*5.9.1 Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor*

Leukopenia is one of the most important prognostic indicators of mortality in dogs with CPVE. Hence, stimulation of bone marrow and improvement of leukogram in peripheral circulation are considered as strategic approaches to reduce the CPVE associated mortality. Enhancement of endogenous canine G-CSF (cG-CSF) concentrations by exogenous administration of human G-CSF (hGCSF) and cG-CSF is reported to stimulate bone marrow, resulting in improvement of neutrophil counts in puppies with CPV infection [111]. However, the use of hG-CSF and cG-CSF may not necessarily improve survival [112, 113].
