mill and the other in a knife mill. The findings show that lightweight aggregates based on SBA and RC binary mixtures can be produced in a wide range of particle densities from 1.03 to 1.67 g/cm<sup>3</sup> . Subedi [42] investigated the feasibility of using high contents of coprocessed sugarcane bagasse ash (PBA) as a partial cement replacement for the development of engineered cementitious composites (ECC) with a 1.5% volume of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers. The results showed that the workability of the mixtures decreased with increasing PBA content. Furthermore, adding PBA decreased compressive strength up to 39% and increased surface resistivity, where composites outperformed control composites. The use of PBA produced a reduction in the crack tip.

Klathae [43] investigated bagasse ash (BA) from processed sugar mills. HVGBA concrete compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus, and drying shrinkage were investigated [43, 44]. The results showed that using HVGBA could reduce the maximum temperature rise between 8 and 19°C of the control concrete (CT). All concrete incorporating HVGBA with different LOI had higher drying and shrinkage than CT concrete, increasing the LOI and cement replacement rate. Barbosa [45] examined the effect of SCBA with various chemical and mineralogical compositions on paste hydration, compressive strength, and autogenous shrinkage of mortars. SCBA samples with high levels of amorphous silica-rich, fewer pollutants, and a high specific surface area behaved like RHA, with effects on hydration. Combined SCBA mortars, regardless of SCBA type, caused an increase in compressive strength. However, only the SCBA plus pozzolanic mortar was comparable to RHA.

Athira and Bahurudeen [46] compared the microstructure of processed and received rice straw ash to SCBA. Microstructural analysis revealed that rice straw ash and SCBA are made of phytoliths, dumbbell-shaped silica storage structures. Rice straw ash is richer in phytoliths than SCBA; however, the prismatic structures in

*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

SCBA are absent in rice straw ash. It is found that the yield strength and viscosity of the cement paste increase with the addition of rice straw.

Klathae [44] formally demonstrated that SCBA with proper particle size is an excellent pozzolanic material for concrete durability. They investigated high-strength concrete (HSC) with a high volume of sugarcane bagasse ash (HVSCBA). The results showed that the 28-day compressive strength of the binary and ternary binders HSC could be developed to meet the requirement of 55 MPa.

The following case study shows the thermal properties of a biodegradable hybrid panel based on a lightweight mortar combining sugarcane bagasse ash, corn stover, and lime. SCBA was combined with lime and generated a binder material according to the standard ASTM 618–00. A sandwich construction component was made with panels, two outer layers of reinforced mortar, and the SCBA and corncob panel (2F + POCE) in the middle. Measurements of the surface temperatures of the system were conducted to determine the thermal damping and thermal lag. These results were compared to other construction systems.

## **2. Case study: THERMOPHYSICAL properties of a sugarcane bagasse ash and corncob-based panel**

#### **2.1 The climate of Oaxaca city and bioclimatic strategies**

The city of Oaxaca is located in the southeast of the Mexican Republic; its bioclimate is temperate [47]. Summers are humid along the eastern lowlands and present an average daytime temperature ranging from medium-low to medium-high 9 to 34°C. It has an altitude of 1550 meters above sea level and geographical coordinates of 17°04<sup>0</sup> 04"N latitude, 96°43<sup>0</sup> 12"W longitude. This place exhibits moderate relative humidity and summer rains as classified by Köppen [48]. Winds constantly move north to south, and solar radiation is intense on clear days. **Figure 1** summarizes the climatic data for the locality according to average values for the last decade from the National Meteorological Service (SMN). However, when the range of annual oscillation is more than 14°C, it is considered very extreme, according to Köppen-García [49].

#### **2.2 Materials used in the hybrid panel**

The SCBA used to elaborate the biodegradable hybrid panel was obtained directly from a sugarcane mill in Ciénega, Zimatlán de Álvarez Oaxaca, 20 minutes away from the capital city of Oaxaca-Mexico. **Table 1** shows a typical chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse [52]. The ash selected for this study is derived from making sugar cane, where the sugar cane juice must be squeezed, and the bagasse obtained is used to burn in the oven. The temperatures reached inside the oven are above 700°C.

The ashes obtained from the furnace's interior were homogenized by quartering based on the Mexican Official Standard NOM-AA-61. The SCBA particles were washed and exposed to the sun for 48 hours. Selected SCBA and corn stover material were taken to the drying area at CIIDIR IPN Oaxaca. The corncob was obtained from the local market. The material used as a binder in the panel matrix was pine resin obtained from the town of Ixtlán Oaxaca, located 30 minutes from the capital city of Oaxaca-Mexico.


#### **Figure 1.**

*Average climatic data and location for the city of Oaxaca, Mexico.*


#### **Table 1.**

*Chemical composition of sugar cane bagasse.*

Granulometry tests were carried out on the SCBA. The sugar cane husk determines the percentage of fines in the SCBA. It ensures its pozzolanic reaction with the calcium hydroxide to determine the particle size of the husk to be used in the hybrid panel. The particle size test was carried out by adopting the recommendations of the manual M.MMP.1.103, disaggregated drying, and quartering of samples. The granulometry of both materials was carried out in a WS TYLER Sieve ROTAP machine Model RX-29 for 5 minutes. The passage of the SCBA material was done through different meshes No. 4 (4.76 mm), No. 10 (2.00 mm), No. 20 (0.84 mm), No. 40 (0.42 mm), No. 60 (0.25 mm), No. 100 (0.149 mm) and No. 200 (0.074 mm) to obtain the retained mass in each mesh, and calculate its percentage. The material that passed mesh # 200 was the percentage of fines.

In order to determine the granulometry of the corncob, it was decided to use the corncob particles retained in mesh No. 4 (4.76 mm). It was mixed with the SCBA as a cementitious agent.


*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

#### **Table 2.**

*Chemical properties of lime and SCBA.*

**Table 2** summarizes the chemical properties of the SCBA and lime. It was observed that 51.66% of silicon oxide was present in the SCBA, which allowed it to react with the hydroxide in lime with 68.63%.

Finally, the reinforced mortar (ferrocement) is the construction element used to cover the biodegradable panel as a sandwich type. Ferrocement is a construction material composed of reinforced concrete and several layers of reinforcing mesh, electrowelded mesh, and chicken wire, uniformly distributed throughout a cross-section (ACI 549R-93). A mortar rich in cement, sand, and water was used for its making. This material has a thickness of 0.025 m. It is characterized by its high strength and flexibility and is a low-cost material. The mortar used to make the ferrocement slab is a Portland cement type 1 from Cooperativa La Cruz Azul SCL that meets all the ASTM C-150-89 standard requirements. Natural sand, clean and free of organic substances, sieved with the # 8 (2.38) ASTM. The average grain size was 0.7 0.145 mm. Water from the distribution network was taken to the locality to prepare the mixture. The mechanical properties of the mortar used in this study can be found in [53].

#### **2.3 Preparation of test panels**

A lightweight mortar made of SCBA, corncob, and lime was used as a base to elaborate the (2F + POCE) panels, whose mechanical properties were previously studied by the authors of the current chapter [54]. A lightweight mortar was also developed, taking advantage of the SCBA and lime characteristics to obtain a cementitious agent to stabilize the mixture. The SCBA and lime mixture was prepared manually; water was added until a uniform consistency was achieved. The specimens were compacted

manually with a wooden mallet. Finally, two panels of dimensions 1 m x 1 m long x 10 cm thick were made to determine the thermal damping properties and thermal conductivity. The specimens were left to dry for three weeks before their thermal properties were obtained. Finally, two 1 m x 1 m x 0.25 m thick ferrocement plates were fabricated to form the hybrid sandwich panel. The two ferrocement plates cover the plate filled with a 1 x 1 x 0.10 m thick waffle matrix, forming the composite panel. **Figure 2a** shows the panel with the sugarcane bagasse-lime-corncob ash matrix. **Figure 2b** shows the hybrid sandwich panel with two layers of reinforced mortar (2F + POCE).

## **2.4 Determination of decrement factor and thermal lag**

In order to determine the damping and thermal retardation properties, first, the analysis date had to be defined. In doing so, the data of the highest solar radiation of the locality was considered, which corresponded to March (**Figure 3**); such data were obtained from the climatic normals for Oaxaca city (1980–2010) (SMN).

*Hybrid panel: a) cane bagasse ash-lime-corncob matrix, b) panel with two ferrocement plates and, in between, a panel with sugarcane bagasse-lime-corncob ash matrix.*

**Figure 3.** *Solar radiation for the city of Oaxaca.*

*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

Temperature measurements were made using five experimental chambers built for this purpose. Surface temperature measurements were carried out using 30 TMC6-HD Smart sensors (40 to 100°C) connected to a 12-bit HOBO12 data logger system. It includes HOBOware software and a standard NIST calibration kit and stores 43,000 readings at a sampling rate of 1 s-18 h. **Figure 4** shows the placement of sensors in a thermal chamber; three were connected on the inner surface part of the specimens and three on the outer surface part of the specimens. The hobo was placed at 2.50 m inside a thermal shelter for outdoor air temperature recording to avoid direct solar radiation and allow cross ventilation.

The thermal properties of the proposed panel (2F + POCE) were compared to other construction elements built for that purpose, as shown in **Table 3**.

**Figure 5**a shows the placement of the different construction elements in the thermal chambers. It is worth mentioning that the thermal chambers were insulated on five sides. The upper part was left open to place the panel and allow direct solar radiation (**Figure 5b**).

#### **2.5 Determination of thermal conductivity properties**

Therm conductivity measurements were made on a homemade hot plate conductivimeter at CIIDIR IPN Oaxaca on the PO + CE panels utilized in this work [55]. This device is essentially a box with one side open, producing heat using an electric heating system. A Fiberfrax Blanket ceramic fiber quilt material resistance of 1260° is used to isolate the box's walls thermally. The conductivimeter is a device that

**Figure 4.**

*Position of thermocouples, cross-section.*


**Table 3.** *Dimensions of panels.*

**Figure 5.** *a) Cane bagasse ash panel placement; b) general view of the thermal chambers.*

employs the steady-state conduction heat transfer concept and enables standard ASTM C 177 thermal conductivity determination using the equation:

$$k = \frac{Q}{A(\Delta T/L)}\tag{1}$$

where Q represents the rate of heat flow through the specimen in W, k represents its thermal conductivity in W/m K, ΔT represents the temperature differential through it in K, L represents its thickness in m, and A represents its cross-sectional area in m2 .

