**4. Urbanization challenges in Africa**

In the preceding sections, it was revealed that climate change is one of the negative outcomes of intensified urbanization. Urbanization depicts increase in the number of urban dwellers. Usually, urbanization is as a result of rise in natural birth rate, migration to urban areas and regrouping of rural into urban areas. However,

#### *The Nexus of Climate Change, Urban Infrastructure and Sustainable Development… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107283*

industrialization has transformed the process of urbanization around the world. Consequently, this has redefined the overall perception of urbanization. According to [24], urbanization is the transformation of rural to urban centres via the process of economic enhancement and mechanization. This implies that urbanization is a transition from primarily rural settlement to urban centre. Through proper planning, good governance and efficient management of human, capital and natural wealth, urbanization heralds opportunities for socio-economic growth and development. In addition, it brings employment opportunities and provide platform for sustainable urban development. Urbanization in many developing nations is driven by natural birth and rural–urban migration. This though has been rapid but not supported with investment in infrastructure, capacity development and entrepreneurship. As a result, the process has not resulted in liability for the developing nations. As pointed out in [8], urbanization in Africa has not resulted in economic transformation and prosperity as expected. Illiteracy, poor physical infrastructure and bad governance have hindered the efficient use of productive resources to promote economic growth and development. Current economic momentum in Africa according to [8] is tied to the prosperity in other regions of the world. Despite the surge in urban dwellers in many African countries in the past decades, diverse economic and environmental challenges are still predominant ranging from infrastructure deficit, pollution, congestion, inadequate shelter, and poverty [24]. The haphazard urbanization has caused acute socio-economic, cultural and environmental issues for the developing nations [25–27].

Nigeria is the most populous nation and one of the rapidly urbanizing nations in sub-Sahara Africa. In Nigeria, as obtained in many African countries, urbanization predates colonization and industrialization in the 19th century, when economic activities such as trading and marketing and administrative expediency played critical roles in the growth and development of urban settlements [28]. In the 20th century, the growth in urban population and spread of urban centres were attributed to distinct economic cum policy developments which include the development of wheeled transportation, classification of settlements by hierarchy, transition to monetized economy, periodic geopolitical restructuring and lately, industrialization process between 1960 and 1975 [29]. In addition, the oil boom in the 70s accelerated infrastructure provision in major urban centres and caused remarkable rural–urban pull in Nigeria. Consequently, urban growth in Nigeria have been swift, spontaneous and uninhibited [30] leading to all sorts of haphazard expansion and infrastructure collapse. Studies [31–33] have shown that poor planning and intense land use in the inner-city has exacerbated urban problems. Upholding this, [34, 35] averred that the rate and style of development in Nigeria has caused greater harm to the country. The problems as mentioned in the studies include slum proliferation, pollution, violence and crime, environmental degradation, sicknesses, poverty and complex traffic challenge. This situation is similar in most urban centres in Nigeria. For instance, [36] maintained that Ibadan city is beset with diverse problems which are mostly consequences of population growth, macro-scale economic conditions, environmental challenges and weak urban development policy. Consequently from the foregoing, the following points came to the fore:


iii.urbanization in developing countries do not necessarily translate to industrialization and economic empowerment of the people

