Sugarcane Cultivation and Response to Abiotic Stresses

## **Chapter 6**

## The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco

*Mounia Elhaddadi*

## **Abstract**

A special report had been achieved in the GHARB region of Morocco; known as a large plain with abundant pure water sources especially rivers such as the SEBOU permanent river and others, very heavy clay soil sometimes so dark, and a Mediterranean climate; those conditions ameliorate the rate of agricultural activities including unique ones such as Sugar cane/Rice/Tobacco, etc. Sugar cane plays a crucial role in the population's lifestyle's amelioration and stability by improving their social and economic conditions besides sustainable development. The report that designed four categories of population afterward chose one best representative of each category to interrogate. The analysis of the statements showed similarities with universal values harvested from sugar cane cultivation in addition to unique ones related to the unicity of the geographic, cultural, and demographic data.

**Keywords:** sugar cane, Gharb, Cosumar, agriculture, Morocco, peasant, sustainable development

## **1. Introduction**

Sugar cane is a special plant in a large zone of the southern EARTH, relating to its nutritional value especially carbohydrates, and its socioeconomical role that covers securing jobs and using its products as alternative solutions for construction, energy even daily activities material.

We used the exploratory method to discover the development and sustainability that the sugar cane cultivation brings to the lives of people in the GHARB region of Morocco, based on our own method we name: targeted reporting; the method that categorizes the population according to its potential impact on the subject and chooses the best representative who has knowledge and expertise that touch the top. Four categories were detected: ancient peasants-ancient workers-History witnesses-New workers. Four persons to allocate an interesting amount of affirmations leading to an adaptive briefing on the topic.

How was the selection of participants managed ? And what is the size of the statement added by their testimony ? Is sugar cane cultivation considered a major contributor to moving the wheel of the economy and sustainable development ?

On one side, Sugar cane cultivation in GHARB region of Morocco has some unicity and special characteristics such as spreading new lifestyles and the multiple uses of its residues and leftovers; on the other side, it ensures the same needs it ensures in many other world regions as jobs, economic network activity, industrial development and securing the demand on sugar.

## **2. Sugar cane in the world: crop growth period varies by region**

Most sugar cane is grown in subtropical and tropical regions, especially in Brazil and southern of Asia, before spreading to other world regions such as North Africa, and it is the principal source for extracting sugar after it comes sugar beet. Its cultivation needs fertile land and an important quantity of water and remains in the ground for a whole year, and the sugar factories are in the middle of the cane farms. The leftover cane is used in some para-agricultural activities such as the manufacture of alcohol famous in Brazil [1].

The people of the South Pacific islands were among the first to grow sugar cane to use its stems as stick, in a mixture of sand, clay, and silt particles with organic matter at a temperature of 20°C. To 7 meters long, it has long, sword-shaped leaves and a number of buds through which the crop propagates, with a density of 10000–25000 sugar canes per hectare [2].

In Australia, it takes 15 months to grow, while it takes 9 months in Louisiana in the USA. The sugar cane crop is harvested three times in dry and cold seasons that last for 6 months so that three economic crops are harvested from one original cultivation and after the end of the economic crops, all roots are uprooted, and the field is replanted again [2].

The soil must be fertilized with nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium fertilizers according to the nature of the soil and climatic conditions, as well as the use of chemical herbicides to eliminate weeds and damaged insects. Brown sugar is extracted from a brown liquid inside the hull of the sugar cane, and then the brown liquid is repeated to produce white sugar [3] .

Sugar crops have reached an important level of development, mainly due to the mechanization of crops and the introduction of new production technologies, noting that the combination of factors contributes to improving the raw incomes of producers by more than 10% for these two types of crops. The use of good seeds, early maintenance, irrigation, and appropriate climatic conditions contributed to the achievement of diabetic beet cultivation program and improved the status of sugar crops [4].

## **3. Sugar cane cultivation in Morocco (Region of Gharb Cherarda Benihessen)**

Agricultural policy is reviewed in historical perspective, to show that the liberalization process, which was proposed in the framework of structural adjustment reforms, ran contrary to the agricultural development strategy followed by Morocco since Independence [5].

In Morocco, farmers benefited, for sugar cane production, from a subsidy of up to 6000 dirhams granted by the state, in order to make the new cultivated areas succeed, in addition to a grant of 3000 dirhams distributed between the state and the Moroccan Interprofessional Federation of Sugar to encourage early planting.

*The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107475*

**Figure 1.** *Sugar cane season Morocco 2018–2019.*

Given that the success of sugar plantations remains dependent on irrigation, the state, adds the official, launched the national program for saving irrigation water to encourage farmers to use techniques that contribute to rationalizing irrigation water (the drip irrigation system), noting that support rates range between 80 and 100%, depending on the area allocated [6]. To conserve the freshwater with which the sugar cane is irrigated, pivot and canal irrigation switched to drip, so the farmer consumes about 14%0 less water than before (**Figure 1**).

The introduction of sugar cane in the region contributed to improving the individual income, as the economic situation of the families, who were living on nomadic livestock and cultivation of wheat and barley, has been improved

This cultivation activity suffered from intense competition from the other regions of the Kingdom, which are on the throne of grain production. The Gharb region also experiences more floods every year due to its low topography and the presence of the large and ever-flowing Sebou River, on which a dam was built in the outskirts of Fez. However, this infrastructure causes floods with the high water level during the winter season.

