Active Learning for Society, Culture and Inclusive Education

## Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning

*Armando Lozano-Rodríguez, Fernanda Inez García-Vázquez and José Luis García-Cué*

#### **Abstract**

Active learning has a wide range of definitions, depending on the authors who define it. However, it can be understood as an instructional method that involves students in the learning process. Learning styles refer to the preferences that students have in their learning process. Learning styles emerge due to our genetics, life experiences and the demands of our current environment. These preferences can be classified and applied in activities that actively and passively require the participation of students. This chapter will attempt to describe active learning and learning styles separately. After that, the theoretical-practical intersections of active learning and learning styles are presented. Students' learning preferences may (or may not) be accommodated by active learning practices. Sometimes the nature of the style results in an innate passivity in the student. What follows is the teacher's action to engage students in a more active learning environment despite their predominant style. Based on research, some suggestions are presented in this regard.

**Keywords:** active learning, learning style, educational settings, technology, strategies

#### **1. Introduction**

There are different ways in which a person can learn, not only because of the circumstances in which it occurs but also because of the cognitive structures of each person [1]. In this sense, individual differences emerge as a key element that supports the idea that each person has a different pace and way of learning. Therefore, everyone cannot be taught the same way [2]. Individual differences include aspects beyond the cognitive area; For example, some differences can be detected with the naked eye, such as height, weight, complexion, skin color, eye color or hair type. Other differences, such as attitudes, personality traits or preferences, may not be readily apparent unless a person is asked about them [3].

In a specific school setting, such as the classroom, student preferences may go beyond cognitive ones. In other words, a learner may prefer to work individually, but the teacher requests that they work in small teams. There will be a difference between what you prefer and what you get in a classroom. Herein lies the importance of recognizing the particular learning preferences of students. Not all students have the same learning preferences, just as not all teachers have the same teaching preferences.

Preferences and tendencies have been pointed out as common features to differentiate learning styles from cognitive styles [4]. Preferences have been classified in various ways. Dunn & Dunn's work identifies what they call stimuli but refer directly to preferences: environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and psychological. The first has to do with sound (those who like to study in silence or with some noise or music), light (those who prefer white light or darkness), temperature (those who like cold places or temperate) and how the classroom is arranged (desks in a row or a half circle) [5]. On the other hand, tendencies have been associated with cognitive processes with two poles [6]. Several authors do not agree to discriminate learning styles from cognitive ones. The evidence indicates that most theories of cognitive styles refer to two opposite poles: the works of Witkin and Goodenough with field dependence/independence, and Kagan's proposal with reflection/impulsivity, to mention a few examples [4].

This chapter is intended to show the relationship and importance of learning styles in what has been called active learning. Since there are many learning style theories, we will try to rescue various concepts from some of them to illustrate their possible applications in an instructional model that addresses the active mode of learning.

#### **2. What is a learning style? How can it be used in the teaching-learning process?**

Learning style is a common personal and preferred method of acquiring, processing and maintaining new data and skills [7], more recently defined as a combination of distinctive cognitive, affective and psychological variables that indicate how an apprentice observes and interacts with a learning environment [8].

Style is defined as a set of preferences, tendencies and dispositions that a person has to do something and that manifests itself through a behavioral pattern and different strengths that make it stand out from others [4]. Learning styles also can be defined as cognitive, affective, physiological traits, preferences for the use of the senses, environment, culture, psychology, comfort, development and personality. These serve as relatively stable indicators of how people perceive, relate and respond to their learning environments and their methods or strategies in their way of learning [9, 10].

The learning styles have a huge influence on the educational field, and one of its main goals is to improve the results of the teaching-learning process, both in the short and long term [11]. These characteristics play an important role in electing the most suitable methods and learning strategies [12]. Also, the comprehension of these styles enhances the elaboration and development of more effective curricula and programs [13].

These styles considerably impact teachers' creation of material, instruction alternatives, evaluations and students' class material process. Therefore, it is important to connect learning styles and teaching practices, for example, through music, visuals or experiential activities [14]. Employing a set of teaching methods is founded on the postulation that, to some extent, some of the course content should be provided in a way that suits every type of learner [15].

Learning styles could provide a basis and a profitable framework that captures students' diverse cognitive and affective characteristics. This framework may serve to encourage differences among students [16].

#### *Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105964*

Another important issue consists of the implications of these preferences in educational environments. A transition from traditional settings to environments that consider the different learning styles is necessary. The individual variations in educational environments must consider the student's differences and teachers' diversity due to the important role of these factors in the teaching-learning settings [17].

Although most of the time learning styles are widely related to sensory preferences (visual, auditory and kinesthetic), it is important to highlight that there are a large number of theories that have focused on different types of preferences, like the Dunn & Dunn model [18]. Some conceive models of learning styles in packages of four; among them are the works of Anthony Gregorc [19], David Kolb [20], Honey and Mumford [21], Catalina Alonso and Domingo Gallego [22] and Berenice McCarthy [23], to mention a few. Others establish packages of five and six, as is the case of Anthony Grasha [24] and Richard Felder and Linda Silverman [25], respectively. Furthermore, others propose up to 16 styles, as is the case of Myers et al. [26].

Learning styles theories have been classified by different authors. The first was proposed by Lynn Curry [27, 28] with the metaphor of the layers of an onion. The first layer refers to instructional preferences: how the student likes to receive a lesson or learn content in a classroom (Grasha's model and Dunn & Dunn's model fit very well here). The layer that follows has to do with social interaction preferences, that is, those individuals who like to interact with others or who prefer to remain isolated (the MyersBriggs and Dunn & Dunn models are clear examples). The third layer has to do with information processing preferences, that is, whether learners learn by steps or by intuitive jumps, whether they acquire information in isolation or together, etc. (Theories that allude to processes of perception and information processing appear here, such as the models of Kolb, Gregorc, Alonso and Gallego and McCarthy). The last layer has to do with personality preferences, that is, if a learner is introverted or extroverted and other similar characteristics that model the personality of an individual (the MyersBriggs model fits here).

Another proposal for classifying theories was proposed by Sternberg and Grigorenko [29]. His classification of the different style theories responds to those that existed before the 1990s. The first approach is centred on cognition, which located the theories of cognitive styles. Among them were authors such as Witkin (dependence - field independence), Kagan (reflection - impulsiveness), Smith and Klein (flexible control - constrictor control). Most of these theories shared the fact that styles were seen as trends rather than preferences. A typical characteristic of this conglomerate was that since it contained only two style possibilities, its values could be visualized in a continuum, in such a way that a person could move in the line without having one hundred per cent of a particular style.

