**7. Conclusion and recommendations**

This review has discussed the semi-intensive and intensive systems of beef and dairy cattle production practiced in the developed countries such as USA, Australia, Europe, Canada, Mexico, China, Japan and South Korea. In the developing countries of Africa and some parts of Asia, however, beef and dairy cattle production was mostly carried out by smallholder farmers under the extensive system.

The low beef and bovine milk production in the developing sectors could be up-graded through controlled crossbreeding of local cattle breeds with the exotic cattle breeds. There should be the use of exotic cattle breeds which have been known to already contribute to genetic progress. These would involve the use of reproductive technologies such as artificial insemination (AI), through farmer co-operatives and where bulls are shared and AI technicians employed.

The application of routine genotyping involving genetic evaluations for most traits of economic importance that could be adopted by breeders in developing countries could be carried out in the breeding laboratory such as found in South Africa. The use of available genetic tools such as estimated breeding values (EBVs), diagnostic tests and DNA percentage testing in selection programs for genetic improvement could be set up in national breeding program laboratories in the developing countries.

More governmental funded programs for genetic development and up-grading of local beef and dairy cattle breeds into more productive animals could be carried out through government extension service support programs. Thus, the continued pursuit of these developmental programs could go a long way in helping to narrow the gap in the developed and undeveloped sectors of the beef and dairy cattle production sectors. Thereby these could lead to the attainment of more intensive, cost effective and sustainable farming systems.

Global agricultural organizations such as the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) could continue to make suggestions to the International Livestock Research Institutes world-wide; to keep encouraging research grants to be sought for and monitored to be used for the conduct of local beef and dairy cattle up-grading, through crossbreeding programs in the national agricultural institutions in the developing countries world-wide.
