*3.1.3 Innovations and technological breakthroughs in the development of intensive dairy cattle production selection systems*

These could be outlined as follows:

i.Conventional genetic selection [15]

The conventional selection was primarily geared towards genetic selection for high-producing dairy cows where milk yield was seen as the main objective

towards dairy farming intensification and its sustainability from a single perspective of genetics. Thus milk yield and composition were the main focus for selection in dairy cattle breeding programs and these were achieved in all the leading milk producing dairy cows globally, which included the Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein, Jersey and Milking Shorthorn [4].

Therefore, high milk yield was often seen as the major solution to address the global challenges of ensuring food security, reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, reduced cost of milk production, and all these could result into better feed efficiency [16].


In a practical application in the use of selection indices, some researchers [5] reported that in the USA for example, their selection indices in the dairy cattle industries included such traits as health, SCC (somatic cell counts), live-ability, productive life, feet and legs traits, calving ability and lower usage of antibiotics.

#### **3.2 The intensification of global beef production**

Beef provides the largest proportion of ruminant protein meat source world-wide in both the developed and developing countries.

#### *3.2.1 In the USA*

Beef production in the USA [17], was reported to be majorly pastoral based particularly under the national cow-calf herd system of production. There were also the use of eighty different beef cattle breeds with the British breeds and their crosses most prevalent. A high income was obtained through beef sales in the U.S.A. These same authors [17] stated that in 2015, about 29 million head of beef were slaughtered in the production of 10.7 million tonnes of beef and the total farm cash receipts total about US\$ 88 billion.

The various factors considered during the quality grading of beef by consumers in the USA included the following: colour, marbling level, subcutaneous fat trim and cut thickness. Beef palatability grading by consumers was usually carried out based on the criteria of tenderness, juiciness and flavour [17].

Technological improvements made in the beef industry in the USA included roles in reproduction, feeding and feed processing, animal health, animal productivity

### *A Global Overview of the Intensification of Beef and Dairy Cattle Production Systems DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106062*

including the use of acceptable growth promotants and genomically-enhanced genetic selection and food safety.

The sustainable intensification of beef production in the USA was considered of great importance in order to help meet the rising global demand for lower cost beef protein resource, needed to meet the increasing yearly world-wide population growth rate [17].

#### *3.2.2 Australia beef production*

In Australia there were reported to be about 47,000 cattle ranch owners who contributed about 20% of the total value of farm production (\$A 12.7billion Gross Value of Production) [17]. The country was one of the world's most efficient producers of cattle, and ranked as the third largest exporter of beef. In 2016–2017 the Australian beef industry had about 25 million heads of cattle. They were identified to produce high quality beef under environmentally sustainable systems of disease-free cattle that followed strict livestock and meat quality regulations and quality assurance systems. Australia was reported to operate under the national beef genetic improvement program called BREEDPLAN which consisted of many temperate and tropically adapted breeds of cattle [17]. These beef cattle breeds were found suitable for different types of agro-climate conditions and were genetically selected based on productivity and market related traits [17]. Australia was known to export beef to various Asian countries including Japan, Korea, China and Indonesia in 1987 to 2009.