The second approach is focused on personality. This approach can include the theory of the sixteen styles of Myers-Briggs [26], which in turn had been based on the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung's model of types. Not only how an individual learns is identified but also attitudes, roles and lifestyle. Also, in this group, the model of Gregorc can be located [19]. The third and final approach is activity-focused. Here are many theories of learning styles that, from the point of view of Sternberg and Grigorenko [29], do not have the same theoretical weight as the two previous approaches. They mention Dunn's model and Kolb's.

Some theories of learning styles for virtual environments have appeared in recent years. One of these theories was proposed by Melaré-Vieira [30], which identifies four styles in the use of virtual space. The first style is participatory and likes discussion forums and chats, and it is proactive and risky. The second style is called search and

investigation, and it likes to investigate, organize content and synthesize information. The third style is structuring and planning, it likes theory, enjoys projects and is methodical and farsighted. Finally, the last style is called concrete and production, It likes to discover new software, enjoys social networks, multitasks and likes to do things online (electronic banking, hotel reservations, etcetera.).

For their part, Lozano-Rodríguez, Tijerina-Salas and Valenzuela-González [31] proposed a model that considers preferences related to the use of computer equipment. In addition to chronobiological, sensory, psychological and dependency preferences, a section was included to consider technological preferences. From this attempt, Lozano-Rodríguez, Tijerina-Salas and García-Cué [32] proposed another instrument to measure learning styles in online environments. The difference with the previous one was that this initiative rescued the essence of attendance. However, the set of specified preferences could be applied to face-to-face and virtual environments alike. The proposal included four types of preferences: perception, autonomy, orientation and sensory preferences.

#### **3. What is active learning?**

Active learning does not have a singular definition. Karamustafaoglu [33] mentions that this concept can be defined 'as any instructional method that engages students in the learning process' (p. 28). This practice implies active involvement in the learning process and not a passive attitude [34]. Also, active learning activities require students to think about what they are doing. The teacher's role in the student's active learning should not be overlooked. It is important to keep it in the setting where the teaching-learning process takes place.

The word 'active' implies activities requiring students' involvement beyond mere reception, such as listening to an explanation or narration. Being active involves the student manipulating something, moving the body, executing different movements or doing something more than just contemplatively or passively watching something [35, 36].

Active learning has often been related to teaching techniques, such as problembased learning or project-oriented learning [37–39]. The underlying idea is that these techniques involve collaborative learning as an active way of learning. Students are encouraged to interact with each other by exchanging points of view and perspectives on a particular issue.

Interaction in small groups entails applying different social skills, such as negotiation, conflict resolution, argumentation and agreement [40, 41]. Each student learns based on her active participation in the discussion. Usually, problem-based learning includes a series of steps or stages that students go through until they reach the point of preparing a final report. On the other hand, in project-oriented learning, students focus on the product they must deliver at the end of the day.

Other teaching techniques involving active learning are challenge-based learning [42, 43] case study, and collaborative learning per se [44]. In the first one, students sometimes analyze a challenge, which can be a situation that previously occurred in a given setting or was invented by the teacher. The purpose here is to solve a difficult situation in a real or imaginary scenario.

In the second one, students address the case as an independent study phase and then a small group discussion leading up to a plenary discussion. In the third one, collaborative work can be reflected in the approach to a challenge, problem, project

#### *Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105964*

or case. In other words, collaborative learning is the common denominator of the four previous teaching techniques (see **Figure 1**). In the same way, it was found that medical students who worked with team-based learning had better academic performance than those who did not [45]. In addition, there was an involvement of the students in their learning.

The notion of representing a type of active learning in the form of didactic techniques mentioned above is equivalent to the fact that the passive aspect of the student, where he/she acts as a receptacle of information or knowledge. The same dynamic of interaction involved in each technique avoids this feature. There is an activation of knowledge, reflection, connections with other prior knowledge and, most importantly, social exchange of ideas encourages active participation [46].

In addition to teaching techniques, the construction of models and mock-ups is a clear example of how to promote student learning in an active and participatory way. A study was designed where medicine and nutrition of students worked with the elaboration of models to illustrate the different processes of human physiology [47]. Through presentations in small teams, students had the opportunity to visualize concepts more clearly that could be more abstract than they seemed.

The practical aspect highlighted in the experience of building models and mockups fosters the understanding and recall of the information learned. The inclusion of games in non-playful contextual environments is another way of visualizing a form of active learning. Alsawaier [48] highlights the importance of gamification as an alternative to increasing motivation and engagement. Students see their participation

**Figure 1.** *Teaching techniques for active learning.*

increase due to the adrenaline of wanting to beat others or obtain a characteristic badge of this modality. In the same way, another study was designed with active learning experiences through the use of puzzles for teaching dentistry [49]. The experimental group students were exhorted to work with crosswords and word search puzzles. Their results suggest an increase in student participation versus those in the control group who did not use them. Students became more excited by using a resource that had not been used before.

The use of concept maps can also evidence a form of active learning since the student puts into play their acquired knowledge in the form of representing it on a map. A study with pathology students suggests that the implementation of concept maps favored academic achievement [50]. Besides the teacher's oral presentations, the students made a concept map each week as a closing learning activity. Also, Clarkson [51] points out that using IPad in the classroom promotes a more collaborative and authentic learning experience and improves critical thinking. According to this author, active learning strategies focus on the student, facilitate collaboration and reflect workplace practices that can help develop the necessary skills. Finally, Rodis and Locsin [52] applied a series of active learning strategies based on peer-learning and peer-teaching in English-language dental students from Japan. The students reported that the activities had contributed significantly to their training as dentists and they preferred active learning styles.

On the other hand, empirical evidence shows that active learning techniques do not necessarily increase academic achievement [36]. However, it has been shown that active learning positively influences the student's involvement in what he/she learns, and his/her motivation is also increased [53]. Considering that not all students prefer the active mode of learning, it is possible to assume that active learning techniques do not necessarily work the same way for everyone. For example, in the theory of learning styles of sensory preferences, kinesthetic students will like activities that require them to move or manipulate objects. In contrast, visual or auditory students prefer to be spectators of a demonstration or an explanation. It sounds logical? The truth is that the same type of student cannot be generalized for any instructional technique, whether active or not.

