**4. Case study background (land registration)**

Land registration refers to a system whereby a government entity records ownership and land-related rights. These records provide evidence of title, facilitate transactions and prevent fraud. It means that there is an official record (the land register) of rights on land or of deeds concerning changes in the legal situation of defined units of land [55]. Out-dated land registry systems introduce delays in ownership verification, slow down legitimate transactions, and in the worst-case scenario, could enable land misappropriation [56]. Given their significance to individuals and society as a whole, it is important to guarantee that land transaction registers are created and stored in a way that allows their availability, accuracy and management according to the law. The transparency, public accountability, financial stability and human rights are peril in case of no suitable treatment and care of land transaction records [57, 58].

Recently there has been a global movement to add more accountability to land registry systems and particularly increase the validity of land titles. It is vital for present-day governments in terms of curbing corruption, reducing red tape, enhancing transparency, improving the speed of the stated public service and eradicating risks of possible disputes [36].

The potential of blockchains to authenticate ownership can legitimately be transferred without needing third-party verification [45]. Once the registrar affirms the land title transfer, smart contracts are triggered to update ownership data to the buyer and accordingly the corresponding transaction is saved on the blockchain, as a result, all ownership records history could be traced [45]. By introducing this technology in the land registration systems, blockchains could introduce an era of network computing where private value transfer [37] of money, assets and contractual preparations can be conducted in an automated and dependable mode through computational systems [30, 36]. Such capabilities reduce forgery and the risks associated with the transfer and distribution of land data [59].

Most of the literature that has been published is theoretical analysis of the potential of using BT in the field of land registration, theoretical proposals and conceptual models using different types of mechanisms and tools. Other research included empirical studies of this technology in several countries [14]. Fortunately, early blockchain land registry adopters, like Sweden, Dubai, Ghana and others, report excellent results, such as cost savings, a better quality of service and elimination of fraud and corruption [60]. On the other hand, there is a lack of the studies that organise BT adoption in land registration. This chapter, therefore, seeks to present a process of introducing BT as a social and technical implementation.

#### **4.1 Land registration in Sudan**

Sudan is a land-locked country whose e-government development index (EDGI) has fallen from middle- to low-EGDI level due to adverse political, socio-economic and natural conditions [61]. It is considered a low-income country.

The land policies have undergone transitions according to social standards from the pre-colonial era, during colonial times and post-colonial times [62]. Socially, land has a unique position in most communities in Sudan, particularly in the rural areas. It is a means of livelihood and a source of wealth, tribal identity and social peace [63, 64].

The land has also been a source of deep conflict. From the political perspective, the civil war in Sudan between 1983 and 2005 was often seen as associated with land tenure, which was both a cause of conflict and a factor in ensuring peace and social stability [62]. On the other hand, the ownership and use of land, especially among traditional producers in most low-income countries, is not just a source of livelihood but a symbol of identity, dignity, solidarity and peace. The World Bank devoted some of its resources to the interrelated issues of access to secure property rights, exchange and distribution of land in markets and the role of governments in land management [64].

This chapter seeks to theoretically represent and explore the networks and associations that underpin the situated land practices through the lens of ANT [15]. The next section uses the Sudan land registration systems for illustration.