It is important to note that if the sample is a compound with pores or spaces where heat can be transmitted via conduction, radiation, or convection, k in Eq. (1) represents the apparent thermal conductivity.

The upper part of the conductivity meter is uncovered, where the panel was placed. Inside, there are installed 500 watts electrical resistance of stainless steel at 127 volts single-phase with dimensions of 1 m � 1 m with flexible terminals of 0.5 m in length, and high-temperature cable with a thickness of 4 mm.

The (2F + POCE) building component temperatures were recorded utilizing TC6-J type J thermocouples with a 2 m connector that supports temperatures of 0–800°C. These sensors are connected to a four-channel HOBO UX120-014 M data acquisition system, which stores the temperature information recorded by the thermocouples. **Figure 6** shows the flow diagram of the conductivity meter.

For this investigation, the PO + CE panel wall underwent five testing replicates. Temperature readings were obtained every 10 minutes. Only the range of steady state was taken to determine the mean temperature of each sensor after registered temperatures from the four sensors on the hot side and the four sensors on the cold side. The four sensors on the hot side were then averaged after that. The four sensors on the cold side underwent the same process. In order to determine the thermal conductivity of the panel wall tested, the temperature gradient was computed as the hot-side average temperature less than the cold-side average temperature. It should be noted that the mean temperature recorded in each sensor for each panel wall was calculated from more than 100 steady state points.

*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

## **3. Analysis and discussion of results**

## **3.1 Bioclimatic strategies for Oaxaca City**

The results of the psychrometric chart (**Figure 7**) show that 77% of the time, people are thermally uncomfortable, and only 22.4% have thermal comfort conditions in the city of Oaxaca. It is observed that there are requirements of internal heating gain of 33.5%, thermal mass of 26.7%, shading of 22%, adaptive comfort ventilation of 18.6%, and forced ventilation of 21.9% for cooling. It is essential to mention that the percentage of internal heating gains (33.5%) is generated with the thermal mass

**Figure 7.** *Psychrometric chart for the city of Oaxaca.*

because it can store the energy required during the day for passive heating. In this sense, the proposed hybrid panel can be a viable ecological alternative.

#### **3.2 Results of thermal lag and decrement factor**

**Figure 8** presents the thermal measurements monitored inside the experimental cells taken in March. The analysis period was determined from March 21 to 24, 2014, because they presented the most stable temperatures.

The temperatures evaluated correspond to the values of the maximum temperatures (Tmax), minimum temperatures (Tmin), mean temperature (Timed), and the thermal amplitudes of temperature presented on the outer and inner surface of each panel. **Figure 9** shows the evolution of the exterior surface temperature wave, while **Figure 10** shows the interior surface temperatures recorded. It is observed that the highest values of thermal amplitudes were presented in the exterior surface temperatures due to the direct exposure to solar radiation. It is observed that the highest exterior thermal amplitude was presented in the (PO + CE) specimen because it presented a very high surface temperature attributed to the panel's black color. Regarding the interior surface temperatures these were presented as follows:

$$(\text{2F} + \text{POCE}) < (\text{PO} + \text{CE}) < (\text{2F} + \text{A}) < (\text{CLC}) < (\text{LF}) \tag{2}$$

**Table 4** summarizes the results of the thermal amplitudes obtained on the exterior and interior surfaces of the specimens. The decrement factor of the analyzed roof specimens is also presented. **Figure 10** shows the results for the interior thermal amplitudes, which were given as follows (2F + POCE) < (PO + CE) < (2F + A) < (CLC) < (LF). **Figure 11** shows the decrement factor from smallest to largest following the same pattern: (2F + POCE (0.19)) < (PO + CE (0.30)) < (2F + A (0.50)) < (CLC (0.73)) < (LF (1.06)), this indicates that the specimen (2F + POCE) achieves the lowest thermal decrement factor of external temperature waves.

**Table 5** shows the comparative results of the average thermal lag obtained from the indoor surface temperatures concerning the outdoor surface temperatures of the roof systems under study. The average thermal lag values obtained from the 4 days of the experimental period (March 21 to 24) are presented from highest to lowest and were given as follows: (2F + POCE (6:03)) > (PO + CE (3:52)) > (2F + A

*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Thermal amplitudes based on outdoor surface temperature in (2F + POCE) vs. (PO + CE) vs. (2F + a) vs. (CLC) vs. (LF) roofs and outdoor ambient temperature.*

(2:30)) > (CLC (0:30)) > (LF (0:15)). **Figure 12** exemplifies the thermal lag obtained for March 23. The results obtained from the average thermal lag indicate that the specimen (2F + POCE) achieves the highest thermal lag of the outside temperature waves (6**,**00 hours).

Belhadj et al. [56] investigated straw and cement walls with different thicknesses from 0.1 to 0.25 m reporting thermal lag values of 4 to 8 hr. and a decrement factor of 0.15 to 0.85. Panel 2F + POCE presented a thermal lag of 6:00 hrs and a decrement factor of 0.19. These values are thermally better than the compressed earth specimens by Roux-Gutiérrez and Velázquez-Lozano [57] with different types of plasters. The double block compressed earth without plaster recorded a thermal lag of 4:15 hrs and a decrement factor of 2.28. Other conventional materials such as baked mud brick or cement mortar block recorded thermal lag values of about 0:30 hr. and decrement factor values of about 1.88. Gallegos-Ortega et al. [58] studied a house with thatched walls of 0.4 m in width in Tecate, Baja California, Mexico. Their results showed a thermal lag of 9 to 12 hrs, which means 2 hrs above the 2F + POCE panel, influenced by the greater thickness of the specimen.

The control panel LF, made of ferrocement only, shows the lowest thermal lag and highest decrement factor compared to the other panels tested. CLC panel showed a thermal lag increment of 200% and decrement factor reduction of 31%; panel 2F + A had a thermal lag rise of 1000% and a decrement factor reduction of 52.8%; panel PO + CE had a thermal lag rise of 1360% and a decrement factor reduction of 71.7%. The proposed panel 2F + POCE showed a thermal lag increment of 2400% and a decrement factor reduction of 82%.

**Figure 10.** *Thermal amplitudes based on indoor surface temperature in (2F + POCE) vs. (PO + CE) vs. (2F + a) vs. (CLC) vs. (LF) roofs and outdoor ambient temperature.*


**Table 4.**

*Thermal amplitude values and decrement factor of (2F + POCE) vs. (LF) vs. (CLC) vs. (2F + a) vs. (PO + CE).*

Thus, the results obtained in this work with the proposed panel 2F + POCE indicate that it is a viable option for use in walls and roofs in warm and temperate climates with high thermal oscillations.

#### **3.3 Results of thermal conductivity**

In the conductivimeter, a heat flow of 32.4 watts was fed to the panel PO + CE. The thermal temperature in a steady state was monitored for 4 days. The mean thermal

*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Comparative results of the decrement factor in roofs: (2F + POCE) vs. (PO + CE) vs. (2F + a) vs. (CLC) vs. (LF).*


#### **Table 5.**

*Comparative results of thermal lag in roofs.*

**Figure 12.** *Comparative results of thermal lag in roofs: (2F + POCE) vs. (PO + CE) vs. (2F + a) vs. (CLC) vs. (LF).*

conductivity of panel PO + CE was 0.2008 0.0064 W/mK, Maximum 0.207 W/mK, minimum 0.194 W/mK, median 0.203 W/mK.

Insulating materials have thermal conductivity values of 0.01 to 0.09 W/m K. Alavez-Ramirez et al. [55] found thermal conductivity values for ferrocement of 0.69 W/m K, ferrocement plus coconut fiber 0.221 W/m K, lightweight concrete brick 0.53 W/m K, hollow concrete block 0.68 W/m K and red clay brick 0.93 W/m K. Ruiz Torres et al. [59] reported thermal conductivity for thermos-slab 0.263 W/m K, cement-sand mortar 0.63 W/m K, typical annealed red brick 0.872 W/m K. Borbón Almada et al. [60] reported a thermal conductivity for annealed mud brick 0.814 W/m K, lightened block 0.465 W/m K, cement-sand mortar 0.470 W/m K and recycled cement-sand mortar 0.291 W/m K (recycled material from concrete demolition). Rico Rodríguez et al. [61] reported a value of 0.21 W/m K in the thermal conductivity of a cement composite material reinforced with bagasse ash and fiber. In this context, the thermal conductivity value of 0.2008 W/mK of the PO + CE panel proposed in this study has a low thermal conductivity suitable for thermal applications in construction.

## **4. Conclusions**

The bioclimatic analysis for the city of Oaxaca showed internal heating and thermal mass requirements for thermal comfort conditions. A hybrid panel composed of cane bagasse ash, corncob, and lime was proposed to reach such comfort conditions. A sandwich-type construction component was made with the hybrid panel and two outer layers of reinforced mortar (ferrocement) and the middle of the cane bagasse ash and corncob panel (2F + POCE). Five experimental chambers were built to determine the surface thermal performance of the panels (2F + POCE), (PO + CE), (2F + A), (CLC), and (LF). The month of March was selected for the analysis based on the climatic normals of the locality. The best decrement factor and thermal lag were presented in the panel consisting of two ferrocement slabs and the waffle panel (2F + POCE), registering 0.19 and 6 hrs, respectively. These results are significant because the panel limits the heat flow at peak hours when temperatures reach their highest values. Therefore, such a composite can provide an environmentally friendly alternative for energy savings and thermal comfort.

## **Acknowledgements**

The authors express their sincere thanks to the National Council for Science and Technology (CONACyT), Secretary of Public Education (SEP), National Polytechnic Institute IPN/CIIDIR Oaxaca, and National Technological Institute of Mexico/Oaxaca Institute of Technology for the financial support. This work was developed within the research framework of the SIP project 20195480.

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this work.