#### **4. Types of active learning activities**

Not all active learning activities are the same. There are differences in the intentions, the cognitive demands and the involvement that students can have. Chi [54] proposes a difference between learning activities classified into active, constructive and interactive categories. The first ones fit the concepts that have been previously mentioned about active learning; that is, when the student physically executes something or manipulates objects, there is direct involvement. The second one is focused on the construction of things or products. Writing a sentence, writing a story or generating a product are examples of construction. The latter refers to students exchanging points of view, opinions and perspectives with their peers. In fact, the interactivity part is more than evident in the didactic techniques. Learning acquires a social nuance that accompanies individual participation.

An alternative proposal would have to do with the nature of the learning activities in terms of the cognitive demands placed on the student. So far, we have talked about teaching techniques involving collaborative learning, learning activities involving gamification, concept maps, crossword puzzles and models and mock-ups. To the


#### **Table 1.**

*Types of active learning activities.*

above, theatrical performances, body language exercises, debates and the flipped classroom, to name a few, could also be integrated (see **Table 1**). It is important to mention that this list is not exhaustive and that it is intended to serve as a reference framework for instructional designs.

The instructional design of a specific course should consider the inclusion of active learning activities. However, selecting which type of activity is required will depend on the nature of the discipline to be taught and the educational level. The examples that will be addressed below have a lot to do, mainly with the areas of medicine and health.

#### **5. The intersection between active learning and learning styles**

Some learning style theories include styles that consider the active factor. For example, in perceptual preferences, the kinesthetic style refers to the possibility that the student can move or perform actions aimed at the learning process. Boctor [55] points out that nursing students are kinesthetic learners. They prefer a hands-on, movement involvement, active approach to education. However, in that sense, what happens with the other styles of learning? Are visual and aural learning styles out of the active learning? The answer could be affirmative, as long as the student's activity is limited to passive viewing or listening, but it is not the case all the time. What happens when there are possibilities to make active what is considered passive? For instance, Palis and Quiros [56] observed that traditional classes in medical school, where the teacher explains a topic or a concept, could be enriched with some learning principles such as the needs of the student, the interaction in the classroom and the connection of the new knowledge with the old. The lectures can be classified as passive, but the difference in making them active lies in their learning principles-based complements. According to medical students, lecturers can promote deeper learning since reflection during lectures may be encouraged through debates, dialogs and questions.

In learning the laws of Physics through WebQuest, students who show active learning styles have better results in terms of their academic achievement, especially when it comes to science or mathematics subjects [57]. It is important to note that students who exhibit passive learning styles can still be encouraged to participate in active learning activities unless there is a physical difficulty or disability. Added to this, it was pointed out that also, in learning geometry through a creative process, students with an active learning style had a certain performance [58]. However, there was no way to compare it to other learning styles that were not active.

Research in computer science indicates that students in this area are inclined to be visual/intuitive learners. In these cases, an active environment is essential for the mastery of learning material. Based on this idea, a laboratory course was created to stimulate an active learning environment using techniques, such as frequent in-class problem solving, lab sheets and discussions. The results showed improved student grades and greater satisfaction with the course [59].

Having a passive learning style and turning it into an active one depends on many factors. Can it be achieved? It was found that some pharmacology residents changed their learning styles as they moved into practice outside of the residency [60]. However, the study suggests that an opportunity is needed to guide pharmacists towards more active learning preferences through residency curricula, learning facilitation and mentoring.

One of the learning styles theories, which has undoubtedly had a profound impact on conceptualizing the different preferences for learning in a cyclical model (through perception and processing of information), is referred to by David Kolb [20]. Initially, this author distinguished only four learning styles: diverging, assimilating, accommodating and converging. The first and the last style had to do with concrete experience, where manipulation and social interaction have a lot to do with it. In terms of action, these styles are suitable for active learning. The second and third styles had more to do with contemplation and abstract abstraction; here, only reflective observation is highlighted. On the contrary, these styles are more related to passive ways of learning. However, more recently, this theory was upgraded to a nine-style scheme, proposed by Kay Peterson, Lisa DeCato and David Kolb [61]. In this new proposal, elements of effort are included and indicated in a continuum with two opposite values. These comprise the flow that goes from the free one to the restricted one, the weight that goes from the light one to the heavy one, the time that goes from the gradual one to the urgent one and an approach that goes from the indirect way to a direct one. At least five styles in this new model have to do with active learning.

It is important to highlight that almost half of the learning styles of this or other style models consider the possibility of carrying out activities that lead to an active character [18, 20, 24]. However, it has also been seen that there are styles that prefer passivity at all times in their learning process. The underlying idea is to realize the importance of inviting those students to explore styles other than their own.

*Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105964*

**Figure 2.**

*Teaching steps considering learning styles in active learning.*

Sternberg [62] already pointed out that styles can change over time and that they could also be socialized. If a student is invited by his/her teacher to explore new ways of learning, he/she will likely have no choice but to follow the recommendation. Many students discover new learning possibilities and make them their own, while others prefer to stay in their comfort zone. The teacher's figure is also important because many students take him as a role model.

One of the first ideas that emerges from the relationship between learning styles and active learning is the necessity to identify students who really like active learning activities (see **Figure 2**). In other words, those students will voluntarily enjoy active learning activities. Those who present passive styles should be encouraged and persuaded to participate. In a second moment, the teacher faces the challenge of convincing these students to get involved with their own learning in a style that is not their own. Several models of learning styles propose that students activate all their styles when they are in a learning activity since no one has an absolute style but rather a collection of several [5, 62].

The teacher's intervention could be necessary when he/she detects that certain students are presenting difficulties in their learning process [63]. Sometimes it is not enough to observe them directly during their performance in some activity, but ask them directly if they have problems advancing in their objectives. In the end, an evaluation process will be required to identify areas of opportunity for subsequent activities.

The model of learning styles chosen will depend on the educational level and the characteristics of the class. As already mentioned, the variety of theories is very wide and should not be restricted to sensory preferences only.

#### **6. Conclusions**

The design of active learning activities must consider, at all times, the learning styles of the students. In this way, teaching efforts can be capitalized on to obtain the best results in terms of academic achievement. In this sense, applying an instrument to measure learning styles is highly recommended. Teacher knows the learning styles of their students is a powerful tool to be able to influence the teaching-learning process.