## **4. The role of cosumar sugar company in the Gharb's Region's sugar cane cultivation improvement**

Cosumar Sugar Company "COSUMAR" is the first of its kind in the sugar industry in the Kingdom of Morocco, with a production capacity of more than 800,000 tons of white sugar annually. It is a public company listed since 1985 on the Casablanca Stock Exchange and was established in April 1929. The history of Cosumar merges with the beginning of the industrialization of the production of white sugar in Morocco. Formerly of artisanal manufacture, it was in 1929 that the first sugar refinery was created in Casablanca in the Roches Noires district. Let's discover the key dates that mark the history of this great Moroccan company [7].

As a major sugar Moroccan company, it was a given in recognition of the role played by the COSUMAR Group as an aggregator in the sugar chain. Indeed, COSUMAR is involved in all levels of the sugar chain, especially at the level of agricultural activity, with the aim of achieving a common goal: the development, competitiveness, and sustainability of the national sugar chain by encouraging the cultivation of cane Sugar and sugar beets. As COSUMAR, an investor in the food industry and a responsible and solidarity group, it keeps pace with its peasant partners at the financial, technical, and social levels, and the collection agreements that it brought and established by the Green Morocco Plan aim to strengthen the relationship in a win-win manner with its peasant partners. This aggregation role revolves around many activities, including:


## **5. History of sugar cane cultivation in Morocco**

The sugar industry is not a novelty in the life of Morocco. Rather, it had in the past, as it may have in the future, a clear impact on the economy of our country, and even in its internal policy, as well as in its relations with some countries. However, drunkenness in ancient Morocco, unfortunately, did not receive the studies it deserves, and Moroccan history books have preserved for us only brief references about this vital substance. Perhaps it is useful to review in this hurry some aspects of the subject, so we know where sugar cane was grown, and where it was made, and then the relationship of sugar to the policy of the state at the time (**Figure 2**) [9].

The first historians who spoke about Morocco in the form of Abu Hanifa al-Dinuri, Ibn Hawqal, al-Bakri, Ibn Khaldun, and others, all of them indicated that this agriculture was very prosperous in Morocco, and these references are almost nonexistent in what was written about Morocco before the advent of Islam as well as after the year 1615, which made us. We believe that the age of this prosperity began in Morocco with the Islamic conquest and that sugar cane was brought by the Arabs, just as they brought other crops such as orange trees. Consequently, sugar cane has lived in Morocco for a period equivalent to eight centuries, i.e., in the year 895 AD to the year 1615 AD. As for the places where this cultivation was known in Morocco, it is in the south of Morocco in particular [9].

We may be surprised if we learn that this cultivation was also in Mount Tanmal, the cradle of the Almohads, and near the city of Salé, as well as around the city of Ceuta. The ancients call the south of Morocco the Souss region, and by this name, they mean the area between Heri Chichaoua and the Draa Valley. It includes the

*The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107475*

**Figure 2.**

*Map showing sugar cane India as the origin of the westward spread, followed by small areas in Africa and then smaller areas on atlantic islands west of Africa, https://stringfixer.com/ar, 14/8/2022.Morocco situation in the far Northwest of Africa with green spots showing sugar cane activities.*

mountainous Atlantic region adjacent to the sea, the Souss Valley, and the Little Atlas to the Draa Valley. This region was one of the most fertile regions of Morocco, if not the most fertile at all. The Moroccan travelers, nor historians, in describing a region of Morocco, did not mention this region. It was one of the most densely populated areas.

Al-Idrisi, in turn, pointed out that sugar cane is found in Souss; especially in the district of Taroudant; in Ceuta and Tibnmel. He said about the region of Souss: "The country of Souss has many villages, and their architecture is connected to each other, and there are great fruits of different types, and many types, such as walnuts, figs, grapes, apricots, pomegranates, peaches, apples, and reeds." Sugar, which is not on the ground of the earth like it in length and breadth, sweetness, and abundance of water, works in the country of licorice from the sugar attributed to it that pervades most of the earth, and it is equal to Sulaymani sugar and tabarzad, rather it heals all types of sugar in goodness and purity. Regarding Jabal (mountain) Darn, Al-Idrisi says: "...that the people of this mountain do not sell it among themselves (i.e. sugar cane) nor buy it because of its abundance." The owner of the insight also indicates that Taroudant, which is a large village, is the richest country in God with sugar cane, and that its mills are more numerous, carrying sugar from it to the rest of the countries of the Maghreb. After this pause on the territory of Souss, and after introducing it, we can identify the areas where sugar cane was cultivated and divide them into three groups:


## **6. The impact of sugar cane cultivation in Gharb's population life**

This research was carried out as a reportage with farmers, workers, and producers who belong to the western region of Morocco, where sugar cane cultivation flourishes.

