Engine Lightweighting: Use of Green Materials as Reinforcement in Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites

*Akaehomen O. Akii Ibhadode*

#### **Abstract**

Lightweighting of automobiles of which the IC engine is a part has become very important due to stringent emission regulations being imposed on vehicle manufacturers, and the need to have more fuel-efficient vehicles. The use of light weight materials such as aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) made up of aluminum alloy and nonmetal reinforcements such as alumina and silicon carbide is one strategy used for lightweighting. Recently, there has been active research in the use of biodegradable green materials such as agricultural wastes as reinforcements for AMMCs. In this chapter, work done on the use of biodegradable green materials as reinforcements for AMMCs is reviewed. The potential for their use as engine parts materials is analyzed. The results show that they have the potential to provide significant weight and cost savings when used as engine parts materials.

**Keywords:** lightweighting, aluminum metal matrix composites, IC engine, green reinforcement materials, biodegradable green materials

#### **1. Introduction**

Automobile lightweighting involves reducing the weight of an automobile in order to minimize fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. In electric vehicles (EV) however, the effect of lightweighting is to extend the range of each battery charge. The Vehicle Technologies Office of the United States Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy [1] states that "a 10% reduction in vehicle weight can result in a 6%-8% fuel economy improvement". Also, *Järvikivi* [2] reported in 2021 that each 100 kg reduction in a vehicle's weight cuts (on average) 8.5 g of CO2 per 100 km. These figures tell us that a vehicle's performance with respect to fuel efficiency and cleaner operation is improved by lightweighting of the vehicle. The engine, which is the powerhouse of the vehicle can, on the average, weigh around 10% of vehicle curb weight. Thus, anything done to reduce the engine weight will impact the vehicle performance positively.

Strategies for lightweighting engines include the use of high specific strength materials (that is, high strength-to-weight ratios) such as high-strength aluminum alloys or aluminum metal composites, sheet metal fabrication of parts, innovative design of parts, additive manufacturing and friction reduction of moving parts [3–7].

Metal composites are engineered materials consisting of a metal matrix in which a nonmetal reinforcement is dispersed. The resulting material called a metal composite, combines the properties of the metal and the reinforcement material to produce better desirable properties than any of the two can provide individually. In this way, lowstrength, lightweight engineering materials such as aluminum are converted to relatively high-strength materials suitable for use in fabrication of engine parts and others in the automobile. Common reinforcement materials include silicon carbide (SiC), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), titanium dioxide (TiO2), etc. [8–10].

With the advent of the Circular Economy [11, 12] and the necessity of going Green [13, 14], there has been a recent move to use green materials, especially biodegradables, essentially agricultural wastes, as reinforcement materials in metal matrix composites [15, 16]. Green materials are materials that have the following characteristics: are local and renewable, nontoxic, improve occupancy health, lowers cost, and conserve energy and water use and waste products, and have low embedded energy in their harvesting or collection, production, transportation, and use [17]. Examples of biodegradable green materials include palm kernel shells, periwinkle shells, coconut shells, corn cob, bagasse, rice husk, egg shell, etc. This has a number of potential benefits: more sustainable production, lower cost of reinforcement materials, optimal use of resources including waste materials, and cleaner environment in places where these biodegradable wastes are produced.

This chapter reviews the work done in using biodegradable green materials as reinforcements in aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs). It discusses their application to IC engine parts manufacture.

#### **2. Review of green materials reinforced aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs)**

In recent times there has been much interest in using renewable materials in the form of waste agricultural products as reinforcement materials in AMMCs, especially in developing countries. This is a result of a number of reasons: (i) they serve as a cheap alternative to conventional reinforcing materials such as silicon carbide and alumina, which are imported into these countries, and are expensive, (ii) enables the possibility of producing locally in these countries, lightweight high strength composites, and (iii) has the potential to create a cleaner environment due to the usage of these waste agricultural products for useful products.

The Appendix **Table A1** gives a summary of some of the research works carried out in using green materials for reinforcing AMMCs [18–85].

#### **3. Discussion**

#### **3.1 Range of green reinforcement materials**

**Table 1** lists the green materials used by various researchers as reinforcement for AMMCs. It shows that green reinforcement materials cover a wide range of materials, mainly agricultural wastes. Twenty green reinforcement materials are shown.