### **5. Urban infrastructure in Africa**

The challenges of urban infrastructure in developing countries are enormous, complex and intertwined. These often range from complete lack to inadequate infrastructure and decay of existing infrastructure. Urban centres across Africa suffer a great deal from infrastructure deficiency and this constitutes formidable hindrance to national economic growth. Across the world, [37] stated that an estimated one billion city dwellers occupy slums. Moreover, around fifty percent of city populace in sub-Saharan countries does not have access to basic sanitation while close to twenty percent lack access to safe water, good drainage and proper waste management [37]. Generally, there is acute shortage of basic infrastructure such as housing, pipe borne water, drainage, sanitation, solid and waste water treatment facilities, transport, rail and road infrastructure, power and health infrastructure [8]. [38] also averred that cities in developing countries are bedeviled with dysfunctional economic system, infrastructure deficiencies, governance failure, weak policies and social breakdown. Despite these, physical expansion or rather, urban sprawl continues uninhibited without commensurate growth in economic activities and infrastructure development thereby culminating in a strong positive correlation with the rise in societal disorderliness and diverse challenges. Unlike the nature of urban growth experienced in advanced countries which was equally driven by population increase among other factors, urban growth in developed countries occur hand in hand with economic growth [39]. In those countries, the issue there is more of maintenance of infrastructure than lack of it. Good governance and strong economic development policies have been put in place to propagate positive urbanization and sustainable physical development. On the contrary, the rising poverty index among the urban populace is an indication of persisting economic conundrum facing most developing countries. For example, the official statistics of Nigeria's poverty profile revealed that the relative poverty index rose from 54.4% in 2004 to 69% in 2010 [40]. Road network experience heavy traffic almost every day and do not have pedestrian walkway, flood/waste water canal and are poorly maintained [40]. The sub-urban communities usually lack good road networks and are difficult to access during raining season. Pipe borne water is basically non-existent even in city centres and many households cannot afford proper treatment of their solid and waste water. There is the proliferation of slums in urban areas and shortage of housing units. The current state of infrastructure in urban centres of most developing countries is in a dire strait and is again being pummeled by the occasional rage of climate change.

### **6. Economic growth and infrastructure development in Nigeria**

The state of economic growth in Nigeria has been on the decline in the last two to three decades, throwing millions deeper down the pit of poverty. This though, is not unconnected to the population growth, bad leadership, poor policies and endemic corruption. Studies have shown that rapid population growth slows down the growth of per capital income and perpetuate inequalities of income distribution in developing countries [41]. Before the COVID-19 crisis 2020, it was estimated that about 4 in 10

#### *The Nexus of Climate Change, Urban Infrastructure and Sustainable Development… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107283*

Nigerians were living in poverty and millions more were vulnerable to falling below the poverty line [41]. However, based on the most recent official survey data from the Nigerian National Bureau of Statistics, 39.1 percent of Nigerians lived below the international poverty line of \$1.90 per person per day (2011 PPP) in 2018/19 [42]. Yet a further 31.9 percent of Nigerians had consumption levels between \$1.90 and \$3.20 per person per day, making them vulnerable to falling into extreme poverty when shocks occur. The continued dependence on oil, high population growth rate and limited job creation has hampered the broad-based growth required to tackle poverty. In the same vein, the Nigeria's energy poverty has been quite appalling [43, 44]. Currently, Nigeria has an approximate population of over 200 million with an average estimated demand of 31.2 GW, and the country has an installed capacity of 14.38 GW with an average supply capacity of 6GW [45]. This implies that the system could only generate 40% of its installed capacity. This acute energy deficit has resulted in economic decline, low standard of living, citizen hardship and widespread poverty. It has scared foreign investors and forced several industries to relocate to countries with much more reliable and stable energy supply. The economic impacts and loss of human capital occasioned by the state of electricity infrastructure in Nigeria, is by all ramifications, far greater than the loss induced by climate change hazards [45]. [46] and [47] concluded that stable and reliable energy supply plays significant role in the economic development, poverty reduction industrial, agriculture, manufacturing, commerce, infrastructure development, employment, and security. In addition, it plays a vital role in ensuring that basic needs and services (food and water, housing, health services, and education) are adequately provided [48]. Furthermore, medical tourism and declining standard of education are another consequence of a broken governance system with severe impact on the citizenry. Medical tourism not only manifest in citizens seeking the best of healthcare in India, Europe and United States, but also in brain drain of health workers, particularly the nurses and medical doctors to countries where their services are adequately remunerated. It was reported in [49] that about N576 billion (\$1.2 billion) is lost to medical tourism yearly in Nigeria. Corroborating this, Price Waterhouse Coopers report that Nigerians spend \$1 billion annually on medical tourism [49]. [50] listed brain drain, underfunding, dilapidated structures and obsolete equipment, industrial strike, and negative attitude of health professionals as problems facing the Nigerian health sector. These and several other socio-economic problems have contributed more to the economic backwardness and infrastructure disease that plaque the Nigeria nation. These were not as a result of climate change, but only compounded by climate change disasters.