**Figure 3.** *2015, Kingdom of Morocco map, GHARB CHRARDA region in REd.*

The nomadic life changed and settled after the settlement of sugar cane cultivation in the region, where people settled for its production, neglecting the livestock breeding that used to occupy most of their activity. In order to rationalize the use of water and determine its quantity, center pivot and drip irrigation were introduced, which made the used amount reduced by half. Thus, the previously wasted water was preserved, especially the arable water, because the groundwater is characterized by a high salinity rate, which is difficult to exploit in agriculture. Also, the river Sebou is not close to all the farms and the horizontal canals that carry its water, as it was built during the French colonization of Morocco between 1912 and 1956. The vast area of Gharb Chrarda does not feed Beni Hessen (**Figure 3**).

## **7. Method and discussion**

To achieve our method of questioning that had the following purpose: highlight the social role of sugar cane cultivation in the fertile Gharb region of Morocco was needful to divide GHARB area's population to four categories responding to the following directed questions:


Responding to the questions above we have detected four interesting categories of people that are in a close and mutual attachment with sugar cane cultivation:

*The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107475*


To find the perfect person for each category, we stand in touch for about a month with the population to achieve our goal. So four people were selected and interviewed first in their zone of living; second, we have completed the operation via WhatsApp application for instant chats.

## **8. Description of the operation**

See **Table 1**.

## **9. Details and types of participants' main contributions**

*Social*:



#### **Table 1.**

*Description of the sample of the operation and their testaments.*

### *Economic*:


#### *Professional*:


## **10. Summary of the operation**

**MISS. Heba Al-Azeeb.** The girl stated that sugar cane is cultivated in the direction of the Belkassiri town from Kenitra city, specifically in the lands or fields where mud is aboundant in the soil formulat. She added that the work is carried out on a random basis and not in an operating system without specified timing. The work in the fields starts from about 10 in the morning until sunset. The upper limbs of sticks are cut, leaves are removed, and it is peeled with knives by a group of female workers. The male laborer is responsible for planting and watering the reeds; and it is thrown on the ground; a solution of javel and water is thrown on it to facilitate the process of cleaning by another group of workers after rubbing and washing it well; another group performs. By collecting it in the form of groups of packages and making it stand and pouring water on it, then the owner comes to load it on tracks and distributes it to the mills where it is squeezed; in the case of free planting; or by COSUMAR company in the case of the contaractual planting. And this is the case throughout the year, the girl says, because the product is always in demand and many customers buy it. An expert peasant like **Mr. Houssain Maymouni** gifted a professional affirmation about the course of choosing and planting technics in GHARB region of Morocco, pointing that the most structured planting plan is the one that held by a contract with COSUMAR company. COSUMAR requires an area of the field to be 1 hectare owned in the name of the beneficiary as the reason of a contract redaction. According to **Mr. Mohammed Alhafian,** the ancient worker one contract for each hectare of land, he proceeded: factory committees come to examine the land and water import possibilities before redacting the contract. They also investigate that the beneficiary is able to complete the task of planting and taking care of this planting and sugar cane germination according to the conditions agreed upon. This contract must be approved in the official departments between the factory and the farmer (**Figure 4**).

By signing a contract the factory releases the planting seedlings according to conditions and controls. With regard to irrigation, the farmer; after the contract with the *The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107475*

**Figure 4.** *Slogan edited by COSUMAR in 2018 to organize a yearly social cooperation compain, www.cosumar.co.ma 12/08/2022.*

sugar factory is issued; writes a request to the Office of Water and Electricity, so that in that request he shows the contract that is required of him to follow its provisions for cultivation, and determines its place, then writes the application and signs it and puts it under the officials of the Office. Water expenses are paid every year after the harvest. Both participants described the preparation of land to start by aeration and mashing using fertilizers at the farmer's expense and with his own effort. With regard to agriculture in Morocco, the state specified that between tow seedlings there should be a distance of one and a half meters. The sapling is struck at the top to open it, then another sapling is placed on top of it, and this unit or this compound is planted. After the process is completed, fertilizers are also added on top of the planting. The previous operations include a large workforce mostly from the region that increases social cooperation, but there are disadvantages too: The by-products produced during processing and refining procedures are discussed along with the ways that they affect the environment. The wastes produced by sugar mills are also shown to result in heavy metal contamination and parasitic and bacterial infections [10]. **Hajja Ruqayyah Limouna**, an 84-year-old lady, conforms that disadvantages such as the allergy she had don't cover the huge benifict, so she added that mud houses, huts, and tents were replaced by cement houses, roads constructed, and settled villages appeared after the construction. The SWEET GOLD increased celebrations such as weddings, engagements, national and religious holidays, to become more resonant and very fascinating. Stability and organizing the annual income had a great impact on food habits, meals and ingredients have become diversified, the prosperity of livestock breeding and selling and the increase in demand for it (**Figure 5**).

On the environmental level, **Mr. Maimouni** says that the atmosphere has become more humid and the high temperatures have decreased, as well as the disappearance of sand and dust storms because of the sugar cane fields that act as pumps for water vapor, as well as natural barriers.

Also, the places of spread of insects that abound during the period of heat and humidity have been redistributed. They find refuge in his fields, and they are reduced in the places of the population. Also, rodents have multiplied and their number is equal to the number of poisonous reptiles that provide food for them.