*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

## **Author details**

Rafael Alavéz-Ramírez<sup>1</sup> , Fernando Chiñas-Castillo<sup>2</sup> \*, Magdaleno Caballero-Caballero1 , Valentín Juventino Morales-Domínguez<sup>1</sup> , Margarito Ortiz-Guzmán<sup>1</sup> , Maria Eugenia Silva-Rivera<sup>1</sup> , Roberto Candido Jimenez-Piñon<sup>2</sup> and Angel Ramos-Alonso<sup>2</sup>

1 National Polytechnic Institute IPN, CIIDIR Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, México

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Technological Institute of Mexico/ Oaxaca Institute of Technology, Oaxaca de Juarez, Oax, México

\*Address all correspondence to: fernandochinas@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Manzano-Agugliaro F, Montoya FG, Sabio-Ortega A, García-Cruz A. Review of bioclimatic architecture strategies for achieving thermal comfort. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2015;**49**: 736-755. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.095

[2] Wegertseder P, Schmidt D, Hatt T, Saelzer G, Hempel R. Barreras y oportunidades observadas en la incorporación de estándares de alta eficiencia energética en la vivienda social chilena. Arquit y Urban. 2014;**XXXV**: 37-49

[3] Ofori G, Briffett C IV, Gang G, Ranasinghe M. Impact of ISO 14000 on construction enterprises in Singapore. Construction Management and Economics. 2000;**18**:935-947. DOI: 10.1080/014461900446894

[4] Gino Moncada LG, Asdrubali F, Rotili A. Influence of new factors on global energy prospects in the medium term: Comparison among the 2010, 2011 and 2012 editions of the IEA's world energy outlook reports. Economics and Policy of Energy Environment. 2013;**3**: 67-89. DOI: 10.3280/EFE2013-003003

[5] Zhang Y, Wang J, Hu F, Wang Y. Comparison of evaluation standards for green building in China, Britain, United States. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017;**68**:262-271. DOI: 10.1016/J.RSER.2016.09.139

[6] WBCSD. Energy Efficiency in Buildings Facts and Trends: Business Realities and Opportunities. Switzerland: WBCSD. July 2008. ISBN: 978-3- 940388-26-1

[7] Bressand F, Farrell D, Haas P, Morin F. Curbing Global Energy Demand Growth: The Energy Productivity Opportunity. McKinsey Glob Inst. Sao

Paulo, Brazil: McKinsey&Company; 2007. pp. 1-290

[8] Secretaria del Medio Ambiente del Gobierno del Distrito Federal. Gac Of Del Dist Fed: Programa de certificación de edificaciones sustentables; 2012. pp. 1-90

[9] Mounir S, Khabbazi A, Khaldoun A, Maaloufa Y, El Hamdouni Y. Thermal inertia and thermal properties of the composite material clay-wool. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2015;**19**: 191-199. DOI: 10.1016/j.scs.2015.07.018

[10] Wang L, Zhou Q, Ji X, Peng J, Nawaz H, Xia G, et al. Fabrication and characterization of transparent and uniform cellulose/polyethylene composite films from used disposable paper cups by the "one-pot method". Polymers (Basel). 2022;**14**:1070-1085. DOI: 10.3390/polym14061070

[11] Soret GM, Vacca P, Tignard J, Hidalgo JP, Maluk C, Aitchison M, et al. Thermal inertia as an integrative parameter for building performance. Journal of Building Engineering. 2021;**33**: 101623. DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101623

[12] Chikhi M. Young's modulus and thermophysical performances of biosourced materials based on date palm fibers. Energy and Buildings. 2016;**129**: 589-597. DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2016. 08.034

[13] Çomak B, Bideci A, Salli BÖ. Effects of hemp fibers on characteristics of cement based mortar. Construction and Building Materials. 2018;**169**:794-799. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.029

[14] Hamza S, Saad H, Charrier B, Ayed N, Charrier-El BF. Physicochemical characterization of Tunisian *Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

plant fibers and its utilization as reinforcement for plaster based composites. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;**49**:357-365. DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.04.052

[15] Cherki AB, Remy B, Khabbazi A, Jannot Y, Baillis D. Experimental thermal properties characterization of insulating cork-gypsum composite. Construction and Building Materials. 2014;**54**:202-209. DOI: 10.1016/j. conbuildmat.2013.12.076

[16] Khalil A, Khalil HPSA, Alwani MS, Mohd Omar AK. Chemical composition, anatomy, lignin distribution, and cell wall structure of Malaysian plant waste fibers. BioResources. 2006;**1**:220-232

[17] Loh YR, Sujan D, Rahman ME, Das CA. Sugarcane bagasse—The future composite material: A literature review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2013;**75**:14-22. DOI: 10.1016/J. RESCONREC.2013.03.002

[18] Manohar K. Experimental investigation of building thermal insulation from agricultural by-products. British Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2012;**2**:227-239. DOI: 10.9734/bjast/2012/1528

[19] Aminudin E, Khalid NHA, Azman NA, Bakri K, Din MFM, Zakaria R, et al. Utilization of Baggase waste based materials as improvement for thermal insulation of cement brick. MATEC Web Conf. 2017;**103**: 01019. DOI: 10.1051/matecconf/2017 10301019

[20] Canilha L, Chandel AK, Suzane Dos Santos Milessi T, Antunes FAF, Luiz Da Costa Freitas W, Das Graças Almeida Felipe M, et al. Bioconversion of sugarcane biomass into ethanol: An overview about composition, pretreatment methods, detoxification of hydrolysates, enzymatic saccharification, and ethanol fermentation. Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology. 2012;**2012**: 2012. DOI: 10.1155/2012/989572

[21] Watt JD, Thorne DJ. Composition and pozzolanic properties of pulverised fuel ashes.\* I. composition of fly ashes from some component particles British power stations and properties of their component particles. Journal of Applied Chemistry. 1965;**15**:585-594

[22] Moraes JCB, Melges JLP, Akasaki JL, Tashima MM, Soriano L, Monzó J, et al. Pozzolanic reactivity studies on a biomass-derived waste from sugar cane production: Sugar cane straw ash (SCSA). ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2016;**4**:4273-4279. DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b00770

[23] Payá J, Monzó J, Borrachero MV, Díaz-Pinzón L, Ordónez LM. Sugar-cane bagasse ash (SCBA): Studies on its properties for reusing in concrete production. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology. 2002;**77**: 321-325. DOI: 10.1002/jctb.549

[24] Neville AM. Tecnología del concreto: Curado del concreto. Mexico D.F: Instituto Mexicano del Cemento y del Concreto, A. C; 2013

[25] Martirena Hernandez JF, Middendorf B, Gehrke M, Budelmannt H. Use of wastes of the sugar industry as pozzolana in limepozzolana binders: Study of the reaction. Cement and Concrete Research. 1998;**28**: 1525-1536. DOI: 10.1016/S0008-8846 (98)00130-6

[26] Cordeiro GC, Toledo Filho RD, Tavares LM, Fairbairn EMR. Pozzolanic activity and filler effect of sugar cane bagasse ash in Portland cement and lime mortars. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2008;**30**:410-418.

DOI: 10.1016/J.CEMCONCOMP.2008. 01.001

[27] Cordeiro GC, Toledo Filho RD, Fairbairn EMR. Effect of calcination temperature on the pozzolanic activity of sugar cane bagasse ash. Construction and Building Materials. 2009;**23**: 3301-3303. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2009.02.013

[28] Ganesan K, Rajagopal K, Thangavel K. Evaluation of bagasse ash as supplementary cementitious material. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2007; **29**:515-524. DOI: 10.1016/J. CEMCONCOMP.2007.03.001

[29] Jauberthie R, Rendell F, Tamba S, Cisse I. Origin of the pozzolanic effect of rice husks. Construction and Building Materials. 2000;**14**:419-423. DOI: 10.1016/S0950-0618(00)00045-3

[30] Chandrasekhar S, Satyanarayana KG, Pramada PN, Raghavan P, Gupta TN. Processing, properties and applications of reactive silica from rice husk-an overview. Journal of Materials Science. 2003;**38**: 3159-3168

[31] Chandrasekhar S, Pramada PN, Majeed J. Effect of calcination temperature and heating rate on the optical properties and reactivity of rice husk ash. Journal of Materials Science. 2006;**41**:7926-7933. DOI: 10.1007/ s10853-006-0859-0

[32] Frías M, Villar-Cociña E, De Rojas MIS, Valencia-Morales E. The effect that different pozzolanic activity methods has on the kinetic constants of the pozzolanic reaction in sugar cane straw-clay ash/lime systems: Application of a kinetic–diffusive model. Cement and Concrete Research. 2005;**35**: 2137-2142. DOI: 10.1016/J. CEMCONRES.2005.07.005

[33] Wu N, Ji T, Huang P, Fu T, Zheng X, Xu Q. Use of sugar cane bagasse ash in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) as cement replacement. Construction and Building Materials. 2022;**317**:125881. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2021.125881

[34] Yadav AL, Sairam V, Srinivasan K, Muruganandam L. Synthesis and characterization of geopolymer from metakaolin and sugarcane bagasse ash. Construction and Building Materials. 2020;**258**:119231. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2020.119231

[35] Mehrzad S, Taban E, Soltani P, Samaei SE, Khavanin A. Sugarcane bagasse waste fibers as novel thermal insulation and sound-absorbing materials for application in sustainable buildings. Building and Environment. 2022;**211**:108753. DOI: 10.1016/J. BUILDENV.2022.108753

[36] Brito FMS, Bortoletto Júnior G, Paes JB, Belini UL, Tomazello-Filho M. Technological characterization of particleboards made with sugarcane bagasse and bamboo culm particles. Construction and Building Materials. 2020;**262**:120501. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2020.120501

[37] Gharieb M, Rashad AM. An initial study of using sugar-beet waste as a cementitious material. Construction and Building Materials. 2020;**250**:118843. DOI: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2020. 118843

[38] Jagadesh P, Ramachandra Murthy A, Murugesan R. Effect of processed sugar cane bagasse ash on mechanical and fracture properties of blended mortar. Construction and Building Materials. 2020;**262**:120846. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2020.120846

[39] Jittin V, Bahurudeen A. Evaluation of rheological and durability

*Sugar Cane Products as a Sustainable Construction Material – Case Study:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107473*

characteristics of sugarcane bagasse ash and rice husk ash based binary and ternary cementitious system. Construction and Building Materials. 2022;**317**:125965. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2021.125965

[40] Tripathy A, Acharya PK. Characterization of bagasse ash and its sustainable use in concrete as a supplementary binder – A review. Construction and Building Materials. 2022;**322**:126391. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2022.126391

[41] Souza NSL de, Anjos MAS dos, Sá M, de Das VVA, de Farias EC, de Souza MM, Branco FG, et al. Evaluation of sugarcane bagasse ash for lightweight aggregates production. Construction and Building Materials 2021;271:121604. DOI: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2020. 121604

[42] Subedi S, Arce GA, Hassan MM, Barbato M, Mohammad LN, Rupnow T. Feasibility of ECC with high contents of post-processed bagasse ash as partial cement replacement. Construction and Building Materials. 2022;**319**:126023. DOI: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT. 2021.126023

[43] Klathae T, Tanawuttiphong N, Tangchirapat W, Chindaprasirt P, Sukontasukkul P, Jaturapitakkul C. Heat evolution, strengths, and drying shrinkage of concrete containing high volume ground bagasse ash with different LOIs. Construction and Building Materials. 2020;**258**:119443. DOI: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT. 2020.119443

[44] Klathae T, Tran TNH, Men S, Jaturapitakkul C, Tangchirapat W. Strength, chloride resistance, and water permeability of high volume sugarcane bagasse ash high strength concrete incorporating limestone powder.