On the other hand, the inclusion of individual and team activities should have a similar weight throughout a course. In other words, not all activities are individual, nor are they all collective. Implementing teaching techniques is highly desirable, but so is the possibility that students alone can face a learning situation that challenges their intellect, imagination, creativity and critical thinking. Concept maps,

mind maps, crossword puzzles and the creation of models and mock-ups are some recommendations.

In addition, with an overview of the class on the types of learning styles that students have, the teacher can make more organized combinations of students distributed in teams. Instructors can also pinpoint which students need more attention to achieve the course objectives, support those with more passive learning styles and encourage more active ones. Only this way can there be better results in terms of learning.

In summary, learning styles can be a great ally in the design of active learning activities, not only because they can enhance the result obtained but also because it allows students to enjoy the learning process more. The more the learning activities are adjusted to the styles of the students, the greater the possibility of academic achievement.

#### **Acknowledgements**

We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to our educational leader, Dr. María Luisa Madueño-Serrano as well as our principal Dr. Guadalupe De la Paz Ross-Arguelles who gave us the support to do this project. We are really thankful to them.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Armando Lozano-Rodríguez1 \*, Fernanda Inez García-Vázquez1 and José Luis García-Cué2

1 Sonora Institute of Technology, Obregón, México

2 Postgraduate College, Texcoco, México

\*Address all correspondence to: armando.lozano@itson.edu.mx

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105964*

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**Chapter 9**

## Perspective Chapter: New Active Learning Models in Africa

*Fred Awaah, Cosmas Lambini Kombat and Emmanuel Okyere Ekwam*

#### **Abstract**

This desk review draws from the active learning literature to establish that the Culturo- Techno-Contextual Approach is a new active learning model of African origin that holds the key to students understanding of concepts within the continent. The chapter argues that the tripod of culture, technology, and context form the basis of the CTCA and are all triggered by engaging peers, community, teachers, and other active learning partners to ensure students understand concepts. Anchored on Hofstede's cultural dimensions, we argue that the five-step teaching processes used in the CTCA further involve students engaging with their communities, peers, friends and relations, technology, and others to enhance their understanding of concepts. We conclude that the CTCA is an active learning model that enhances students understanding of concepts in schools. We further propose the Collectivism, Culture & Context Framework (3C Framework) as one that can further enhance active learning and students' understanding of concepts.

**Keywords:** active learning, Culturo- techno-contextual approach, learning models, Hofstede's cultural dimensions, education

#### **1. Introduction**

Instructor roles are shifting from information presenter to designer of active learning processes, environments, and experiences that increase student engagement [1]. The more dynamic a lesson is, the more academically and emotionally engaged students will be in the learning activities. Many active learning processes are built on the foundation of cooperative learning. Cooperative learning refers to utilising small groups in the classroom to help students maximise their own and each other's learning. Students must work cooperatively in small groups to attain joint learning goals in most active learning methods, such as problem-based, team, collaborative, and peer-assisted learning strategies [1].

In recent years, political, instructional, and academic interest in active learning has been expanding. Active learning, on the other hand, has many definitions. The learning outcomes have been mostly positive, but the measurement methods are not without problems [2].

Active learning is an umbrella word that is not particularly beneficial in developing research on learning. It is widely used to offer an alternative to lectures and does have a purpose in higher education classroom practice [3]. Lombardi et al. [3] believe that undergraduate students should be active class participants and that, in addition to cognitive knowledge production, the social construction of meaning plays a significant role for many students.

Active Learning Classrooms (ALCs) are learning spaces specially designed to optimise the practice of active learning and amplify its positive effects on learners, from young children to university-level learners [4].

From the afore, we assert that active learning is a teaching method that involves keenly engaging students in the learning process from the study material and assignments, enabling for asking questions, discussion, and role-play, among others. The idea of active learning involves entrusting core learning responsibilities to the student to ensure their active involvement in the learning process. Within an African culture of active learning, we choose Hofstedes' cultural dimension as the theoretical base of our study.

#### **2. Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory**

This study presents the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA) as an active learning model of African origin. We, therefore, have adopted Hofstede's cultural dimensions as our theoretical base. Geert Hofstede, a Dutch management scholar, developed Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory in 1980. Hofstede [5] proposed four cultural characteristics that could distinguish how a society's culture influences the actions and values of its people. These are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism or collectivism, and masculinity or femininity. However, he later added two more dimensions [6]. These are long or short term orientation and indulgence or restraint. The collectivism dimension of [6] model is relevant to this study.

Even if there are diverse individuals within a group, the collective philosophy of one group can be homogeneous and vary from one group to the next; thus, [6] defines culture as "the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others." This finds relevance to our study since the CTCA has its anchor on culture as a tool for enhancing students understanding of concepts.

Collectivism is how people in a community are integrated into groups. It is a social, not an individual, feature. Individualist societies have loose relationships: everyone is expected to take after themselves and their immediate family. On the collectivist side, people are integrated from birth into strong, cohesive in-groups, frequently extended families (including uncles, aunts, and grandparents) that continue to protect them in return for unquestioning allegiance and oppose others [6]. Later in the CTCA, this collectivist principle will be seen as students are expected to cooperate in groups to attain academic success.

#### **3. Studies in active learning in Africa**

Because of the large number of first-year students, lecturers have adopted coping tactics such as direct-transmission mode teaching and reduced time for practicals and assessment [7]. Assert that several strategies have been implemented to improve student participation and active learning in South Africa; however, these changes have to be facilitated and fostered by faculty and administrators. Consequently, they presented the implementation, results, and feedback of a new first-year course run from 2005 to 2008. The number of lectures was reduced in the course, and the number of more cooperative tutorials and practical based sessions was increased. These changes aimed to promote students' active participation and encourage them to take responsibility for their learning. Wilson [7] report that, although there were some initial difficulties, most students and faculty were enthusiastic about the learning experience, and the abilities learned were thought to be transferable to other science courses.

Lecturers could have different reasons for choosing a specific teaching strategy, including the government policy, education institution policy, or management directive [8]. Despite these issues, they report that lecturers might choose to use Active learning methodologies on their own rather than because they are told to. Their qualitative interpretive case study sought to learn about the motivations of 11 lecturers from three different faculties in a private higher education university in South Africa: Faculty of Commerce and Law, Faculty of Social Science, and Faculty of Applied Science in implementing Active learning methodologies in their courses. Their findings suggest that lecturers use Active learning because they believe that: Active learning prepares students for the workplace by developing required skills; Active learning supports learning in the classroom; Active learning transforms boring passive learning classes into engaging, enjoyable active classes in which students want to participate; and their personal experience as students has had a lecturer who used Active learning strategies in their classes that worked for them.