**Figure 5.** *WIKIHOW [11], cultivation of sugar cane, www.wikihow.com 15/8/2022.*

**Heba Al-Azaib** continued citing that sugar cane fields are a haven for nesting and hatching many poultry, such as ducks and turkeys, as well as wild chickens and turkeys, which are birds that have been domesticated and bred since ancient times, but they did not retreat and remained with these fields a basic activity The region and another source of profit and food.

As for **Muhammed Al-Hafyan**, he said that the sugar cane residues in the sugar refinery were burned, but recently it has been sent to centers for thermal energy extraction experiments, while in the village the older cane is used to feed livestock and to bake bread inside the clay ovens, and these residues are recovered after drying them are mashed as a support for the silt that covered the walls of mud houses, huts, and traditional stables, as well as poultry and livestock houses.

When sugar cane is grown, they exploit its product for a period of about 3–4 years, after which they extract it from seed and plant a new one to give a more profitable production. Method of work: Its upper limbs are cut, leaves are removed, and it is peeled with knives by a group of female workers, and it is thrown on the ground and a solution of javel and water is thrown on it to facilitate the process of washing

## *The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107475*

it by another group of workers after rubbing and washing it well, another group performs. By collecting it in the form of groups of packages and making it stand and pouring water on it to complete its washing, then its owner comes to load it on his cart and distributes it to the owners of the mills where it is squeezed. And this is the case throughout the year, the girl says, because the product is always in demand and everyone buys it. As for the hardship of work, of course it must be, especially since the girls work using the Javel (chlore) solution, and the cane must make its scratches, which sometimes have severe injuries, knowing that everyone knows that this is the case, because the operator has made them aware of that at first. Wages are paid weekly every Friday. He states that if the area of the field is hectares, then they plow with the big plow, and this plowing process is followed by other stages, such as the process of cherub and combing the field well, forming compact lines, and they put compost in it, they call it ~ dust ~ and then they plant the reeds after selection, examination and good and carefully purification, that is, the branch that will be planted is purified from any dirt or rotten leaves, and they leave one pure leaf to cover what they call

the eye of the branch, which they give very carefully in the process of planting, after which they put the compost. Mr. Maymouni adds that Type 65 is a good variety with good quality and juice production. The stalk of this type is white, with a distance of 20 centimeters between its rings, and this type is good. He also adds that the types of cane are numbered. Before proceeding to the germination of sugar cane, a contract is drawn up with the sugar factory associated with the Gharb Chararda Benihessen region. Planting and when the factory or factory committees will come to harvest, and this contract is issued for each hectare of land. The only free farming, farming for sale to sugar cane juice makers, is very small-scale farming, the farmer said. Preparing the land is at the expense of the farmer, as he plows and aerates the soil many times using a mechanical plow and also using daily farmers and also using a traditional plow with the help of an animal, in order to prepare the soil for the cultivation of sugar cane. The farmer contributes to the harvest, but for carrying, cleaning, and making use of the sugar cane, this costs the factory, starting from carrying it from the harvest area to the factory. Farmers do not start preparing the land for cultivation by the process of preparing the land is also done with regard to irrigation, the farmer Madame (**Figure 6**).

## **11. Conclusion**

The female farmer choses sugar cane as an activity, which is an important percentage of the families. The mud houses and tents were replaced by cement houses, and the activity of cutting the road, which polluted their reputation. There are three religious worships: Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, and the birthday of the Prophet Eid Al-Fitr comes after the end of Ramadan, and it is the first day of breaking the fast, and its first date is in the month of Shawwal according to the Hijri calendar. On this Eid, a special prayer is held in the morning, followed by a varied and carefully prepared Iftar feast. People wear the most beautiful clothes and visit the people of the dead in the cemetery. Stability in which there is life, Abdul-Fitr is also linked to giving out an obligatory charity called zakat, and the people of zakat are the poor, and your presence in a stable place periodically gives charity to the same poor, you. There is a purely Moroccan activity, which is the celebration of the end of the agricultural seasons, which is a festival held in a public place in the wealthy and lasts for a week in which tents are built and all foodstuffs and tools are sold. The stealth race of a group of cavalry with simultaneous firing of gunpowder from their rifles. Each village has its own troop of horses and a herd of purebred Berber horses. The Western region has become competitive with other regions after it has known agricultural growth and economic boost since the 1970s of the twentieth century, and these celebrations are still being held so far, and the Western cavalry teams are still occupying advanced positions. The stable social and economic situation created by the sugar cane cultivation introduction made the need for infrastructure urgent, so roads were supplied and the number of primary, middle, and secondary schools increased as well as the spread of police stations, the royal gendarmerie points, post offices, municipal building; a decrease in rural immigration toward urban compounds were observed; besides, young population have kept living in the rural zone so agricultural activities remain in its vital cycle. Sugar cane growers and ivestissors participate to the establishing of a sustainable life because they often associate with them day laborers, agricultural technicians, farmers, mechanics, sellers of agricultural tools and fertilizers, drivers, and food investissors. This network, created due to this agricultural activity continuum, creates *The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107475*

an acceptable to moderate living situation for thousands of families. Improving wages and intensifying efforts to protect the environment from the effects of the remnants of sugar refining activities, in addition to establishing associations and cooperatives for medical treatment and supervision, has become a requirement of activists in the sector [13–19].