Construction and Building Materials. 2021;**311**:125326. DOI: 10.1016/J. CONBUILDMAT.2021.125326

[45] Barbosa FL, Cordeiro GC. Partial cement replacement by different sugar cane bagasse ashes: Hydration-related properties, compressive strength and autogenous shrinkage. Construction and Building Materials. 2021;**272**:121625. DOI: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2020. 121625

[46] Athira G, Bahurudeen A. Rheological properties of cement paste blended with sugarcane bagasse ash and rice straw ash. Construction and Building Materials. 2022;**332**:127377. DOI: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2022. 127377

[47] Fuentes FV. Mapas bioclimáticos de la República Mexicana. 1a. ed. México D. F: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana; 2014

[48] Köppen WP. Climatologia, con un estudio de los climas de la tierra. Mexico D.F: Mexico, Fondo de Cultura Economica; 1948

[49] Garcia E. Modificaciones al sistema de clasificacion climatica de Koppen. 2004th ed. Mexico D.F: Instituto de Geografia UNAM; 2004

[50] Carvalho W, Canilha L, Castro PF, Barbosa LDFO. Chemical composition of the sugarcane bagasse. In: Society for Industrial Microbiology, Editor. 31st Symp. Biotechnol. Fuels Chem. Society for Industrial Microbiology: San Francisco CA; 2015

[51] Luz SM, Gonçalves AR, Ferrão PMC, Freitas MJM, Leão AL, Del Arco AP Jr. Water absorption studies of vegetable fibers reinforced polypropylene composites. In: Proceeding of 6th Int. Symp. Nat. Polym. Compos. ISNaPol 6

and XI International Macromolecular Colloquium IMC 11. Gramado, RS Brazil: Associacao Brasileira de Polimeros (ABPol); 22-25 April, 2007. pp. 73-78

[52] Ramlee NA, Naveen J, Jawaid M. Potential of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) and sugarcane bagasse fibers for thermal insulation application – A review. Construction and Building Materials. 2021; **271**:121519. DOI: 10.1016/J.CONBUILD MAT.2020.121519

[53] Alavéz-Ramírez R, Chiñas-Castillo F, Morales-Domínguez VJ, Ortiz-Guzmán M, Caballero-Montes JL, Caballero-Caballero M. Thermal lag and decrement factor of constructive component reinforced mortar channels filled with soil–cement–sawdust. Indoor and Built Environment. 2018;**27**: 466-485. DOI: 10.1177/ 1420326X16676611

[54] Alavéz Ramírez R, Morales Domínguez VJ, Ortiz GM. Mortero a base de Olote, ceniza de bagazo de caña y cal como relleno ligero. 6to. Congr. Int. Virtual Innovación Tecnológica y Educ. Ediciones ILCSA S.A. de C.V: CIVITEC, Tijuana, Baja California, México; 2018

[55] Alavez-Ramirez R, Chiñas-Castillo F, Morales-Dominguez VJ, Ortiz-Guzman M. Thermal conductivity of coconut fibre filled ferrocement sandwich panels. Construction and Building Materials. 2012;**37**:425-431. DOI: 10.1016/j. conbuildmat.2012.07.053

[56] Belhadj B, Bederina M, Makhloufi Z, Goullieux A, Quéneudec M. Study of the thermal performances of an exterior wall of barley straw sand concrete in an arid environment. Energy and Buildings. 2015;**87**:166-175. DOI: 10.1016/j. enbuild.2014.11.034

[57] Roux-Gutiérrez RS, Velázquez LJ. Bloques de Tierra Comprimida, Su

Retardo Térmico e Impacto Ambiental. Rev Legado Arquit y Diseño. Mexico: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Mexico; 2016. pp. 1-13. ISSN: 2448-749X

[58] Gallegos-Ortega R, Magaña-Guzmán T, Reyes-López JA, Romero-Hernández MS. Thermal behavior of a straw bale building from data obtained in situ. A case in northwestern México. Building and Environment. 2017;**124**: 336-341. DOI: 10.1016/j. buildenv.2017.08.015

[59] Ruiz Torres RP. Evaluación del Sistema Termolosa entre la medición experimental y el calculado con la NMX-C-460-ONNCCE-2009. Vivienda y Comunidades Sustentables. 2019;**2019**: 119-136. DOI: 10.32870/rvcs.v0i6.126

[60] Borbón Almada AC, Alpuche Cruz MG, Miranda Pasos I, Marincic Lovriha I, Ochoa de la Torre JM. Materiales reciclados aligerados y su influencia en el consumo de energía eléctrica en viviendas económicas. Acta Univ. 2019;**29**:1-15. DOI: 10.15174/ au.2019.2096

[61] Rico Rodríguez I, Vargas Galarza Z, García Hernández E, Salgado Delgado R, Cárdenas Valdez RC, Olarte PA. Evaluación térmica de material compuesto de cemento portland reforzado con agregado fino de CBC y FO tratada con Silano. Ing Investig y Tecnol. 2020;**21**:1-11. DOI: 10.22201/ fi.25940732e.2020.21n1.001

## Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan

*Shahid Afghan, Muhammad Ehsan Khan, Waqas Raza Arshad, Karim Bukhsh Malik and Amin Nikpay*

## **Abstract**

Sugarcane is mainly cultivated in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, and nearly 85% of sugar is used worldwide. The area, production, and yield of sugarcane has been increased worldwide as well as in Pakistan as compared to other crops. It is the second largest economically important crop after cotton. It is a highvalue cash crop that has significance for sugar industries in Pakistan. It contributes about 0.6% to the GDP and 2.9% of the total value added in agriculture. It creates huge revenue for the government and is used as a source of energy/power. The climate of Pakistan is favorable for sugarcane production in Punjab and Sindh provinces. Different climatic factors, i.e., sunlight, temperature, germination, tillering, growth, humidity, dew, frost, hailstorm, windstorm, sunburn, and drought, significantly affect the production of sugarcane. Pakistan is a principal cane-growing country and stands at the fifth position in the area, sixth position in cane sugar production, and ninth largest sugar producer in the world. This chapter describes the economic importance, climate, and yield potential of sugarcane in Pakistan.

**Keywords:** economic significance, yield potential, sugarcane, Pakistan

## **1. Introduction**

Sugarcane is a globally significant crop as it provides nearly 85% of the sugar consumed worldwide. In recent years, the planting of sugarcane for the production of biofuels has expanded rapidly as cases of energy canes. The cultivation of sugarcane is one of the most important activities around the world due to their alimentary, environmental, social and economic implications, and potential productive diversification with coproducts and byproducts [1]. Sugarcane is a worldwide crop cultivated in more than 105 countries. From its very origin, in earlier times to its present-day production, sugarcane has played its role in improving the socioeconomic conditions of human society [2].

Previous trends have shown a tremendous increase in area under sugarcane production throughout the world. However, for 2019–2020, global sugar production is estimated to decline 3% to 1745 million tons while sugarcane was grown on 26.5 million ha. This diminution is attributed to the 5 million tons drop in India's production, resulting from lower area and expected yields. However, Brazil and India are essentially tied as top sugar-producing countries, while Pakistan occupies the fifth place [3].

It is mostly used as a food crop for the production of raw and refined sugar, *gur*, and *shakkar*. Sugarcane improvement has traditionally focused on sucrose-yield traits. In the future, energy canes with higher yields of fermentable sugars and fiber (bagasse) for biofuel and electricity applications will be developed [4]. Sugarcane has gained importance for its dietary value and its industrial utilization for several products. Its products and byproducts have revolutionized a native and international trade, and the crop production trends have played a dominant role in altering the economic and fiscal position of countries.

Its juice is used for making white sugar, brown sugar (*khand*), and jaggery (*gur*) [5, 6]. The sugarcane bagasse, a byproduct, is nowadays valued by producers from the sugar sector since it is presented as the main feedstock source for bioenergy and biofuel production. In Pakistan, almost 3.50 million metric tons of bagasse is consumed with an average recovery rate of 30%. Bagasse is conventionally recycled as confined energy in sugar factories, i.e., boiler steam is required to generate and drive the prime movers [7].

Bagasse is used for the production of compressed fiberboard, paper, plastics, and furfural. Owing to the high silicon content on sugarcane, bagasse can be used to produce silica, a valued material for industry and health products. Molasses are used in distilleries to manufacture ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, citric acid, etc. Sugarcane filter cake (press mud) has good potential as organic fertilizer [8].

## **2. Importance of sugarcane**

#### **2.1 Dietary value**

Sugar is used as a sweetener in many dishes of varying tastes, beverages, and pharmaceutical products. It is an important constituent of human diet, having a pleasant taste and a high calorific value of 387 per 100 grams [7]. Some fruits and vegetables also have some forms of sugar (**Table 1**), but it is not derived as a commercial product [10].