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's administration also announced a new curriculum reforming the educational sector [9]. The program aimed to replace teacher-centred teaching practices with student-centred, active learning strategies. The findings revealed that most students' learning styles were evenly distributed throughout the two dimensions of the ILS scales. They also found significant differences in the students' learning styles and attitudes towards active learning regarding their gender, education level, and the types of schools.

#### **4. The Culturo: techno-contextual approach (CTCA)**

A new Afrocentric teaching model, which emphasises the use of digital technology in methodology and delivery and the relevance of partnerships in meeting the continent's higher education demands, provides an effective teaching and learning paradigm, especially during the COVID-19 lockdowns [10]. In many studies, researchers have proffered different approaches to teaching. However, a recurrent theme in recent literature is the Culturo-Techno-Conceptual Approach, which suggests using indigenous/cultural models in teaching and learning to foster student understanding of concepts. Okebukola [11] proposed that the model amalgamates culture, technology and the context (environment), as shown in **Figure 1**.

The Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach is a teaching method based on culture, technology, and the context or the environment in which teaching and learning occur [11]. The relevant philosophies that the approach is grounded in are Kwame Nkrumah's (ethnophilosophy) for culture, Martin Heidegger's (techno-philosophy) for technology, and Michael Williams' (Contextualism) for the contextual element of CTCA.

#### **Figure 1.**

*Culturo-techno-contextual approach. Sourced from Okebukola (2020).*

In this context, ethno-philosophy is based on Kwame Nkrumah's idea of the African people's uniqueness and culture, which he pioneered. Nkrumah believed that African culture is distinct from European ways of living but not inferior to them [12].

The CTCA's 'techno' component is profoundly anchored in the 'Heideggerian' notion of technology as a technique for unveiling the world, a revelation in which individuals take control of reality.

CTCA's context element is based on the philosophical framework of Contextualism. Contextualism asserts that our actions, utterances, or expressions, as well as our learning, can be understood only in the context in which they occur. When using CTCA to teach students, the explanations, situations, and examples should be relevant to their immediate surroundings to assimilate the information fast.

#### **5. The CTCA and active learning**

Unlike the lecture method that seems to emphasise the teachers as a repository of knowledge, the CTCA has a definite procedural teaching style that encourages interactions and active learning (see **Figure 2**).

In a CTCA class, the teacher does not teach in the first meeting with the students. The teacher introduces the topic and encourages the students to find out the cultural elements relating to the topic from their parents, relatives, elders, grandparents (culture), internet sources (technology) and their immediate environment (context). This aspect of the CTCA engages the students in knowledge finding from their perspectives before the teacher teaches the topic in the next lecture. Students can explore the topic from diverse sources, including cultural, technological and contextual perspectives, unveiling positive interactive learning between the students and the community and the internet even before the classroom engagements with the teacher on the subject or topic.

#### **Figure 2.**

*Steps involved in teaching using the CTCA. Sourced from [13].*

In the next class with the teacher, the teacher groups the students in numbers not exceeding 10 with mixed sexes and mixed abilities. These groups brainstorm on the cultural knowledge found from the parents and others together with the internet sources and the environment. This constitutes active learning since the students, in their interactions, agree and disagree on narrations that are right and those that are wrong from their views.

The next stage of the learning process entails leaders of each group presenting the results from their groups elaborating on the cultural perspective found from their parents, technology and the environment. While this is done, other group members note what they agree with and those they do not agree with to comment on when the opportunity arises. It should be noted that this aspect of teaching using the CTCA also unveils an opportunity for active learning since it is more of a peer learning process at this stage.

The teacher then takes over when all the groups are done presenting their findings on the topic from the cultural perspectives of their parents, technology and the environments. At this juncture, the teacher emphasises the correct narrations from the individual presenters while correcting viewpoints that were not right. This aspect of the teaching enhances clarity since students are likely to misinterpret their findings. This aspect of the teaching also brings to bear the issue of interactive learning.

Amidst these, the teacher sprinkles the teaching with some humour to ensure the students are at ease and relaxed to absorb the contents and o to ask questions when need be. Following that, students are relaxed. They can interact with the teacher and ask questions and critique the perspectives of their colleagues. This brings out the interactive component of the CTCA, which is worth reporting.

The teacher subsequently summarises the entire lecture and sends it to the students at the close of the day through the appropriate technological medium (email, WhatsApp, SMS). This also shows evidence of active earning since, after class, the teacher still engages the students electronically with the study's contents within the day.

#### **6. Methodology**

This study is a desk review. The active learning literature provided baseline information on how African countries have used active learning models and the effects such have had on the continent's education. The study specifically reviewed the literature on active learning in South Africa, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Ghana. The anchor model is the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach. A full bibliography of information sources reviewed is reported in the references section.

#### **7. Evidence of the effectiveness of the CTCA as an active teaching model**

Several studies have examined the efficacy of using the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA) in breaking difficulties in concepts in different research fields. This section reviews such studies in indigenous knowledge systems, emphasising the CTCA.

In a survey of 5032 secondary biology students and their teachers (n = 311) in Lagos State on the impact of the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA) in tackling under-achievement in difficult concepts in Biology, [14] found that the value associated with Wilks' lambda is [F = 15.63; p.05], confirming the significance of the MANCOVA and justifying a deeper probe into the F values relating to the study's independent variable on the dependent variables of achievement and attitude; providing a foundation for the efficacy of CTCA and validation of its potency.

Awaah [13] also found that the experimental group (Mean = 22.20 and SD = 5.10) outperformed the control group (Mean = 20.45 and SD = 8.01) in politics and bureaucracy (p = .000) in a study of public administration students at the University of Professional Studies – Accra (UPSA) [p = 000; F (1, 130) = 14.07]. The results reveal that CTCA has the potential to improve undergraduate students' performance in difficult public administration concepts. Within the study's limitations, particularly the small sample size and short duration of the experiment, the study recommends (a) an exploratory use of CTCA for teaching public administration in undergraduate classes in Ghana's university system; (b) a deeper look into the factors that influence CTCA's potency; b) conducting more testing on larger groups of pupils in Ghana and other African countries; (d) using the Awaah indigenous paradigm for overcoming learning difficulties in public administration studies.

Similarly, [15] emphasises that it is vital for students to succeed in developing a sense of cultural belonging. Students need to find commonalities with their own life and living situations. They need to see a similarity with their context. This sense of belonging can be enhanced by including cultural practices in the educational curriculum.