## **Acknowledgements**

Special thanks to:


On the environmental level, Mr. Maimouni says that the atmosphere has become more humid and the high temperatures have decreased, as well as the disappearance of sand and dust storms because of the sugar cane fields that act as pumps for water vapor, as well as natural barriers. Also, the places of spread of insects that abound during the period of heat and humidity have been redistributed. They find refuge in his fields, and they are reduced in the places of the population. Also, rodents have multiplied and their number is equal to the number of poisonous reptiles that provide food for them.

## **Author details**

Mounia Elhaddadi

Faculty of Sciences, Cognitive-Behavioral Neurosciences and Applied Nutrition Unit, Department of Biology, Biology and Health Laboratory, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Kenitra, Morocco

\*Address all correspondence to: elhaddadi24@yahoo.fr

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## **Chapter 7**

## Sugarcane Response and Its Related Gene Expression under Water Stress Condition

*Abhisek Shrestha, Bharti Thapa and Ganga Dulal*

## **Abstract**

This review paper is to study the different responses expressed by the sugarcane when exposed to water stress conditions, that is, waterlogging and drought. Water stress is one of abiotic stress affecting sugarcane productivity and the development of water-use efficiency and the morphological character get varies with genotypes, duration and intensity of stress and types of tissue damage and expression of variable patterns of a gene that makes a high degree of complexity on sugarcane under water stress condition. Since, there is little stepping towards sugarcane crops coming from genetics, agronomics, and molecular biology. These studies provided the framework for researching the morphological basis of genetic variation and mycorrhizal colonization in water stress tolerance and yield improvement under water-limited conditions.

**Keywords:** sugarcane, gene, yield, water stress, complexity

## **1. Introduction**

Sugarcane (*Saccharum officinarum* L.) is a unique crop that can accumulate high levels of sugar and is also a commercially viable source of bioelectricity and secondgeneration bio-ethanol. It provides over 76% of the sugar for human consumption from approximately 27.12 million hectares area with the production of 1900 million metric tons around the globe [1]. Brazil is the leading country in terms of sugarcane area and production followed by India and China [1]. Sugarcane provides juice, which is used for making white sugar, jaggery (gur), and many by-products like bagasse and molasses. Sugar and its fermented products are very important in making and preserving various kinds of medicines like syrups, liquids; capsules, etc. Bagasse is used as a fuel, for the production of fiberboard, papers, plastics, and furfural. Molasses is used in distilleries for the manufacture of ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, citric acid, ethanol, etc. Rum is the best potable spirit made from molasses. Molasses is also used as an additive to feed livestock. Green tops of cane are a good source of fodder for cattle. Press-mud, the remains after juice clarification is good manure. Steam produced during the boiling of the juice is used to generate electrical power. Despite its importance in production and productivity sugarcane is affected by various biotic and abiotic stresses. On the other hand, no use of improved and recommended varieties

also causes yield decline, among the abiotic stresses Water stress Is one of abiotic stress abiotic stress affecting sugarcane productivity. Therefore, the development of water-use efficient and water-stress-tolerant cultivars is imperative for major sugarproducing countries and industries. The susceptibility of sugarcane to water stress is greatly exposed in tillering and stem elongation phases with both leaf and stem growth [2] but has a positive effect in the maturation phase with sucrose content. The morphological character get varies with genotypes, duration, intensity of stress, and types of tissue damaged [3]. However, reported large potentially exploitable genetic variation for cane yield, responses like leaf rolling, inhibition of stalk and leaf growth, leaf senescence and reduced leaf area, and root development pattern [4]. Knowledge about stress biology in other crops increases coming from genetics, agronomic and molecular biology but still, there is little stepping towards sugarcane crops.

The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) has significant importance for more efficient crop development and the use of fertilization, especially in the early stage of development [5], and helps in the absorption of soil nutrients like phosphorus and plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. Abdel-Fattah & Asrar [6] reported that its association increases tolerance to water stress, contributing to aggregate stability, increase in soil aeration and subsequent availability [7], the reason behind, plants maintain higher stomatal conductance during water deficit periods and, in return, higher diffusive dependence. However, studies on interaction between AMF and sugarcane are scarce, and need to develop studies of AMF in sugarcane for different water stress conditions in lab conditions to explore the importance to cope with different stress situations.

Plant species go under different alternations in antioxidant enzyme activities. Drought tolerant crops showed the up-regulation of SOD and CAT activity as a general mechanism, where there is a remarkable correlation between antioxidant and proline content that signifies the specific traits for future identification of drought tolerance [8] that contributes protection against oxidative damage [9]. These enzymes were further affected by plant species, cultivars, and stress intensity and duration.

From the perspective of molecular studies, a wide range of gene are explicitly recognized that are expressed in sugarcane under water stress condition [10] that encodes putative chaperones dehydrin (DEH) and late embryogenic (LEA) protein, enzymes involved for metabolism and oxidation of proline [10]. There is an expression of variable patterns of gene that makes a high degree of complexity on sugarcane under water stress conditions. On other hand, signal transduction pathways lead to stress response due to plant hormones like ABA play an important role in signaling and gene regulation. Under water deficit, ABA concentration increases and makes stomata functional to protect against rapid desiccation [11]. Use of beneficial nitrogen fixing bacteria and gibberellic acid (GA3) involves in gene expression and regulates the metabolic process as a function of sugar signaling and antioxidative enzymes [12].