The trend of using low-calorie sweeteners (LCS) has now developed in some quarters. Among the low-energy sweeteners, saccharin is the oldest sweetener [11]. Sugarcane juice contains zero fat, cholesterol, fiber, and protein [11]. This is the healthiest and the most nutritious drink one can think of consuming [12]. The latest research showed that both sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) and LCS beverages were linked with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Sugar percent in different fruits has been presented in **Table 1** [12]. Some forms of sugar are produced from palm trees, sugar maple, sweet sorghum, maize, sugar beet, and sugarcane (**Table 2**) [2].

#### **2.2 Grower's prosperity**

Sugarcane is a high-value cash crop that has significance for sugar and sugarrelated industries in Pakistan. It contributes about 0.6% to the GDP and 2.9% of the total value added in agriculture and has brought prosperity to grower's community [14]. In areas of cane concentration, healthy socioeconomic change is witnessed, which has improved the living standard of growers. The dilemma is that farmers normally do not receive a fair market price for their sugar crop [15].

General problems faced by almost every farmer regarding sugarcane production are lack of irrigation water, nonavailability of improved varieties of sugarcane, high

## *Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*


#### **Table 1.**

*Sugar contents in different fruits.*


#### **Table 2.**

*Plants utilized for commercial sugar production.*

cost of inputs for land preparation, diseases, insect pest, weeds, and marketing problems [16]. The adversities faced by sugarcane farmers have been unequivocally portrayed by the multitude of protests organized by sugarcane farmers. Given the failure of the governments to resolve these issues, it is apparent that a different course of action needs to be taken to address the fundamental problem. We need to look beyond our conventional strategies.

In developing countries, the sugar factories delay the timely payments of sugarcane farmers. In view of millions of sugarcane farmers, the governments need to swiftly resolve the most pivotal issue before it further retrogrades. In return, governments mainly have two options. First, one is to pay back the dues to the farmers from the state treasury or provide subsidies to sugar factories. Either way, the government will have to shift the monetary burden to the taxpayers [5]. In the short run, given the obstinate demand of sugarcane farmers to receive their payment and the incapability of sugar factories to make the payments, this seems to be a plausible option.

## **2.3 Sugar industry of Pakistan**

A total of 89 sugar mills are operational [17]. Sugarcane cultivated on an area of 1.16 million ha during 2020–2021 [3]. On regional basis, Punjab's share in the total sugarcane


**Table 3.**

*Provincial distribution of sugarcane production in Pakistan in 2020.*

area of Pakistan was 65.7% followed by Sindh 26.8% and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) was 7.5%. The yield of sugarcane was increased from last five in 2020–2021; the highest yield was recorded 69.55 t/ha, while the maximum share in yield was of Punjab at 59.5 tons (**Table 3**).

The area under sugarcane in Pakistan has increased from 960,000 has in 2001–2002 to 1,040,000 ha in 2019–2020 with an annual growth rate of 1.0% [18]. The total increase in area, production, and per hectare yield during this period is around 26.7, 73.1, and 27.5% during the period [3].

#### **2.4 Labor and workforce**

Sugarcane is a source of employment for millions of people both at the farm sector and in sugar industry [19]. For example, in Pakistan, all most 15,000–25,000 families are involved in the sugarcane zone of one factory. Almost 980,000 farmers were engaged with sugarcane cultivation in Pakistan, out of which 707,000 farmers worked in Punjab, 200,000 in Sindh, and 81,000 in KPK. On average, 1200 employees working in a sugar mill with workforce of 106,800 individuals in the production and processing departments. Overall, around 4 million employees are engaged directly or indirectly in sugar business in Pakistan [20].

Owing to the lack of mechanical sugarcane farming (planting and harvesting) in Pakistan, innumerable workers are deployed in cane harvesting, transport, and loading and unloading of cane. The huge involvement of technicians in farm machinery with the transport system of tractors, trolleys, and trucks depicts the quantum of business in various sectors [5].

#### **2.5 Source of food fodder and fertilizer**

Sugarcane is used as a source of food and fodder. The press mud and fly ash products of sugar industry are high-valued organic fertilizers. Filter cake is used as fertilizer and used in brick kilns [21] also used with distillery effluent and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Some processors/factories have acquired certificates of halal and organic products like sugar/*gur*/*shakkar* [6]. The production of organic *gur* and *shakkar* is about 1000 tons having a business of around 300 million [6, 22].

#### **2.6 Government revenues**

In Pakistan, the revenue is derived in the form of general sale tax (GST) on the sale of sugar, which is 17% of the sugar price. A substantial amount is recovered as sugarcane Cess Fund @ Rs. 2.00 per maund of sugarcane, delivered to sugar mills. Land revenue and water rates, @ Rs. 400 per acre of cane, amount to billions of rupees per annum and is the direct source of income for the government. The excise duty on molasses and alcohol is also a big source of revenue for the government as well [23].

### **2.7 Source of energy/power**

Molasses, the main byproduct of the sugar industry, is utilized for the production of alcohol, rum, and as feed for livestock. Ethanol has now gained high importance as an energy product [24]. Sugarcane is used as feedstock for ethanol production and as biofuel in vehicles. The use of high-pressure steam boilers and efficient use of energy in the sugar factories has given new vistas of cogeneration from bagasse and trash to export surplus electric power to the national grid system [25]. The production of biogas from spent wash/vinasse fermentation is also a source of cheaper energy in distilleries [24, 25].

## **2.8 Industrial utilization**

Sugarcane occupies a prominent place for high biomass-fiber production and molasses. As a raw material, sugarcane has attained worldwide importance for dozens of industrial derivatives. The main byproducts of cane are molasses used for alcohol, bagasse utilized for energy production, cogeneration, the manufacture of particleboard, and filter press cake used as organic fertilizer [26].

In the present-day market economy, the profits derived from the manufacture of sugar are getting low, and more attention is paid to the manufacture of byproducts. Today, the focus is to adopt sugar production technology to yield energy-based coproducts, ethanol, and electricity. Cane acreage fluctuates depending upon market forces, socioeconomic conditions, and crop competitions [24].

## **3. Cane yields on the global level**

On the global level, sugarcane is grown in 105 countries located in equatorial, tropical, and subtropical regions. Cane area, production, and yields of principal cane-growing countries are shown in **Table 4**. The world data show that during 2020, sugarcane was grown on an area of 25.98 million hectares with a cane yield of 70.9 tons per hectare (t/ha). Concerning area, Brazil occupies the leading position by growing cane in an area of 10.18 million hectares followed by India, China, Thailand, and Pakistan growing cane in an area of 4.39, 1.38, 1.37, and 1.22 million hectares, respectively [28].

During the midst of the twentieth century world, the average yield was hardly 42.5 t/ha, which has now increased to 70.9 t/ha. During 1950–1953 period, principal cane-growing countries, Brazil, India, China, and Thailand, had the cane yields of 38.7, 32.1, 35.2, and 17.5 t/ha, respectively, much below the world average. During five decades of progressive development, Brazil, China, and Thailand improved their yields to a level of 74.5, 76.1, and 75.2 t/ha, respectively, which exceeds the world average of 70.9 t/ha. Still, there are countries with an average yield of 121.0 tons per hectare (Guatemala) and 112.7 tons per hectare (Egypt) as shown in **Table 5** [30].

Pakistan grasps an important position in cane area and production in the world and ranks on top fifth position, but with respect to cane yield (69.55 t/ha), it ranks


#### **Table 4.**

*Growth in area and yields of cane in cane-growing provinces of Pakistan from 1947 to 1950 to 2020–2021.*


*Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*


#### **Table 5.**

*Sugarcane area, production, and yields of top 20 cane-growing countries during 2017.*

much below the principal cane-growing countries [31]. Compared with other countries, it appears that Pakistan took a late start to meet yield gaps. Even India has touched 70 t/ha, while Pakistan has yet to travel a lot to reach this yield level.

The highest cane yield of 121.01 t/ha is reported in Guatemala, followed by 112.70 t/ ha in Egypt. Among the top 20 cane-growing countries are Colombia (87.16 t/ha), the USA (82.41 t/ha), and Australia (80.62 t/ha), while China, Thailand, Brazil, and Mexico have exceeded 70 tons in yield [28]. Pakistan has just 60 tons against about 70 tons yield of India. Though Pakistan stands at the fifth position in cane area and production in the world it has to travel a lot in the compatible field of yields per hectare.

## **4. Effect of latitude**

The data in **Table 6** indicate that world's largest cane area is located in South America (44.5%), closely followed by Asia (40.3%). The continents of North America, Africa, and Oceania grow cane in a small fraction of 8.85, 8.91, and 1.82%



#### **Table 6.**

*Cane area (thousand ha) and cane yield (t/ha) of various continents located in different latitude ranges, during 2017.*

area, respectively. The maximum cane area (55%) falls in countries situated in latitude ranges of 10–20° N or S. The countries in latitude ranges of 0–10°, 20–25°, and 25–35° grow 10.5, 16.5, and 19.5% of the total world cane average, respectively. The continent of Asia has a relatively higher proportion of cane grown in 25–35° latitudes, South America in 10–20°, while cane area in North America and Oceania mostly fall in latitude ranges of 20–25°.

The latitudes have a great impact on cane yields. The highest cane yields are observed in Latitude ranges of 0°–20° (70.0–71.7 t/ha) followed by 20°–25° (65.9 t/ ha) and 25°–35° (64.9 t/ha). It indicates that as we go away from the equator, there is a gradual decline in cane yields. With respect to overall global cane yields, North America and South America have the highest yield of 74.7 t/ha and is closely followed by Oceania (73.4 t/ha), while the yields of Asia (64.7 t/ha), Africa (54.7 t/ha), and Europe (27.o t/ha) are considerably low. The latitude range of 10°–25° is considered the most favorable for cane production.

## **5. Correlation of latitude with cane yields and juice quality**

#### **5.1 Cane yield**

On the global level, the effect of latitude on cane yields is well marked [33]. The yield level toward the equator is high, and as the cane growing is shifted away from the equator, yields show a gradual decline [34]. The survey of the global area indicates some very interesting climatic features of countries lying in favorable climatic zones but having very low yields [34] (**Table 7**).