#### **Table 1.**

*Green materials for reinforcing AMMCs as used by researchers.*

#### **3.2 Preparation of green reinforcement materials**

**Figure 1** shows the processing routes of biodegradable green materials for reinforcement of AMMCs derived from the review summary in the Appendix **Table A1**. The preparation starts with cleaning with water or distilled water to remove all impurities. This is followed by drying, usually in the sun for days or dried in an oven for a few hours. The dried material may be pulverized and then ashed; or ashed directly

**Figure 1.** *Preparation routes for green reinforcement materials.*

without pulverization. Depending on what is desired, the pulverized particles after sizing are used directly for reinforcement. Ashing can be done by heating in air or without air. When heated without air, carbonized ash is obtained. When heated with air, uncarbonized ash is obtained. The obtained ash may further be treated before sizing for use as a reinforcement material. Further treatment could include, pulverizing, conditioning by heat treatment in a furnace to reduce the carbonaceous and volatile constituents [77], chemical treatment and/or reduction to nanoparticle treatment [63]. Finally, the particles are sized by sieving and thereafter used as reinforcements.

The use of pulverized particles without ashing is a simpler route and most likely, less costly. There seems not to be any detailed work on the comparison of the performance of metal composites reinforced with straight particles, uncarbonized and carbonized ashes. However, Hassan and Aigbodion [44] showed that carbonized eggshell ash had better performance than uncarbonized ash.

#### **3.3 Chemical compositions of green reinforcement materials**

**Table 2** shows the chemical compositions of most of the green reinforcement materials listed in **Table 1**. We could classify the reinforcements whose oxide analyses are given into (i) silica-based, (ii) calcium oxide-based, and (iii) alumina/ferric oxidebased reinforcements. These are shown in **Table 3**. Eight of the materials are silica based having at least 41% SiO2 as their highest oxide contents, three are calcium oxide based having at least 40% CaO as their highest oxide contents, and only one is alumina/ferric oxide based having at least 35% Al2O3 and at least 30% Fe2O3. When these green materials are used as reinforcements in AMMCs, they release their oxides into the matrix to affect the properties of the metal matrix.

**Table 2** also lists the densities of these biodegradable green materials, which shows that most of the materials have much lower densities than aluminum which is commonly used as matrix of metal composites.

#### **3.4 Fabrication of green materials reinforced AMMCs**

There are a number of methods used for the fabrication of AMMCs [8]. However, the stir casting process is frequently used because it promotes the casting of uniformly reinforced metal composites as stirring transfers particles into the liquid metal and maintains the particles in a state of suspension [33]. The two-step stir-casting process involves the following steps [99]:



> **Table 2.**

 *green* 

*reinforcement*

 *materials.*


#### **Table 3.**

*Classification of green reinforcement materials according to their prominent oxide content.*

#### **3.5 Microstructure of green materials reinforced AMMCs**

The large body of knowledge on metal matrix composites as exemplified by the references on green materials reinforced AMMCs in the Appendix **Table A1** shows that when the metal composite is well fabricated, the microstructure of the composites shows the uniform distribution of green materials particles in the aluminum matrix. The uniform distribution of the reinforcement particles in the microstructure of the composites is the main reason for the enhancement of the mechanical properties of AMMCs [33, 44, 100]. Also, Atuanya et al. [33] showed that the increase in reinforcement weight fraction gives rise to decrease in matrix grain size in the composites as shown in **Figure 2**. This decrease in matrix grain size further improves the mechanical properties of the composites as reinforcement content increases.

#### **3.6 Physical and mechanical properties of green materials reinforced AMMCs**

**Figure 3** shows the plots of relative density ρr, relative tensile strength σr, relative hardness Hr, and relative impact energy Er of aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) against weight percent of reinforcement particles, for egg shell ash [44] and breadfruit seed hull ash [33].