Study of the morphological and stress response helps us to develop the concept for future breeding programs and selection of the water stress tolerant genotypes. In the present context, there are limited varieties named Jitpur series, that does not resolve the problem of water stress condition, so further study should be conducted for studying the response to water stress and selection of genotypes under different level of stress condition. So, this research should be conducted for studying the morphological and stress-responsive character of different genotypes for better crop improvement and to find a suitable variety for water stress conditions.

The knowledge of response and genetic variation of sugarcane to water stress under field conditions is relatively limited [13] and restricted in a small number

#### *Sugarcane Response and Its Related Gene Expression under Water Stress Condition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109600*

of studies. Most studies on water deficits in sugarcane have focused on irrigation management practices [14, 15]. A number of physiological investigations conducted under laboratory or glasshouse conditions together with modeling studies have advanced the knowledge of water relations, stomatal functions and osmoregulation, carbon assimilation, and dry matter partitioning in water-stressed sugarcane [2, 3, 16–20]. Sugarcane breeding program has access to a broad range of parental germplasm and cultivars developed more than 100 years of breeding with selection, which derives from wild cane are relatively less developed and selected.

Despite the other major consequences of climate change, it is predicted that sugarcane yield will increase with increasing average minimum and maximum temperatures in winter, and increasing maximum temperatures in the rainy seasons [21]. Recent Nepalese climatic projections support the above assumptions and suggest that these conditions are likely. However, recent studies on the impacts of climate change on sugarcane [22] indicate that climate change-induced drought is one of the most significant challenges for sugarcane production. Moreover, the crop is more able to withstand natural disasters such as flood than rice and/or other cereal crops. Regardless of the high resilience to natural disasters, less than half of the potential of sugarcane production is currently realized [23]. The morphological basis of genetic variation and mycorrhizal colonization under different water stress situations were studied.

## **2. Morphological responsiveness of sugarcane under water stress condition**

Morphological character is the first character seen when sugarcane gets exposed to water stress conditions. On exposure to drought conditions, there is a reduction in tillering, leaves discoloration, rolling of leaves and leaves folding and shredding, reduced leaf area due to narrow leaves, and decrease in lipid peroxidation. Under the waterlogged conditions, the sugarcane showed pipping in stalks and roots, development of adventitious roots, and the presence of aerenchyma tissue without which sugarcane cannot survive in water-logged condition.

Sugarcane, an important source of sugar and ethanol, demands relatively high water and is highly sensitive to water deficit [24]. The use of one Ml of irrigation produces 8–12 ton cane [25] and water deficit can lead to 60% productivity losses [26]. For this reason, production areas are concentrated in regions with favorable rain regimes for sugarcane growth and development [27], while in other areas crop production requires supplemental or full irrigation [28]. The increasing incidence, duration, and intensity of severe water deficit have promoted large sugarcane crop improvement programs for water use efficiency and water stress tolerant varieties that make impetus to develop biotechnological strategies.

From the perspective of growth stages and water management practices, susceptibility is more in tillering stage ad stem elongation phases [2] with both stem and leaf growth being more affected than other organs. The morphological and physiological responses of sugarcane plants get varies with genotypes and duration and intensity of stress and type of tissue damaged and substantially decreased both cane and cane yield. There, as reported, has a large potentially exploitable genetic variation for cane and cane yield under stress conditions. The most common water stress responses in sugarcane are leaf rolling, stomatal closure, inhibition of stalk and leaf growth, leaf senescence, and reduced leaf area [2]. Besides cell division and elongation get interrupted, so stem and leaf elongation and root development are more seriously affected during growth processes [4, 29].

There is an interesting fact that increased levels of sugar, such as trehalose, can help plants to cope with water deficit, reducing the damage to cell membrane [30].

## **3. Mycorrhizal colonization variance in water stress condition**

Water stress strongly affects mycorrhizal development in roots and soils. The short-term soil drought did not appear to favor or discourage root AMF colonization and longer-term soil drought decreased AMF colonization. So, there are increased levels of root AMF colonization in response to drought stress than in decreased levels, which is related to reductions in plant P levels.

The growth of AMF spores varies with soil moisture available, which alters spore behaviors. Spore germination is favored n soil at or above field capacity but is decreased with decreasing soil water potentials below field capacity [31]. AM-stimulated plant growth enhancement may be more important in the host plant under drought stress than under watered conditions. In addition, helps in increase of P nutrition, water uptake by hyphae, and increase of root length [32].