Adewusi [15]'s position finds semblance with that of [16] that science teachers initiate the process of thinking more about providing teachers with CTCA know-how in the quest for culturally and contextually appropriate methods of effective delivery of science. This finds further support in Egerue 2019 that teachers explore using the CTCA to enhance learners' accomplishment in scientific explanations. Ogunbanwo [17] aptly takes a similar stance when he argues that teachers should adopt the CTCA teaching methodology to help pupils enhance their academic performance, attitudes and motivation.

#### *Perspective Chapter: New Active Learning Models in Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105217*

Further, in a survey of 60 senior secondary three biology students on the potency of the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach on students' achievement and attitude towards mutation and variation in Biology, [18] found that there was an impact of the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach as pieces of evidence showed the experimental group students performed better than the control group students on the achievement measure and attitude towards mutation and variation.

Gbeleyi and Egerue [19, 20] believes that using indigenous (cultural) knowledge in the computer studies/ICT classroom can facilitate meaningful learning and cultural sustainability in his study on flowcharting. To bridge the gaps and spaces that pupils experience in their thoughts, indigenous knowledge must be integrated. He adds that the most interesting experience for students is discovering that, after all, "their ancestors'" and "their direct parents'" view of the world does not always contradict that of modern science. When there are disagreements, the teacher explains the many points of view. He hopes that his findings will be useful to other scholars and educators interested in learning more about the indigenous strategy for cultural survival and advancement.

This is in line with [18]'s findings that the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach had a significant impact on achievement, as experimental students outperformed their control group peers on the achievement scores. The finding supports [7]'s notion that in order for effective teaching to occur, specific principles and ideas must be explained to connote ideas from the immediate environment that the students are already familiarised with in order to achieve inclusive learning and a positive behavioural change in the learner's life (s). Learners understand better when they learn about concepts within their immediate environs by asking elders, family, tribespeople and friends. However, [19, 20] cautions that students should not allow traditional and religious beliefs to interfere with the scientific explanation of concepts. In today's world, when students may be enticed to sacrifice scientific truth in favour of indigenous knowledge, [19, 20]'s viewpoint is timely.

The culture of Africans permeates every fibre of African lives, including politics, and this culture had been harnessed for the continent's benefit before the introduction of anything western [21]. This observation confirms [22]'s observation that, in the era of globalisation and contemporary technological development, the people of Ghana must recognise that their culture is the basis of and the most important factor in the nation's human history and material development.

#### **8. The collectivism, culture & context framework (3C framework)**

Inferring from the literature reviewed and evidence from the communal lifestyles of Africans where this study is situated, we argue that contextual culture is a catalyst to active learning. We draw our inspiration largely from the works of Okebukola and Hofstede. In the Okebukolan model, the cultural and context components of the CTCA have catalogued evidence of students engaging in active learning, which has registered numerous studies to back its efficacy.

The work of Hofstede also finds relevance in our new proposition. Hofstede situates the culture between collectivism and individualism. We find that largely collectivism represents values reflective in every sphere of the African lifestyle, including education. This notion had registered many positives in the classroom when the CTCA encouraged collaborative engagements as a tool for understanding concepts.

Our preposition defines contextual culture as relative to a given society and not generic. In this instance, even as this study is African specific, there is the understanding that Africa also has unique cultures peculiar to specific African societies that are not practised in other parts of the continent. To ensure interactive learning, teachers will need to encourage the use of cultures specific to the environment they teach to ensure students can identify with such cultures to enhance their understanding of concepts. For instance, if winter or summer are used as examples in a classroom in northern Ghana, it is likely to impede students' understanding of the teaching weather and seasons. Alternatively, when the rainy season or dry season are used, the students will understand within the context of their environment because winter and summer are alien to them while raining and dry seasons are notions they are familiar with.

Contextual culture will thus include the use of examples relative to the given environment where teaching is taking place, situating teaching within the cultural practices of the environment within which learning is taking place, and minimising the usage of cultures foreign to the environment within which teaching is taking place, encouraging the use of indigenous examples by students, comparable at intervals the culture of the teaching settings with those of other jurisdictions to give students global worldview of the concepts being taught.

Further, collectivism, as espoused in our preposition, relates largely to the Ubuntu principle of Africans that encourages communal achievements as opposed to individualism, as re-echoed in the works of Hofstede. In this regard, we argue that if students are encouraged to learn collectively (collaborative learning) and emphasise group achievements instead of individual achievements in the classrooms, the student will be encouraged to learn interactively towards achieving academic success.

While our preposition is hinged on existing literature and our observations, it is important to note that the preposition may not be effective for active learning in individualistic societies that value individual achievements without recourse to collectivism.

From the afore, we suggest the framework (see **Figure 3**) as a model that will foster active learning in the educational sector.

**Figure 3.** *The collectivism, culture & context framework.*

*New Active Learning Models in Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105217*

#### **9. Conclusion**

This study draws from existing literature on active learning in Africa to make a case for the Culturo- Techno-Contextual approach as an efficient active learning model of African origin. We demonstrate that using culture, technology and context, as espoused by [11], holds the key to active learning. Drawing from his work and the Hofstede culture dimensions, we propose the collectivism, culture, and context framework.

#### **Abbreviations**


### **Author details**

Fred Awaah1 \*, Cosmas Lambini Kombat2 and Emmanuel Okyere Ekwam1

1 University of Professional Studies, Accra, Ghana

2 University of Development Studies, Ghana

\*Address all correspondence to: akaphari@yahoo.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Hartikainen S, Rintala H, Pylväs L, Nokelainen P. The concept of active learning and the measurement of learning outcomes: A review of research in engineering higher education. Education Sciences. 2019;**9**(4):276

[3] Lombardi D, Shipley TF, Astronomy Team, Biology Team, Chemistry Team, Engineering Team, Geography Team, Geoscience Team, and Physics Team. The curious construct of active learning. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 2021;**22**(1):8-43

[4] Talbert R, Mor-Avi A. A space for learning: An analysis of research on active learning spaces. Heliyon. 2019;**5**(12):e02967

[5] Hofstede G. Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage; 1980

[6] Hofstede G. Dimensionalising cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 2011;**2**(1):1-26

[7] Wilson TD. On user studies and information needs. Journal of Documentation. 1981;**37**(1):3-15