The relative density, relative tensile strength, relative hardness, and relative impact energy are defined respectively as

$$
\rho\_\mathbf{r} = \rho\_\mathbf{c} / \rho\_\mathbf{m} \tag{1}
$$

where ρ<sup>m</sup> = density of reference metal matrix, ρ<sup>c</sup> = density of composite.

$$
\sigma\_{\mathbf{r}} = \sigma\_{\mathbf{c}} / \sigma\_{\mathbf{m}} \tag{2}
$$

**Figure 2.** *SEM of aluminum alloy reinforced with (a) 2 wt.% and (b) 10 wt.% of breadfruit seed hull ash (mag.* �*100) [33].*

**Figure 3.**

*Density, hardness, strength and impact energy of aluminum metal matrix composites reinforced with egg shell ash and breadfruit seed hull ash.*

where σ<sup>m</sup> = tensile strength of reference metal matrix, σ<sup>c</sup> = tensile strength of composite.

$$\mathbf{H\_{r}} = \mathbf{H\_{c}/H\_{m}} \tag{3}$$

where Hm = hardness of reference metal matrix, Hc = hardness of composite.

$$\mathbf{E\_r = E\_c/E\_m} \tag{4}$$

where Em = impact energy of reference metal matrix, Ec = impact strength of composite.

The figure shows that as the weight percent of reinforcement materials increases, density and impact strength decrease, while tensile strength and hardness increase for both reinforcement materials.

The density of composites decreased as the percent addition of reinforcement materials increased because the green materials, egg shell ash (ρ = 1.98 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ), breadfruit seed hull ash ((ρ = 1.98 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ) (see **Table 2**) are light materials compared to the densities of the aluminum metal matrices used (2.775 g/cm<sup>3</sup> in both cases). This is in contrast to the use of conventional reinforcement materials such as alumina and silicon carbide. **Figure 4** shows that as the addition of alumina (ρalumina = 3.95 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ) and silicon carbide (ρSiC = 3.21 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ) increased, the density of the composites increased because of their higher densities than the reference aluminum alloy matrix. This shows that use of biodegradable green materials as reinforcement materials for AMMCs will produce lighter composites suitable for lightweighting of IC engines and other automobile parts, and industrial parts where lightweighting is important.

**Figure 3** shows that the hardness of the composites increased, above the reference metal matrix, as percent reinforcement content increased. This is attributed to an increase in the volume of precipitated phases or a high dislocation density. The

*Engine Lightweighting: Use of Green Materials as Reinforcement in Aluminum Metal Matrix… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108273*

**Figure 4.** *Relative densities of AMMCs reinforced with alumina [99] and silicon carbide [101].*

increase in the weight percentage of hard and brittle phases of the reinforcing materials in the aluminum alloy is responsible for the increments in hardness as reinforcement materials increase [33].

Also, **Figure 3** shows that as the percent weight of reinforcement increased, the tensile strength increases over the reference metal matrix. This may be a result of several factors such as good particle/matrix interfacial bonding, fine reinforcement particle size, and the strengthening effect of the reinforcing materials [33, 102–104].

The figure also shows that as the percent reinforcing material increased, the impact strength of the composites decreases. This is due to the brittle nature of the reinforcing materials which degrades the impact strength as the reinforcement material increases [33].

#### **3.7 Application of green materials reinforcements to IC engine parts**

**Table 4** shows IC engine parts in which aluminum alloys are used. The table shows the permissible stresses specified for the parts. The strengths of some biodegradable green reinforcement materials are also shown to see if they measure up with strength requirements of the engine parts. These strength figures indicate that there is promise for use of these biodegradable green materials for reinforcement of AMMCs as IC engine parts materials. We note that their strength values are increased when high aluminum alloys are used as reference metal matrix. These results indicate that these biodegradable reinforcement materials have the latitude of being able to generate high-strength AMMCs by choice of type of aluminum alloy, type of biodegradable material, and amount of reinforcement. By this statement, it follows that all the IC engine parts shown in **Table 4**, and possibly, other parts not shown, could readily be made with biodegradable green materials reinforced AMMCs. We note that factor of safety values which could be as high as 6 in certain cases, such as in connecting rod design, are required to reduce the strength values of the green biodegradables shown in **Table 4**. Despite this, biodegradables show great promise as reinforcing materials in AMMCs.