The survivability of plants under stress conditions is strongly enhanced with AMF inoculation. This may be due to a more effective root architecture for water and nutritional absorption and the developed external hyphae in the soil [33]. Mycorrhizal plants would recover more quickly from wilting than non-mycorrhizal plants after drought recovery [34]. In addition, leaf morphological adaptation, and root morphological adaptation are other strategies for mycorrhization under drought stress. This adaptation provides more exploration of soil volume to absorb water and nutrients from the soil [35], thereby potentially enhancing the drought tolerance of the host plant. Mycorrhizal hyphae help in the uptake and transport of water from bulk soil to the host plant and also considerable quantities of phosphates and nitrogen to the plant from soil zones but yet no significant evidence of transfer of water from hyphae to plants. In sum, AMF-enhanced nutrient absorption is an important physiological mechanism in drought tolerance of the host plant caused by mycorrhization.

## **4. Genetic variability of sugarcane under water stress condition**

Crop growth under water stress has been frequently and usefully conceptualized as the product between the components of total water use and water use efficiency. The high genetic correlation between water levels is likely traits for contributing to increased levels of component under fully irrigated and contributed to high yield under water stress. Genetic gains accomplished from long-term selection in breeding programs conducted under relatively non-stressed situations extend large degrees under water stress.

In relation to water use efficiency, high photosynthetic capacity improves rates of crop growth under non-water-limiting conditions and also improves water use efficiency through reducing leaf internal CO2 levels, thus, contributing to improved performance also under water-stress conditions. Similar to water use, high radiation use efficiency and fast canopy development under non-limiting conditions contribute to increases above- and below-ground (root) growth. Genotypes with larger canopies and root systems have a greater rate of water use and efficiency and growth which may persist for some time even as stress develops, because larger canopies and *Sugarcane Response and Its Related Gene Expression under Water Stress Condition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109600*

above-ground growth support greater root growth, and vice versa. However, when soil water is depleted to a point where extensive root systems cannot provide a benefit (because there is little or no water remaining), the initially vigorous genotypes with relatively high water use would be expected to lose an advantage progressively.

There was very limited genetic variation for traits specifically affecting growth under water stress. If most genotypes had a relatively lower rate of growth under water stress, the relative final yield of genotypes under water stress would be largely determined by differences in growth rates expressed when there was limited water stress. While some genetic variation in traits affecting growth under water stress may exist in sugarcane and related germ-plasm, large deviations in the expression of these traits may have occurred in none or very few genotypes.

## **5. Physiological mechanism of sugarcane during water stress condition**

ABA, regulatory signaling molecules, implicated to stomata closure, reduction of leaf and stem growth, production of deeper root system, higher root and shoot hydraulic conductivity, assimilate remobilization, induction of senescence, maintenance of turgor pressure, expression of antioxidant proteins and seed dormancy [36]. There is concomitant relationship between ABA and stomatal conductance and transpiration rate, by increasing H2O2 raises cytosolic Ca2+, concentration in guard cells [37] and by reducing ROS generation and the expression of antioxidant enzymes under stress conditions [38]. Additionally, ABA-mediated responses involve cis-acting elements as dehydration response and trans-acting factors as physiological and stress response regulators that induce ird29A gene, ScbZIP29 and ScbZIP31, ScbZIP21, ScbZIP24, ScbZIP70, and ScbZIP79 for controlling the gene expression [39] that regulates the water status in bundle sheath cells [40].

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), are key regulators for growth, development, response to biotic and abiotic stimuli and programmed cell death [41] as they are the byproducts of metabolic reaction of plants [42]. The exposure of the plant for drought for longer period of drought causes ROS outburst that overrides antioxidant mechanisms and damage cell membranes, DNA, and proteins and results in cell death [43] and low induce activate acclimation and defense pathways [44]. Plant antioxidant defense mechanisms are classified as enzymatic and non-enzymatic ROS scavenging. The enzymatic ROS scavenging consists of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and ascorbate peroxide (APX) and catalase (CAT) activities that may be genotype dependent, and display antioxidant response in sugarcane plants during stress conditions. On the other side, non-enzymatic oxidant molecules composed of ascorbic acid (AA), reduced glutathione (GSH), α-tocopherol, carotenoids, phenolics, flavonoids, and proline act as a compatible osmolyte, molecular chaperone and carbon and nitrogen reserve, and balance cytosolic pH. Increased proline is correlated to water tolerance as sugarcane acts as a component of antioxidant defense system rather than an osmoregulator.

The most oxidative stress symptom is peroxidation of lipids, which includes O2 molecules that are originated from photosystem II and are incorporated into plasmid membranes and catalyzed by lipoxygenase (LOX) into LOOH (lipid hydroperoxide) causing membranes vulnerable to fragmentation and leading to a cascade of damaging events [45]. The product malondialdehyde (MDA) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) cause changes in cell membrane properties, such as fluidity, ion transport, and enzyme activity [46] and are accepted as a marker of

oxidative stress in plants [47]. A low level of lipid peroxidation revealed the water stress tolerance in sugarcane so it can be the best parameter to identify water stress tolerant sugarcane varieties.