[8] Fraser WJ, Beyleveld M, De Villiers JJR. The use of active learning in a private higher education institution: The lecturer's perspective. South African Journal of Higher Education. 2019;**33**(2):16-28

[9] Mihrka AA, Mihrka AA. Learning Styles and Attitudes towards Active

Learning of Students at Different Levels in Ethiopia (Doctoral Dissertation). Pretoria, South Africa: University of South Africa; 2014

[10] Awaah F. Indigenous (cultural) knowledge related to the concept of politics as a difficult topic in public administration. In: Okebukola PA, editor. Breaking Barriers to Learning: The Culturo Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA). Slough, UK and Delhi: Sterling; 2020. pp. 182-192

[11] Okebukola PA, editor. Breaking Barriers to Learning: The Culturo Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA). Slough, UK and Delhi: Sterling; 2020

[12] Hountondji PJ. African Philosophy: Myth and Reality. India: Indiana University Press; 1996

[13] Awaah F. Experimental Assessment of the Potency of Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach in Enhancing Performance in Difficult Concepts in the Ghanaian Undergraduate Public Administration CuHrriculum (PhD. Thesis the University of Burundi). Burundi: University of Burundi; 2021

[14] Okebukola PAO, Ige K, Oyeyemi A, Olusesi O, Owolabi O, Okebukola F, et al. Exploring the impact of Culturo-technocontextual approach (CTCA) in tackling under-achievement in difficult concepts in biology. In: Proceedings of the 2016 Conference of the National Association of Research in Science Teaching (NARST). USA: Baltimore; 2016

[15] Adewusi MA. Refractive index as a difficult topic for secondary school physics students: Harnessing the power of indigenous (cultural) knowledge for its understanding. In: Okebukola PA,

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editor. Breaking Barriers to Learning: The Culturo Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA). Slough, UK and Delhi: Sterling; 2020. pp. 218-229

[16] Okebukola PA. Quality or Quantity: Positioning the Nigerian University System for the Challenges of Science and Technology in the new Millennium. Nigeria: A paper presented at the 6th Convocation Lecture of Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko (AAUA); 2015

[17] Ogunbanwo G. Relative Effectiveness of the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach on Students' Performance in Genetics and Evolution (Bachelor's Thesis). Ojo, Lagos Nigeria: Lagos State University; 2019

[18] Adam U. Potency of Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach on Students' Achievement in and Attitude towards Mutation and Variation. Research Report Submitted in Part Fulfilment of the Bachelor of. Nigeria: Science Education (Biology), Lagos State University; 2019

[19] Gbeleyi OA. Flowcharting, algorithm and logic gate as difficult topics for secondary school students: Harnessing the power of indigenous (cultural) knowledge for their understanding. In: Okebukola PA, editor. Breaking Barriers to Learning: The Culturo Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA). Slough, UK and Delhi: Sterling; 2020. pp. 239-252

[20] Egerue IC. Impact of Sociocultural Factors on Scientific Explanations in Genetics and Ecology Offered by Senior Secondary Students in Lagos State (Doctoral Thesis). Nigeria: Lagos State University; 2019

[21] Awaah F. Towards an Afrocentric Teaching Model. United Kindom: University World News; 2020

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#### **Chapter 10**

## Student Perceptions of Open Pedagogy and Community-Engaged Service Learning

*Christian Williams*

#### **Abstract**

Open pedagogy is an approach to instruction that places the student as a partner in the learning environment moving beyond traditional methods of instructional delivery that center the instructor as the expert. Open pedagogy allows for student contributions to the classroom that move beyond traditional instructional methods such as disposable assignments and educator led classroom discussions that are created by faculty to provide students with a learning experience. Instead, open pedagogy facilitates a student-centered learning environment that engages students as co-creators of learning and allows them to play a role in the facilitation of the learning environment. This paper focuses on the role of open pedagogy in community engaged service learning and is based on a quasi-experimental research study that explored student perceptions of community engaged service learning with and without an open pedagogical approach. The results report student satisfaction with the experience, perceived value, and the likelihood that they would take a course that combines these pedagogies in the future.

**Keywords:** open pedagogy, community partnerships, open educational resources, praxis

#### **1. Introduction**

In the face of shifting educational and societal terrains, it has become increasingly important to evaluate teaching and learning approaches to maximize student learning, engagement, and performance outcomes. Traditional teaching models that have emphasized the educator as the expert at the center of the learning experience are often being replaced with active and experiential learning models. No longer is the preferred method of information delivery the instructor as the "Sage on the Stage" being replaced with active and experiential learning models that extend learning beyond the classroom and emphasize the students' role as central to the learning process. Active and experiential learning models have gained widespread acceptance and have been found to increase student attendance [1], engagement [1–3], and enhance learning [4]. Learning by doing approaches to classroom design has also been connected to increased retention of concepts and knowledge [5] and a deeper connection to the course content through practical application and reflection [6]. When

classrooms are designed with active and experiential approaches to teaching, there is a significant shift in the learning environment that allows students to be actively engaged as co-constructors of the learning experience alongside their instructors and peers. While there are many iterations of models of active learning, the current study focuses on Community Service Learning (CSL) pedagogy and Open Pedagogy.

Community Service Learning (CSL) has been widely implemented and continues to gain traction in educational communities as a way to enhance student learning opportunities and create active engagement [7, 8]. CSL is a well-researched and established pedagogical approach that connects course learning to communitybased service through an ongoing commitment to civic engagement, experiential learning, and reflective practice [9]. CSL course activities are designed to create an integrated approach that connects theoretical course content to practice by engaging in organized community service that meets an identified community need area [7]. Outcomes reported for CSL include enhanced student engagement, improved student learning, increased social skills in students [10], and positive student perspectives on service activities [11, 12].

Another student-centered emerging trend in educational pedagogy includes open educational practices such as the use of open educational resources (OER) to increase student centered learning approaches and equity in education by decreasing barriers to access of course materials and content. These practices are centered around the concept of openness include the use of free and accessible resources that not only decrease student costs and increase access and equity but also includes practices that empower students to be creators of the learning community and creators of knowledge [13–15]. Open pedagogy in practice has been described as shifting the classroom from a place where instruction is delivered to students who absorb it to one where learning is co-created and student centered [14, 16].

This paper explores a study that was designed using archival student satisfaction data. It compares students' perceptions of community engaged service-learning projects with and without the use of open pedagogy. The purpose of this study was to explore how open pedagogy, and particularly the use of non-disposable assignments, would influence students' satisfaction with and perception of, community engaged service-learning projects.