In present-day agriculture, the word "favorable climate" has been replaced by "favorable environment" [8, 34]. High yields of cane and sugar are obtained under such dry environments where satisfactory soil water balance can be achieved by irrigation water under optimum soil and crop management practices [12, 13]. The sugarcane varieties have been developed, which owing to their great adaptability can be cultivated under a wide range of climate and soil conditions [16]. The cultivation of


## *Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*


**Table 7.**

*Sugarcane area and yields of various districts in Punjab, Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, during 2017–2018.*


#### **Table 8.**

*Sugar recovery trends in sugar mills of Sindh, Punjab, and KPK during 1947–2020.*

sugarcane is, therefore, spread in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions between latitude ranges of 0° and 37° N and S. World data indicate that the best cane-producing areas in Asia are situated in 25°–35° latitude [35]. On a global level as well, after 10°–20° latitude, 25°–35° latitude region produces the maximum cane in the world (**Table 8**).

## **5.2 Cane quality**

Lower latitudes assure longer days with increased sunshine duration during the growth phases of the plant. As such, high sucrose contents in cane are noted at around

### *Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*

18°S and 18°N. Sugar contents drop rapidly from these latitudes toward the subtropics and less rapidly toward the equator.

High sugar recoveries demand relative temperature disparity (RTD) value around 14–16°C, low daily mean temperature 10–12°C, and low relative humidity (<50%), during ripening [36]. The wider range between a day (maximum) and night (minimum) temperature during ripening results in higher sucrose contents [37]. High altitudes of 1000 mm or more within equatorial climates and low altitudes of subtropics also produce good-quality cane [38, 39]. Tropical countries or regions with high average temperature (25–27°C) and high precipitation of more than 1500 mm produce more biomass of cane, but it is of low sugar contents. In tropical areas where the weathers are distinctly wet and dry, moisture status inside the cane is a dominating factor in the synthesis and translocation of sugars. Under such conditions, control on irrigation and fertilizer is exercised to hasten or delay the maturity [40]. In modern agriculture, high sucrose content is achieved irrespective of latitude, in regions of low precipitation of both tropics and subtropics, if optimum soil and crop water balance have been achieved by human control. The climatic features have distinct behavior on plant growth and maturity phases:


## **6. Climatic factors with effects**

The change in weather factors, such as sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity, and solar radiation, affects the different phases of growth, maturity, and ripening phases of the plant [41].

### **6.1 Sunlight**

Sunlight is used as photoperiod to regulate various growth processes in vegetative phase and for flowering. The sugarcane yield is governed by:


For sugarcane, the desirable locations with respect to light availability are within 30°N or °S, and more so on tropical latitude ranges. Crops having high yield and great potential need longer time span with greater light. For the best yield, 18 months are preferred as compared to 12 months [41]. Tillering is badly affected in long hazy season. For good tillering, excessive light is required; if plants grow to close in, light is curtailed that causes tiller mortality.

#### **6.2 Temperature**

Sugarcane crop might be exposed to scorching heat with a maximum mean temperature of 40–42°C reaching to the highest maximum of 48–50°C in Pakistan, India, and other countries. A little deviation was observed in maximum and minimum temperature during summer and winter months in tropical and equatorial climates, except on mountain heights or regions under the influence of cold or hot sea currents.

#### **6.3 Germination**

Germination estimates revealed that in Pakistan, the optimum temperature range was 28–33°C [42]. Germination is accelerated in the temperature range of 26–33°C, is sensitive at 22°C, and is decreased at 18°C and below. The range 32–38°C is reported to be the optimum temperature for germination.

In Pakistan, September and March considered the ideal conditions for good germination. When the temperature is above 25°C, the maximum germination of almost 75% was obtained within 20–25 days of cane planting. In February and March, temperature is somewhat lower and takes 4 or 5 weeks for complete germination. Rains may extend the germination period [43].

#### **6.4 Tillering**

In sugarcane, tillering is noticeably correlated with temperature. Tillering gradually increases with increasing temperature until the maximum is reached somewhere around 30°C.

#### **6.5 Growth**

Temperature is considered the chief growth-monitoring factor. The range 26–27°C is the ideal temperature for optimum growth; growth is checked at 10°C and 27°C is optimum for both growth and nutrient absorption [40]. The critical temperature for cane growth is 8–20°C [11, 37] and below 12°C, growth ceases; if it is less than 5°C, the leaves become pink [11, 37]. Canopy development is governed by the prevalence of moderate temperature between 21°C and 38°C with a relative humidity of 50% [44]. At a temperature of 35°C, the decrease in growth rate is due to an increase in photorespiration [4]. Cane is found to thrive at temperatures as high as 45°C in Pakistan.

The lower leaves die and the upper leaves show a yellow-green appearance. 27°C is the optimum temperature for growth and nutrient absorption [45]. A seven-fold decrease in phosphorus uptake was noticed as the temperature decreased from 22.1°C to 16.7°C [45]. A drop in root temperature from 23–19°C cuts phosphorus intake to one-third and reduces nitrogen intake to about one-half [45].

#### **6.6 Maturity and ripening**

Large differences between day and night temperatures favor the process. The range 10–12°C is considered the minimum temperature for ripening [46]. However, the ripening process is accelerated with the drop in humidity in the environment and leaf moisture in the plant [1]. To hasten the ripening process, mild drought conditions may be created by withholding irrigation.

With respect to sugar contents in cane, this process needs further clarification. Low temperature and moderate water deficit associated with nitrogen deficit are the

#### *Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*

most important ripening agents [47]. Some authors propose that in addition to air temperature and soil moisture, the variables such as photoperiod and solar radiation must also be considered [28]. Cloudy days are limiting factors for sucrose accumulation in plants. Solar radiation is directly related to sugar ripening. The factors such as air temperature, precipitation, and cloud-free bright shining days increase the time period available for photosynthesis [48]. A temperature of 20–250°C during the day and 10–14°C during the night, associated with bright sunny days with low humidity, are ideal for sucrose synthesis and accumulation in leaves.

## **6.7 Humidity**

The growth of cane crops depends upon atmospheric humidity and proper soil moisture. High humidity for a long duration may inhibit evapotranspiration and affect growth. High humidity causes infection of some viral and fungal diseases. Evapotranspiration rate increases with high temperature and low humidity to balance the water stability in the plant, thus hindering growth, and may also increase the sensitivity of sugarcane to some sap-sacking pests such as mites. A positive correlation has been found between the rate of cane elongation and rainfall. The distribution of rainfall is more important than total rainfall, and light showers are more beneficial than heavy rains. Water needs of plants shower influence cane growth through moisture absorption by leaves, raising atmospheric humidity and keeping the leaves' surfaces clean for optimum transpiration and respiration. Moderate rainfall of 750–1000 mm supplemented by sufficient and timely irrigation is considered best for healthy crop growth. As already discussed, the ripening period demands moderate moisture stress.

## **6.8 Dew**

Dew deposits on leaf surfaces help in foliar absorption of moisture. It also delays the rise in leaf temperature and, thus, reduces the rate of evapotranspiration. Dew deposit is estimated to be 0.25–0.40 mm per night with a total of 25–30 mm per annum. Thus, dew deposits help to mitigate the severity of water stress to a certain degree in moisture stress areas.

## **7. Sugarcane agro-climatic zones with yield and production potential in Pakistan**

Pakistan with cane sugar production of 70 million tons during 2016–2017, ranked fifth in the world [49]. As influenced by climatic conditions and cane/sugar marketing trends, cane production varies from year to year.

The sugar industry has developed a daily cane-crushing capacity of 567,920 tons for 125-day crushing duration [19]. The Pakistan sugar industry attained a sugar recovery level of 10.47%, during 2018–2019. Considering further propagation of quality cane varieties, it is not far to achieve an average sugar recovery of 11.0% [10].

As for cane production, so far average yield is just 64.30 tons per hectare; nevertheless, some of the districts of Punjab and Sindh have achieved an average cane yield of 82 tons per hectare [14]. Improved production technology and inputs need to be further mobilized to enhance national yield to 70 tons per hectare and then to plan for 75 tons. However, sugarcane cultivation is confined in part of coastal areas and plains, and plains of river Indus and adjoining rivers in Sindh, Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces [50].

It means with better inputs and management practices, average cane yields in Pakistan can be increased to 75 tons per hectare. In the present scenario, if the interest of millers prevails with somewhat more investment in cane yield maximization campaigns, 70 tons per hectare should be the national goal for Pakistan, and this would need extraordinary efforts.

#### **7.1 Punjab**

Punjab has very hot summer and very cold winter. Hot season starts by the month of April and continuous till August. The temperature is the highest (48–50°C) in extreme periods from May to July, with a mean maximum range of 37–42°C and a mean minimum range of 23–28°C for the corresponding period. During winter, the mean minimum range of 4–6°C is observed associated with occasional mild frost. Climate is more extreme in southwest regions in Multan and Khanpur zones. In monsoon season (Mid or late June), two-thirds of rainfall was received. The rainfall pattern of upper Punjab is higher and declines gradually toward central and southern Punjab [51]. Dera Ghazi Khan (D. G. Khan) is also situated in the dry region of the Northwest zone of Pakistan. Atmospheric humidity was low almost 33–40% during summer and 55–65% during winter due to low precipitation.

The cane area is concentrated in Faisalabad, Bahawalpur, Dera Ghazi, and Sargodha Divisions. The cane yields of Punjab have gradually increased to 64 t/h. However, within the province, average yields of 75 and 71 tons per hectare are obtained in Bahawalpur and D. G. Khan divisions, respectively. The average yield of Rajanpur District is reported to be 82 t/h, while the yield of R. Y. Khan is 77 t/h. The highest yield of 82.09 tons per hectare was obtained in Rajanpur district, followed by 77.75 tons per hectare recorded in R. Y. Khan district. The yield of districts located in Bahawalpur, D. G. Khan, and part of Faisalabad divisions are between 60 and 70 tons per hectare. In the rest of the districts, yields vary between 50 and 60 tons per hectare.

#### **7.2 Sindh**

Sindh is divided into two zones. The lower Sindh constitute Hyderabad and Mirpur Khas divisions, which are bordered by Arabian Sea coast. Compared with other regions, daily mean temperatures are relatively higher in winter and lower in summer, and the monthly mean shows lesser variability in maximum and minimum temperature. During May and June months, the mean maximum is higher (40–42°C), but the mean minimum (26–28°C) is favorable for growth and maturity phases.