### **7. Sustainable urban development**

Industrialization, urbanization process and man's anthropogenic activities have increased atmospheric temperature and triggered the phenomenon known as global warming. This in turn has culminated into unpredictable pattern of climate events/disasters in recent times. Climate change and urbanization are both global phenomenon though the impact are largely localized. By implication, climate change can release its disrupting capability on any part of the earth. The advanced nations have contributed more than the developing countries, to the emission of greenhouse gases that cause global warming. The unpredictable patterns of weather events triggered by global warming often unleash tragedies at places without regard to the level of development, type or pattern of settlement. However, the factors that distinguish locations lie in their resilience and recovery capability. Urban resilience has to do with the level of economic and infrastructure development while recovery is contingent on good policy, proper planning and good governance. According to [8], urban population will record 95% growth over the next two decades in developing countries. The report admitted that the dramatic rise in urban population of emerging nations exposes the masses and infrastructure to dangerous environmental consequences. Climate change disasters expose the susceptibility of built-up neighborhoods in developing countries and compound the existing urban challenges. **Table 1** presents the global occurrence of natural hazards between 2002 and 2010.

The Table showed relevant statistics that reinforce the position of this study. The frequency, mortality rate and affected locations all points to the fact that climate change disasters are usually localized. As shown, about 228 earthquake disasters happened across the globe between 2002 and 2010. Out of this, only seven occurred in Africa [51]. Countries affected include DR Congo in 2002 & 2008; Algeria in 2003; Morocco in 2004; Tanzania in 2005; Mozambique in 2006 and Malawi in 2009. Similarly, the record of volcanic eruptions globally in the 21st century showed that only Democratic Republic of Congo and Eriteria were affected in Africa in the year 2002 and 2011 respectively [52]. Furthermore, the incidence of drought, flooding and heat wave in inner cities and northern parts are being managed with modern technology and infrastructure. Unlike other economic and environmental plagues that has become recurring decimal in Nigeria and many Africa countries.


#### **Table 1.**

*Global occurrence of natural hazards between 2002 and 2010.*

*The Nexus of Climate Change, Urban Infrastructure and Sustainable Development… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107283*

Amidst the predicament of urbanization and infrastructure deficit, the concept of sustainability has been introduced in the present and future development of man's physical environment and almost every aspect of human activities. [53] described sustainable development as one that satisfies current needs without jeopardizing that of future generations. In order not to expend limited resources on finding solution to existing urban misnomer, the concept of sustainable development plays an important role. Sustainable development is crucial to re-direct and redefine urbanization in developing countries. Taking a cue from the United Kingdom, the UK political agenda has centered on sustainability agenda in the last three decades [54]. Sustainable development has the remedy to the existing urbanization pattern in developing countries. Sustainable development combines infrastructure development with economic growth and employment opportunities thereby converting population growth to economic advantages. For instance, the UK Government's sustainable development agenda for residential development is based on four concurrent objectives ([55] cited in [54]):


The UK department of Community and Local Government (CLG) recognizes that sustainable community should comprise "*…places where people want to live and work, now and in the future, meet the diverse needs of existing and future residents, are sensitive to their environment and contribute to a high quality of life. Such communities are safe and inclusive, well planned, built and run and offer equal opportunity and good services for all"* [56].

### **8. Conclusion and recommendation**

Without doubt, climate change is happening as claimed in different studies earlier cited. Nevertheless, the phenomenon is certainly not the most critical problem facing developing countries at this time. Climate change threatens the fabrics of every settlement alike, but of higher significance is the negative urbanization syndrome that characterizes urban growth in developing countries. There is therefore the urgent need to reverse the trend of urbanization in most African countries to embrace positive urbanization. Positive urbanization connotes economic growth that combines infrastructure development with employment opportunities for the rising population. Positive urbanization is the primary intent and result of sustainable development of urban centres. It is an inclusive development strategy that engenders disaster preparedness of neighbourhoods and goes further to absorb and absolve the problems of previous urbanization anomalies. Consequently, positive urbanization, whether driven by natural birth, rural–urban migration, industrialization or combination of all is *sine qua non* for meaningful sustainable urban development in developing countries. Through this, investment in infrastructure is prioritized, right policies are enacted to empower the masses, conducive atmosphere is created for

entrepreneurship to thrive thereby creating employment opportunities. Sustainable urban development engenders urban resilience and improves recovery in case of disaster occurrence. Tackling infrastructure gap in urban centres and promoting sustainable development would go a long way to achieving the United Nations' sustainable development goals #10, #11 and #13 in developing countries.