*Key: Rice Husk (A356.2/8wt.%RHA) [74], Palm Kernel Shell (A356/4wt.%PKSA) [63], Periwinkle Shell (Al6063/ 15wt.%PSA) [70], Breadfruit Seed Hull (Al–Si–Fe/12wt.%BSH) [33], Egg Shell (Al-Cu-Mg/12wt.%EG) [44].*

#### **Table 4.**

*Potential application of biodegradable materials reinforced AMMC to IC engine parts.*

#### **3.8 Engine lightweighting by biodegradable green materials reinforced AMMCs**

From previous work [5], in which a gasoline engine rated at 7.1 kW at 5500 rpm generating a maximum torque of 18.0 Nm at 3500 rpm was used to calculate engine weight reduction, we use this same engine to calculate potential weight reductions when using is made of these biodegradable green materials reinforced AMMCs to replace the materials used to make some parts namely, engine block, cylinder head, piston, and connecting rod. **Table 5** shows the engine weight reduction analysis. The engine block was made of cast iron, and cylinder head, piston, and connecting rod made of aluminum alloys were replaced in the analysis with AMMCs reinforced with rice husk (RH) ash, palm kernel shell (PKS) nanoparticles, and periwinkle shell (PS) ash. The table shows that:


The table also shows when it is assumed that aluminum alloy A356 is used to originally make the engine block. With this scenario, the total parts weight reductions are 13.94%, 27.03%, and 29.83% when PS-, RH-, and PKS-reinforced AMMCs are used, respectively. Also, in this case, the total engine weight reductions are 5.12%, 9.93% and 10.96% when PS-, RH-, and PKS-reinforced AMMCs are used, respectively.

These results show the massive engine lightweighting achieved when only a single cast iron part is replaced with AMMC. When the engine block was assumed to have been made originally from aluminum alloy A356, the weight reductions achieved by replacement with the biodegradable green materials reinforced AMMCs, are also appreciable: the total weight reductions on parts are 13.94%, 27.03%, and 29.83%, and on whole engine are 5.12%, 9.93%, and 10.96% when reinforced with PS, RH, and PKS, respectively.

These results follow the trend of density reduction. The percent weight reduction depends on the percent reduction of densities from original engine material to the biodegradable green reinforcement material. For example, the density reduction from


**Table 5.**

*Engine weight reductions by* 

*biodegradable*

 *materials reinforced AMMCs.*

aluminum alloy A356 to palm kernel shell (PKS) is about 30% which is the same percent reduction in weight. Thus, finding a low-density reinforcing material with high reinforcement performance is the key to weight reduction.

#### **3.9 Cost analysis of biodegradable materials reinforced AMMCs production**

A cost analysis of the production of one of the biodegradable reinforcement materials discussed above, specifically, PKS is presented. This is done to quantify the financial benefit that may accrue to the deployment of waste biodegradables as reinforcing materials in AMMCs.

Refer to **Figure 1** which shows the processing steps for obtaining reinforcement particles for AMMCs. For the analysis, we assume PKS particles, unashed and uncarbonized. Unashed and uncarbonized PKS particles have been used directly to reinforce AMMCs successfully by Edoziuno et al. [61], Ibhadode and Ebhojiaye [8].

In manufacturing, the material cost Cm is usually a fraction of the production cost, Cp. That is:

$$\mathbf{C\_m}/\mathbf{C\_p} = \mathbf{x\_m} < \mathbf{1} \tag{5}$$

To simplify the analysis, we make the following assumptions:


$$\mathbf{C\_m} = \mathbf{N} \cdot \mathbf{50}, \mathbf{000} / (\mathbf{10} \text{ tons} \times \mathbf{1000} \text{ kg}) = \mathbf{N5}/\text{kg} \tag{6}$$

From Eq. (5), for xm = 0.2, production cost is

$$\mathbf{C\_p = C\_m/x\_m = N5/0.2 = N25/kg} \tag{7}$$

If we assume a profit margin of 25%, then the selling price of PKS particles is as follows:

$$\mathbf{C\_s = N25/kg \ (1 + 0.25) = N31.25/kg} \tag{8}$$

Thus, a ton of PKS reinforcement particles will cost N31,250 = N31,250/(N640/ 1US\$) = \$48.83/ton.

