*Agrovoltaic and Smart Irrigation: Pakistan Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106973*

variation in production capacity of major crops for both Kharif and Rabi seasons in Pakistan from 2000 to 2020. It has been realized that, in the Kharif season sugarcane, rice and maize have a major footprint thereby cultivating more than 70% of the agricultural land [25]. According to recent statistics revealed by the crop reporting service, in 2020, 1143.62 km2 , 2746.11 km2 , and 826.13 km2 areas in Punjab have been utilized to grow sugarcane, rice, and maize, respectively [26]. On the other hand, in the Rabi season wheat has been extensively grown covering more than 70–75% of arable land. Similarly, in fruits and vegetable production, Pakistan has a major global market footprint, particularly in mango and potato production. **Figure 4** shows the temporal variation of the fruit and vegetable yields from 2000 to 2020. The matrixshaped filled color gradient indicates that onion, potato, and mango production has periodically increased. If compared with 2000, the production of potato mango, and onion increases by 63.17%, 42.50%, and 25.55%, respectively in 2020. However, in 2022 it has been expected that mango production will fall by approximately 50% due to severe water shortages and heatwaves [27]. In addition, from **Figures 3** and **4** it has been realized that cropping pattern is more likely to lead toward the cultivation of high delta crops, which needs massive water supplies. However, the available water supplies are not likely to fulfill the potential needs of the crops.

#### **Figure 4.**

*Temporal variation of fruit and vegetable yields in Pakistan from 2000 to 2020 reproduce here from Agriculture Marketing Information Service (AIMS) http://www.amis.pk/agristatistics/production.aspx.*

#### **3. Sources of irrigation in Pakistan**

Irrigation is the practice of watering crops or plants by digging pipes and ditches in the ground. The primary goal of irrigation is to supply water to crop fields making the land fertile. In Pakistan, irrigation water is obtained from three primary sources, including surface water, rainwater, and groundwater. Following is a brief description of these irrigation sources.

#### **3.1 Surface water**

Rainfall and melting snow form streams and storage reservoirs such as tanks, ponds, and damns, that are the primary source for the generation of surface water. Dams are erected along the river and water is channeled to agricultural areas through canals and irrigated the farmer's fields by means of gravity flow. However, the distribution of surface water from the canal head to the farmer's field triggers huge conveyance losses. In Pakistan, Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the largest irrigation network that contributes to the conveyance of the surface water [28]. However, exponential growth in industrialization, urbanization, and population causes depletion of the surface water supplies in the IBIS [29, 30]. Additionally, the IBIS is highly vulnerable to adverse impacts of climate change owing to its geo-climatic situation. **Figure 5** represents the temporal variation of the surface water generated at the canal head and delivered at the farm end for both Kharif and Rabi crops. It can be seen that total surface water (both for Kharif and Rabi crops) generated at the canal head was 121.59 billion cubic meters (Bm3 ) during 2019−2020 while 98.93 Bm3 of the water delivered at the farm end resulted in huge conveyance losses. This amount of surface water could not fulfill the water requirements of both Kharif and Rabi crops. On the other hand, surface water irrigation is generally regarded to be free of energy cost because of gravity flow. However, an effective canal network requires operational energy for preservation e.g., removal of sediment, as well as vegetation and strengthening of canal banks [31].

#### **3.2 Rainwater**

Rainwater is another source of water that comes from rainfall to meet the irrigation requirements of crops. However, rainfall patterns and intensity are continuously decreasing because of the vulnerability of climate change. Climate change is impacting not just rainfall intensity but also the amount of annual rainfall [32]. The country's territory falls into arid to semi-arid regions where three-fourths of the country receives an annual rainfall of less than 250 mm, therefore rainfall alone is generally insufficient for growing crops, particularly in Baluchistan province having less water availability [33, 34]. During monsoon periods greater than 75% of the rainfall falls, which provides about 30 Bm3 for irrigation but this is only enough to meet 15% of water requirements by the crops [35].

**Figure 6** shows the temporal variation of rainfall patterns in Pakistan. For instance, in 2015 average annual rainfall was observed at about 546 mm while 407 mm in 2016, indicating considerable shifting of rainfall patterns throughout the country. Consequently, less rainwater availability necessitates further improvement of farming and irrigation infrastructure. On the other hand, the shifting of seasons triggers a relatively long monsoon season in which high rainfall may cause floods throughout different regions of the country. Nonavailability of storage facilities like dams and

#### **Figure 5.**

*Temporal variation of the surface water generated in Pakistan at canal and farm ends reproduces here from the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (Figure 11: Overall water availability).*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Rainfall patterns in Pakistan reproduce here from [36].*

other water management infrastructures directed a huge amount of water to the sea. In this regard, farmers are being shifted toward the utilization of groundwater in order to fulfill the crop water requirements.

#### **3.3 Groundwater**

Groundwater is one of the most essential sources of irrigation in Pakistan. Total groundwater availability in Pakistan is about 73 Bm3 while 62 Bm3 is being extracted annually. In Pakistan, agriculture has shifted from surface water to groundwater-fed irrigation over the previous 50 years. The groundwater share of the total irrigation water supply has increased from 8% in 1960 to 60% in 2010 due to the continuous expansion of agricultural lands [37]. Based on arid and semiarid climates that prevail in most of the areas of the country making irrigation is necessary for efficient and long-term crop production because evapotranspiration is high while rainfall is scarce and unpredictable [38]. The groundwater extraction is mostly done by means of electricity or diesel-operated tube wells. These tube wells consume a huge amount of primary energy directly or indirectly to lift groundwater from the water table. In this case, the cost of pumping 1000 m3 of water from shallow and deep tube wells varies between 5\$ and 15\$ owing to varying energy prices in different regions of the country [39]. On the other hand, the availability of energy resources is challenging for developing countries like Pakistan. Furthermore, irrigation through groundwater is not possible in remote areas of the country where electricity is unavailable. In this perspective, a sustainable solution like Agrovoltaic is principally required to overcome the energy-nexus dilemma.