## **6. Gene related to expression of water stress response in sugarcane**

Several studies has been conducted to better understand the molecular basis of physiological responses of sugarcane under stress condition. Based on ABAdependent, high throughput gene expression under water stress focused in extensive signal transduction networks that involve various transcription factors, protein kinases, and phosphates [48]. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) are important and breakthrough tools for identifying sugarcane genes and assessing their function because of their complex genome size of 7440 Mb. Sugarcane Expressed Sequence Tags Sequencing project (SUCEST) sequenced over 238,000 ESTs from different sugarcane tissues and cultivars, and grouped them into 43,000 Sugarcane Assembled Sequences (SAS) [49] that provides important transcriptome studies [50]. The study conducted by Li et al. used cDNA array for studying the gene expression profile in sugarcane leaves subjected to water stress conditions. However, genes involved in cellular metabolism (cell wall, amino acid, lipid, and protein metabolism), signal transduction (transcription factors, hormone signaling proteins, calmodulins, and kinases), stress response (heat shock proteins and peroxidase) showed substantial similarity in expression under different experimental conditions, the expression pattern of genes varies on the intensity of water deficit condition.

The experiment to correlate the gene expression and drought tolerance of genotypes SP83–5073 (water stress tolerant) and SP90–1638 (sensitive) by use of macro-array 9 [51] from leaf library of SUCEST suggested that 93.3% expressed genes up-regulated in tolerant cultivars, where 36% of expressed gene were repressed un sensitive plants including heat shock proteins and genes involved in photosynthesis which is corroborated to morpho-physiological data. The interesting finding of this experiment opens a new research field to unravel the hitherto unknown genetic mechanism underpinning water stress tolerance in sugarcane. The fact of expression of antisense transcripts in sugarcane under water stress caused more complex in gene regulation under stress conditions [52] so, for instance, expression of miRNAs analysis done to cope with growth phases into different intensities of stress [26]. The gene expressed in field conditions provided a different set of genes and expression profiles as compared to glass-house conditions [53]. Since there are unclear remarks of drought stress gene and sucrose accumulation [10] caused the complexity in both phenomenon. Despite the sugarcane transcriptome response, [10] indicated the strong correlation between the expression of water stress-induced genes and the sequence of dehydrin (late embryogenesis abundant proteins for protection of cellular membranes and organelles during dehydration) so it can be used as molecular marker for water stress response in sugarcane [53]. On other hand, from root samples [54] detected gene coding proteins with protection function (chaperones, heat shock proteins, antioxidants enzymes, and protease inhibitors protein and ABA response (trehalose-phosphate synthase and serine/threonine kinase receptors) that are responsible for water stress protection and adaptation mechanism. Additionally, de Silva et al. verified water channel proteins, aquaporins with isoform PIP1-1, NIP3-1, and SIP1-2 in root were exclusively up-regulated in tolerant varieties for stress avoidance mechanisms in sugarcane [55–58].

*Sugarcane Response and Its Related Gene Expression under Water Stress Condition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109600*

Different genes encoding GAPDH, ά-tubulin and histone H1, eEF-1 ά, Eukaryotic initiation factor 4 ά, CUL (cullin), CAC (clathrin adaptor complex), APRT (adenine phosphoribosyltransferase) and TIPS-41 (Tonoplastic Intrinsic Protein 41) are good candidate genes for normalization in various stress caused by hormones, abiotic and drought. Among them, *CAC* + *APRT, GAPDH* + *eEF1*, and *CAC* + *CUL* are the most reliable genes for normalization of sugarcane under stress.

There is a lack of mutant or genetic lines available to confirm the gene expression that is identified by transcriptomic analysis. The translatability of glasshouse pot study to field is very little known so further reverse or forward genetic studies are the impetus for functional assessment and linking them.

## **7. Conclusion**

Despite the numerous studies conducted on behalf of water stress conditions in sugarcane, the result was not significantly remarked. The response and expression shown by the sugarcane at a different intensity, location and genotypes varies and confused the exact reason and corroborate to another consequential sequence, it's all due to its complexity in genome structure. The protein dehydrin encoding gene was finally named as paradigm molecular marker for analysis of water stress in sugarcane. The morphological, physiological study cannot resolve the problem of water stress and developing tolerant varieties so the mutant line generation was necessary for comparing or studying the water stress tolerance. Besides, some *CAC* + *APRT, GAPDH* + *eEF1*, and *CAC* + *CUL* are providing reliable genes for normalization of sugarcane under stress. So further study in greenhouse and field conditions should be translated and the concept of reverse and forward genetics studies should be thoroughly implemented for developing stress-tolerant sugarcane varieties.

## **Author details**

Abhisek Shrestha, Bharti Thapa\* and Ganga Dulal Agriculture and Forestry University, Bardibas, Nepal

\*Address all correspondence to: thapa.bharti16@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## *Edited by Bimal Kumar Ghimire*

This book discusses the most recent research on sugarcane production and its applications. It provides a comprehensive overview of the current technology of producing bioethanol from sugarcane to meet the global demands for biofuel. It also explores innovative technology to convert sugarcane into new value-added products. The book is designed to provide practical insights into the current challenges in the production of value-added products from sugarcane byproducts and their contribution to the sustainability of the sugarcane industry. It offers a broad understanding of major challenges related to the improvement of risk management strategies, as well as public policies to the energy market. It also presents precise and meticulous insight into the importance of abiotic stress affecting sugarcane productivity and morphological traits.

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen © cgdeaw / iStock

Sugarcane - Its Products and Sustainability

Sugarcane

Its Products and Sustainability

*Edited by Bimal Kumar Ghimire*