This analysis shows that a ton of PKS particles will cost about \$49. This is in sharp contrast to the cost of alumina at \$339.25 [106] and silicon carbide of \$800–\$2000 per

ton [107]. That is, the cost of PKS reinforcing particles per ton is less than 15% of alumina, and between 2.5% and 6.1% of silicon carbide. Thus, it appears that there may be financial benefits in using this biodegradable material, as with others, such as listed in **Table 1**, as reinforcement materials for AMMCs.

#### **3.10 Lightweighting index or effectiveness, Lx**

The lightweighting index or effectiveness Lx is the dimensionless specific strength of the composite which we define as the ratio of specific strength of composite to the specific strength of the reference metal matrix, that is:

$$\mathbf{L\_x = |\sigma| = \{ (\sigma\_c/\rho\_c)/(\sigma\_m/\rho\_m) \}}\tag{9}$$

The higher this value, the more strength per weight, the reinforcing material has over the reference metal matrix.

The table in the Appendix **Table A1** shows the Lx values for some of the references reviewed for which the density and tensile strength values for the reference metal matrix and composites were available.

**Figure 5** shows the plots of lightweighting index Lx against wt.% composition of composites reinforced with egg shell ash [44] and breadfruit seed hull ash [33]. The figure shows that the breadfruit reinforcement seems to have a better strengthening power than the egg shell, going by these two test results [33, 44]. From the data points, the average lightweingthing index was found to be, LxoEggShell = 1.1487 and LxoBreadfruit = 1.1822.

#### **3.11 Reinforcement performance index**

Usually, it could be of interest to rate the reinforcing performance of different reinforcing materials from carefully conducted experiments or to rate the

**Figure 5.** *Lightweighting index for two biodegradable green reinforcements*


#### **Table 6.**

*Desirable changes of properties of composites for IC engines.*

performance of various wt.% compositions for a particular reinforcement. We limit this analysis to the physical and mechanical properties of density, ρ, tensile strength σ, hardness H, impact energy E, percent elongation e, creep rate cr, wear rate W, corrosion rate K and melting point T as may be applicable for IC engine parts.

**Table 6** shows the desirable changes required of the composites with respect to the use of type of reinforcement and/or as the percentage weight of reinforcement increases.

From **Table 6**, the reinforcement performance index, Px of the reinforcing material is maximized if

$$P\_{\chi} = \frac{\frac{\sigma\_c}{\sigma\_m} \cdot \frac{H\_c}{H\_m} \cdot \frac{E\_c}{E\_m} \cdot \frac{e\_c}{e\_m} \cdot \frac{T\_c}{T\_m}}{\frac{\rho\_c}{\rho\_m} \cdot \frac{W\_c}{W\_m} \cdot \frac{K\_c}{K\_m} \cdot \frac{c\_m}{c\_m}}\tag{10}$$

If any property value is unavailable, that property ratio is set equal to 1 in Eq. (10).

**Table 7** shows the computations of reinforcement performance index, Px for breadfruit seed hull ash (BSHA) [33] and egg shell ash (ESA) [44] which do not have wear rate, elongation, creep rate, corrosion rate and melting point values. The table shows that the breadfruit seed hull ash has a higher performance index than the egg shell ash reinforcement.

#### **3.12 The future of green materials as lightweighting reinforcement materials**

There is a bright future for green materials as reinforcement materials for AMMCs as shown in **Table 1** for the following reasons:



#### **Table 7.**

*Computation of reinforcement performance index, Px for breadfruit seed hull ash (BSHA) [33] and egg shell ash (ESA) [44].*

iii. Their relatively simple processing methods offer greater potential for use as AMMC reinforcement.

The following gaps exist for further research.


#### **4. Conclusion**

This chapter has discussed the possibility of using biodegradable green materials as reinforcements for aluminum metal matrix composites. The following conclusions are drawn:

i. There is a wide range of biodegradable green materials that could be used as reinforcement materials for the lightweighting of aluminum alloys.


#### **Acknowledgements**

The author wishes to thank the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC) and the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) for support during his tenure as the NNPC/SPDC-JV Professor of Lightweight Automobile Engine Development at the Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Nigeria, from 2016 to 2020.

#### **A. Appendix**





**92**











*Renewable Energy – Recent Advances*




 *of AMMCs.*

### **Author details**

Akaehomen O. Akii Ibhadode Department of Production Engineering, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: ibhadode@uniben.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 6**