In Badin and Thatta districts, temperature is relatively milder with cloudy weather during May–July. Coastal winds higher the humidity level as annual rainfall in Hyderabad (178 mm) and Badin (222 mm) districts is very low. Low relative humidity (46–66%) and mild mean minimum temperatures (8–16°C) free from frost during ripening are favorable for good sugar recoveries [16].

The upper Sindh, including Sukkur and Larkana divisions, is much away from the influence of coastal climate. The summer and winter months experience extreme weather with extremely low rainfall (88.2 mm). During summer, relative temperature is higher compared to lower Sindh, as such crops are subject to moisture stress. Stress conditions in Sukkur division are mitigated by better soil, crop, and water management practices. The yield of Sukkur division is the highest, around 75 t/ha, in Sindh followed by 67 t/ha in Benazir Abad. Larkana faces poor soils and more waterlogging; hence, yields of Larkana are much low. Climatically, the lower Sindh,

#### *Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*

including Bhanbore division, is close to the coast and should be more conducive to cane production than the central and upper Sindh areas. In fact, owing to higher cane and sugar yields, the cane fields of Thatta and Badin districts with part of Hyderabad and Mirpurkhas were declared the sugar land of Pakistan [16].

The highest yield of 82.7 tons per hectare was recorded in Ghotki district; Larkana and Nawabshah showed cane yields of around 69 tons per hectare. Eight districts showed a yield between 60 and 68 tons per hectare, while yields of the rest of the districts range between 40 and 60 tons per hectare. It may be noted with great concern that yields of districts Thatta and Badeen in the coastal area of lower Sindh have dropped down to 59.3 and 46.5 tons, respectively [16]. This is attributed to waterlogging with a large area under rice crop and fish farms.

### **7.3 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa**

The province faces extreme climate during summer and winter months with mean maximum and minimum temperature ranges of 36–41°C and 4–5°C, respectively. Dera Ismail Khan (D. I. Khan) considered hot weather in summer with 271-mm rainfall annually, and Peshawar division considered cold weather in winter with 404-mm rainfall. Both the zones have a huge difference in rainfall patterns. This region has very low humidity and a higher RTD factor since there is no favorable effect on cane growth. The mean minimum temperature is low 4–5°C, and frosts are of common occurrence in the area [52].

Sugarcane is concentrated in Dera Ismail Khan, Peshawar, and Mardan divisions [52]. The cane yield of the province is hardly around 51 t/ha. However, Dera Ismail khan has attained a good position in cane yields (61.27 t/ha). D. I. Khan district is leading in cane yield with 62 t/ha. All of the remaining districts have yields lesser than 51 t/ha.

## **8. Cane area and production**

Pakistan is a leading cane-growing country and ranks fifth in cane area and its production in the world. During the initial stage of the creation of Pakistan in 1947–1950, the cane was grown on an area of 201,900 hectares, and here, most of the cane was planted in Punjab (149,300 ha), a little in KPK (44,800 ha), and quite negligible in Sindh (7830 ha). There was one sugar factory in KPK and one very small factory in Punjab. Cane was mostly grown for cottage industry to produce *gur*, *shakkar,* and *khand* and only 2% of total cane production was utilized for white sugar production [6]. During the past seven decades, gradual expansion in sugar industry was associated with spontaneous expansion in the area under cane reaching to 1.039 million hectares, during 2020–2021 [29]. The decade-wise development in the area with cane yields during 1947–1950 to 2020–2021 period in cane-growing provinces of Pakistan is reproduced in **Table 4**.

**Table 4** also indicates that in the initial periods of Pakistan existence (1950–1960), cane yields were around 26–33 tons per hectare. For the following 40 years (1960–1990), cane yields were oscillating just between 33 and 42 tons per hectare. Nevertheless, after 1990, cane yield started taking a boost with a gradual rise to 69.55 tons per hectare during 2020–2021. The Sindh province has even touched 65.56 tons per hectare during 2020–2021, while Punjab reached a level of 73.36 tons per hectare during 2020–2021. However, yields of KPK are still static, around 52.38 t/ha [52].

Medium and small farmers, those who own 2–10 acres of land, have a little flexibility to grow rice in addition to sugarcane. These farmers can purchase sugarcane inputs from private sources. Their primary concern is the timely availability of

extension services from the public sector [1]. Increasing the share of sugarcane in these farmers' crop portfolios is the main goal of sugar mills.

Fast expansion in the sugar industry created competition in cane procurement that persuaded millers to initiate development activities in mills zones. A number of sugar mills invested in seed propagation of new cane varieties, fertilizers, and plant protection measures with technical guidance to growers [15, 19].

## **9. Sugarcane industry**

Initially, cane was grown just to meet "*gur*," "*shakkar*," and "*khandsari"* demands of the local market and household needs [5]. With the creation of Pakistan in 1947, only two sugar mills (one in Sindh and one in Punjab) were operational. Resultantly, after every 10 years' period of span, we find a group of new sugar mills, scattered all around the cane-growing regions. At present, there are 89 sugar mills in operation, including 45 in Punjab, 38 in Sindh, and six in KPK.

In the initial period of industrial development, sugar mills installed crushing capacities were hardly around 1500–4000 tons' cane daily, but now daily canecrushing capacities of sugar mills range from 12,000 to more or less 24,000 tons. The magnitude of the sugar industry expansion may be realized from the fact that during 1947–1950, the sugar mills had a crushing capacity of just 2800 tons of cane daily, while the daily cane-crushing capacity of the present-day sugar industry is around 590,000 tons, for 120-day crushing duration. Pakistan sugar industry has passed through different phases of development [19]. In its initial stage, almost all the cane was crushed in a local crusher for "*gur*," "*shakkar,"* and "*khandsari*" production [6]. Only 2% of total cane production was utilized for white sugar manufacture in two small factories. Gradually, the sugar industry expanded to the extent that 95% of Sindh, 67% of Punjab, and 67% of KPK cane production were crushed in sugar mills [19]. In KPK, there is more trend of "*gur"* usage, and two sugar mills have been closed due to the nonavailability of cane for sugar mills [6].

## **10. Cane-crushing duration**

In the earlier period of industrial development, while the crushing capacities of sugar factories were around 1500–4000 TCD, sugar mills operated for 180–240 days a year even at 3.5–5% recoveries in summer months. Mills used to start sometimes in October and continued crushing till June. Now, we find that sugar mills with usual crushing capacities of 8000–12,000 TCD still have several factories with 18,000– 24,000 TCD. These days, cane is sufficient enough to complete crushing in a period of 120–135 days. The objective is to complete the crushing of cane during the period of its peak maturity. Nevertheless, Cane Act allows a crushing period of 1st November to 15th March for 160 days. While finalizing the crushing duration and especially the start of the crushing season, sugar recovery is of prime consideration.

## **11. Sugar recoveries**

Sugar contents in cane play a leading role in regulating the economic viability of a sugar mill; in usual terms, it is indicated by "sugar recovery." It is the amount of sugar recovered per quintal (100 kg) of cane crushed in a sugar factory. It is affected by a

number of factors in the environment, field, and factory [53, 54]. The matter has been discussed at length in the text; however, important ones are listed hereunder.

## **11.1 Factors affecting sugar recoveries**

## *11.1.1 Cane varieties*

Cane varieties have a dominant role in improving sugar mills recoveries. Highsugar-yielding varieties need to be grown, and preference should be given to early maturing varieties having high sugar contents.

## *11.1.2 Improving agronomic conditions*

Improving agronomic conditions have a significant role in improving sugar mills recoveries. Following are some agronomic conditions that improve the sugar recovery of cane varieties.


## *11.1.3 Natural calamities*

Measures should be taken to save the crop from drought and frost.

## *11.1.4 Crop harvest strategies*

Crop harvest schedule according to crop maturity and maturity period of cane varieties. Cane harvest according to the crushing capacity of sugar mills and milling operation to be regular and consistent. Cane stalks to be free of trash/extraneous matter; cane staling must be avoided.

## *11.1.5 Sugar factory milling and processing*

All possible measures are to be taken to reduce sugar recovery losses during various milling and processing operations. The Pakistan sugar industry, during 65 years of development, has expanded from two small factories in 1947 to 89 sugar mills in

2016–2017. The first phase of 35–40 years is not much appreciable with respect to sugar recoveries attained in the factories. The sugar recoveries in Sindh province, due to its relatively favorable climate and somewhat better sugar varieties, have been observed at a little over 9%.

However, in Punjab, the major cane-producing area, the sugar recoveries have been oscillating between 8 and 8.5% up to the year 2000 [55]. The same is true for KPK province (**Table 8**).

The sugar industry has now a good number of quality varieties, including BL4, Thatta10, CP77-400, Nia 2004, NIA 2011, HS12, SPF234, CPF 237, CPF246, CPF 249, CPF 250, CPF 252, CPF 253, SG 676, Th 2109, and Th 326. These varieties have a sugar recovery range of 9.5–12.5%.

Resultantly, after the year 2010, the Pakistan sugar industry shows a progressive rise in its sugar recoveries, which have reached an average level of 9.61% during 2020–2021 (**Table 8**).

## **12. Conclusion**

Sugarcane is the second most economically important crop of Pakistan after cotton. The data presented in this chapter showed that with the passage of time, the area, production, yield, and sugar recovery of sugarcane are increased greatly. However, in Pakistan, sugarcane is mostly used as multiple sources of food, fodder, and fertilizer as well as in many beverages as sweetener. A large number of people are involved with the sugar industry of Pakistan, thus creating human resource and work force for the country. The sugar industry of Pakistan earns huge revenue for the government. As for climatic conditions, Pakistan climate suits for its cultivation especially in Punjab, Sindh, and KPK provinces. In Punjab, Rajanpur and Rahim Yar Khan are the best suitable areas for sugarcane cultivation, while Sindh Ghotki and Thatta districts are the best suitable areas for sugarcane cultivation. In KPK, D. I. Khan and Murdan districts have the highest production. Sugar industry is gradually improving its status regarding its sugar recovery level. While checking the sugarcane varieties being grown and crushed in the factory, there appears a direct relationship between the cane varieties and the sugar recovery of the mills. The sugar mills having a large area under high sugar varieties would depict much better recoveries than the mills crushing a large percentage of low-quality cane. It is a matter of programming to harvest and crush cane according to its maturity, varietal combination matters much. The sugar industry of Pakistan needs a series of new varieties in the channel; for that matter, there should be a close liaison between the research institutes and the sugar industry for the betterment of sugarcane crop.

*Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*

## **Author details**

Shahid Afghan1 , Muhammad Ehsan Khan1 \*, Waqas Raza Arshad1 , Karim Bukhsh Malik<sup>2</sup> and Amin Nikpay3

1 Sugarcane Research and Development Board, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan

2 Sugarcane Research Institute, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan

3 Department of Plant Protection, Sugarcane and By-Products Development Company, Salman Farsi Agro-Industry, Ahwaz, Iran

\*Address all correspondence to: ehsankhanuaf@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Corcoran SG, Hashemi M, Sadeghpour A, Jahanzad E, Keshavarz RA, Liu X, et al. Understanding intercropping to improve agricultural resiliency and environmental sustainability. In: Sparks DL, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Vol. 162. Academic Press; 2020. pp. 199-256

[2] Qureshi S. Significance of sugar industry in National Economy. Econ. & Socl. Rev. 2004;**2**:17-21

[3] Annual Report of Pakistan Sugar Mills Association. Islamabad; 2020-21

[4] Chu CC, Kong L. Photo-respiration of sugarcane. Taiwan sugar Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept. 1971:1-14

[5] Qureshi MA, Afghan S. Sugarcane Cultivation in Pakistan. Pakistan Sugar Book. Karachi, Pakistan: Pakistan Society of Sugar Technologists; 2005

[6] Raza HA, Amir RM, Wudil AH, Usman S, Shoaib M, Ejaz R, et al. Economic analysis of jaggery (Gur) production in Tehsil Shakargar. Journal of Global Innovation in Agriculture and Social Sciences. 2018;**6**(2):69-73

[7] Dotaniya ML. Role of Bagasse and Press Mud in Phosphorus Dynamics. 1st ed. Germany: Lap Lambert Academic Publisher; 2014

[8] Prasannamedha G, Kumar PS, Mehala R, Sharumitha TJ, Surendhar D. Enhanced adsorptive removal of sulfamethoxazole from water using biochar derived from hydrothermal carbonization of sugarcane bagasse. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2020;**407**:124825. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat. 2020.124825

[9] Fuhr. High or Low? The Sugar in Your Favorite Fruits. 2016. Available from: https://www.popsugar.com/fitness/ Sugar-Content-Fruit-20134844

[10] Fahim MG. Study on yield and some agronomic traits of promising genotypes and lines of bread wheat through principal component analysis. Journal of Biological and Environmental Sciences. 2014;**2**:443-446

[11] Drewnowski A, France B. Liquid calories, sugar, and body weight. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2007;**2007**(85):651-661

[12] Chinnadurai C. Potential health benefits of sugarcane. In: Sugarcane Biotechnology: Challenges and Prospects 1-12. Springer International Publishing; 2017. pp. 1-12. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-58946-6\_1

[13] Sahari J, Sapuan SM, Zainudin ES, Maleque MA. Physico-Chemical and Thermal Properties of Starch Derived from Sugar Palm Tree (Arenga pinnata). Asian Journal of Chemistry. 2014;**26**(4):955-959

[14] GOP. Pakistan Economic Survey (2019-20). Islamabad, Pakistan: Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan; 2019. pp. 27-34

[15] Raza HA, Amir RM, Saghir A, Tahir M. Sugarcane production and protection constraints faced by the growers of Punjab, Pakistan with special focus on the role of agricultural extension worker in related mitigation. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2020;**57**(6):1681-1688

[16] Qureshi A, Sarwar PG, McCornick AS, Sharma BR. Challenges and prospects of sustainable

*Economic Importance and Yield Potential of Sugarcane in Pakistan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105517*

groundwater management in the Indus Basin. Pakistan. Water Resources Management. 2010;**24**(8):1551-1569

[17] Annual Report of Pakistan Metrological Department. Islamabad, Pakistan. 2019

[18] GOP. Pakistan Economic Survey (2020-21). Islamabad, Pakistan: Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan; 2020. pp. 27-34

[19] Iqbal MA, Iqbal A. Sugarcane production, economics and industry in Pakistan. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences. 2014;**14**(12):1470-1477

[20] Malik KB. Agricultural and Industrial Aspects of Sugarcane Production. Lahore Pakistan: Al Madina Printers; 2018

[21] Nasir NM, Afghan S, Qureshi SA. Utilization of bio-compost produced from filter cake and stillage at Shakarganj sugar research institute, Jhang. Pakistan Sugar Journal. 1994;**8**:21-26

[22] Annual report of Shakarjang Sugar Mills, Jhang

[23] Usman M. Contribution of agriculture sector in the GDP growth rate of Pakistan. Journal of Global Economy. 2016;**4**(2):184-187

[24] Sugarcane Handbook. 2017. Shakarganj Sugar Mills Limited Jhang Pakistan

[25] Yasar A, Ali A, Tabinda AB, Tahir A. Waste to energy analysis of shakarganj sugar mills; biogas production from the spent wash for electricity generation. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2015;**43**:126-132

[26] Pakistan Agricultural Research Council. Sugarcane Crop in Pakistan, PARC, Islamabad. 2018. Available from: http://edu.par.com.pk/ wiki/sugarcane/

[27] Bhutta E, Ilyas M, Usman M. The need for transforming agriculture produce markets: Evidence from Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2019;**56**(3):767-773

[28] Legendre BL, Martin FA. Ripening studies with Glyphosine in Louisiana sugarcane. Proceedings of American Society of Sugar Cane Technologists. 1977;**6**:62-64

[29] Annual Report of Pakistan Sugar Mills Association. Islamabad; 2016-17

[30] Luo J, Pan YB, Xu L, Grisham MP, Zhang H, Zhang H, et al. Rational regional distribution of sugarcane cultivars in China. Scientific Reports. 2015;**5**:15721

[31] Muhammad IT, Mohammad IJ, Iftekhar N, Naeem A, Abid M. A face for enhancing cane & sugar yield in Pakistan. Global Scientific Journal. 2019;**7**(3):670-686

[32] FAO. World Food and Agriculture— Statistical Yearbook 2017. Rome: FAO; 2017. DOI: 10.4060/cb1329en

[33] Marin FR, Edreira JIR, Andrade J, Grassini P. On-farm sugarcane yield and yield components as influenced by number of harvests. Field Crops Research. 2019;**240**(1):134-142

[34] Mendelsohn R. The impact of climate change on agriculture in Asia. Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 2014;**13**:660-665

[35] Kurukulasuriya P, Mendelsohn R, Hassan R, Benin J, Deressa T, Diop M, et al. Will African agriculture survive climate change? World Bank Economic Review. 2006;**20**:367-388

[36] Naoko U, Haruto S, Naohiro & Ryu O. Effects of the temperature

lowered in the daytime and night-time on sugar accumulation in sugarcane. Plant Production Science. 2009;**12**(4):420-427

[37] Das UK. Cane breeding in Coimbatore. Hawaiian Plant. Record. 1941;**45**:97-120

[38] Ali S, Liu Y, Ishaq M, Shah T, Ilyas A, Din IU. Climate change and its impact on the yield of major food crops: Evidence from Pakistan. Food. 2017;**6**(6):39

[39] FAO. World Food and Agriculture— Statistical Yearbook 2020. Rome: FAO; 2020. DOI: 10.4060/cb1329en

[40] Humbert RP. The Growing of Sugarcane. Amesterdam, London, NewYork: Elsevier Publishing Co.; 1968

[41] Hussain S, Khaliq A, Mehmood U, Qadir T, Saqib M, Iqbal MA, et al. Sugarcane production under changing climate: Effects of environmental vulnerabilities on sugarcane diseases, insects and weeds. Climate Change and Agriculture. 2018. DOI: 10.5772/ intechopen.81131

[42] Biswass BC. Agroclimatology of the Sugarcane Crop (Technical Note N0: 193). Geneva, Switzerland: Secretariat of the world Meteorological Organization; 1988

[43] Afghan S, Jamil M. Climate change impact on sugar industry of Pakistan— An overview. Annual Convention. Pakistan Society of Sugar Technologists. 2013;**24**:7-14

[44] Kakade JR. Agricultural Climatology. New Delhi: Metropolitan Book. Co.; 1985

[45] Burr GO. The sugarcane plant. Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 1957;**8**:257-308

[46] Parthasarathy SV. Sugarcane in India. Mardras, India: K. C. P. Publishers; 1972

[47] Alexander AG. Sugarcane Physiology. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1973. pp. 399-485

[48] Cardoza NP, Sentelhas PE. Climatic effect on sugarcane ripening under the influence of cultivars and crop age. Science in Agriculture. 1973;**70**(6):449-456

[49] Afghan S, Shahzad A, Comstock JC, Zhao D, Ali A. Registration of 'CPSG-3481' sugarcane. Journal of Plant Registrations. 2016;**10**:124-129

[50] Shakoor U, Saboor A, Ali I, Mohsin AQ. Impact of climate change on agriculture: Empirical evidence from arid region. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2011;**48**(4):327-333

[51] Annual Program of Research Work. Sugarcane Research Institute. Faisalabad: Ayub Agricultural Research Institute; 2018

[52] Khan AQ, Muhammad I, Fahad I. An assessment of main problems faced by farming community in sugarcane production of district Peshawar. International Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development. 2016;**3**(1):149-155

[53] Aslam C, Waqas M, Ahmad R, Khaliq A, Ahmad R. Improving the productivity and sugar recovery of cane by potash nutrition under different planting methods. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2019;**55**(3):557-566

[54] Babu SC. Private sector extension with input supply and output aggregation: Case of sugarcane production system with EID-Parry in India. In: Zhou Y, Babu SC, editors. Knowledge Driven Development: Private Extension and Global Lessons. London, UK: Academic Press; 2015. pp. 73-90

[55] Afghan S, Hussnain Z. Clonal evolution program at Shakarganj sugar research institute, Jhang. Pakistan Sugar Journal. 2000;**25**(6):76-97

## **Chapter 5**