#### **2. Community service learning**

CSL combines traditional classroom delivery methods of education with community based practical service experiences [17]. This practical application increases critical thinking skills as students are challenged to explore and problem-solve real world challenges [4, 12, 18]. Further it has a positive impact on students' understanding of social justice issues [19] and development of cross-cultural understanding [20, 21]. CSL has long been accepted in the educational field as a pedagogical approach that creates meaningful ways to facilitate students' engagement in service and thereby increasing their commitment and internalization of civic responsibility. It serves as a connection point for students between the academic classroom and their roles as thoughtful citizens in the community [21].

CSL presents a shift in traditional reliance on knowledge as preparation for future occupations and community life to emphasizing the role of experience and practice in the enhancement of critical thinking, communication, and problem-solving skills [22–24]. Further CSL has been found to enhance student learning environments, and

#### *Student Perceptions of Open Pedagogy and Community-Engaged Service Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107099*

has been tied to increased academic success, positive impacts on student learning outcomes [4, 21, 23, 24], moral development, and critical thinking skills [23]. Previous research has found that CSL positively influences students' academic performance when compared to traditional classroom content delivery methods of instruction [4]. Particularly, evidence suggests that engagement in learning activities outside of the classroom increases critical thinking skills and collaboration that is not traditionally fostered in lecture-based courses [4, 18, 21, 24].

This approach is more than just combining hands on experiences with traditional class materials for students, it also provides opportunity for critical reflection on service experiences and facilitates a deeper understanding of course content and in many cases the field of study than compared to traditional learning methods [4, 23]. This pedagogical approach can assist students particularly in helping professions to be more prepared for the work they will do in the future [19, 23], providing them opportunities to engage with and be of service to individuals from vulnerable populations and community organizations [19, 25]. Students engaged in CSL community collaborations were found to have increased empathy and understanding of working with individuals with disabilities [26]. Additionally, Deck and colleagues also found that service-learning opportunities increased student perceptions of their selfefficacy [19].

While CSL is an accepted and common practice across a variety of educational settings, there continues to be little consensus as to the best practices in course implementation and outcomes directly related to how the pedagogy is implemented. Further, there is little literature that measures the outcomes for students in a manner that is tied into implementation strategies [27]. There are numerous resources available to faculty to utilize when designing a CSL course or project, yet concerns exist that they are not utilized consistently [4]. CSL is best implemented when the community engaged assignments and the course content are cohesive, allowing for each to assist with synthesizing the information [23] and promoting deeper understanding. Most traditional renditions of CSL facilitate the practical application of course knowledge by engaging in community collaboration with a partner organization that identifies needs that the course and students can help to fill. Course instructors can ensure the success of these collaborations by facilitating reciprocal relationships for students, providing opportunities for transformative learning. It is important that CSL programming and design is centered around being flexible and responsive to meet the changing needs of community partners [28]. An approach that is adaptable to the needs of the community has been positively correlated with enhancing student capacity for critical thinking [28].

Student perceptions related to effective implementation include course content that is closely in line with the service-learning experience and in class reflection and class discussions that facilitates the integration of practice and course content build deeper connections [23]. Further students reported that service-learning projects helped them to have a more complete understanding of content and issues presented in the course and service project, thereby increasing their own personal reflection on their experiences and their role in problem solving [23].

CSL has many overlapping qualities with open educational approaches, particularly open pedagogy, which has been gaining increased presence and acceptance in educational settings, making the exploration of student perspectives on the integration of these pedagogical approaches is timely. These include fostering classroom environments that empower students to think critically about their performance and to monitor progress and adjust as necessary [4]. Additionally, student centered

learning that focuses on problem-solving and critical thinking are important attributes of both pedagogical approaches.

This specific study implemented a course-specific community engaged servicelearning project in two courses with different groups of students. One course implemented traditional instructional community service-learning methods and the assignment was presented as disposable. The second course implement an open pedagogical approach with the assignment being presented as renewable with a lasting impact and availability to the broader community.

#### **3. Open pedagogy**

The use of OER and its application to praxis through open pedagogy has gained momentum in higher education as a pedagogical approach that has the capacity increase equity, access, and student agency. In the wake of challenging and shifting educational terrains over the past few years, it is important that educators and systems of education find ways to not only respond to these changing needs but that we recognize the contexts that students exist in and work to break down barriers to engagement [29]. Open pedagogy grew out of the open education movement, which initially gained traction through the use of open educational resources (OER) to increase equity and access in education and decrease barriers related to cost of materials for students [30, 31]. OER has allowed for increased and expanded access to educational materials using open licensing that allows for no-cost access and permits the adaptation of the materials to suit the needs of the user and the course [16, 30]. The open education movement has included the implementation of open educational practices and the inclusion of OER that allow students to retain, reuse, remix, revise, and redistribute materials via open copyright licensing [32]. OER also allow for increased individualization of instruction to meet the needs of students [33], promoting inclusion, which is increasingly important in the wake of educational disruption from the global pandemic.

Much like CS, open pedagogy seeks to enhance student engagement with the course material by creating conducive educational environments where learning is student centered and the student is co-creator of knowledge with learning as a process rather than a product of teacher delivery [34, 35]. This shift in power dynamic present in open pedagogy assists in the goal of deepening student engagement with subject matter by increasing the development of critical thinking skills, enhancing the capacity for collaboration [16], and providing opportunities for self-direction in the learning process [14, 15, 36]. Further, empowering students to take ownership and direction of their learning process increases confidence and self-efficacy [30, 35, 36]. OER pedagogy creates a milieu where students can explore real issues and engage in collaborative solution focused problem-solving [31, 35]. Quote my article here.

Open educational practices have taken on many forms and faculty have used vast implementation strategies some of which include creating opportunities for students to create course content that will be available for continued access to future students and beyond through open licenses [16, 30, 37, 38] rather than the traditional approach of disposable assignments completed only for the purposes of a grading mechanism and are then discarded [37]. These types of open projects have included creating editing Wikipedia pages, developing multiple choice quizzes, providing demonstration examples or tutorials, social annotation, student created syllabi and assignments, coauthoring textbook entries, and much more. Previous research has found significant

#### *Student Perceptions of Open Pedagogy and Community-Engaged Service Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107099*

value in renewable assignments for students including an increase in their proactive completion of assignments and the added value for future endeavors such as applications for employment and further education should the assignments be available for public consumption [30].

This shift in approach to resources that not only decrease educational expenses and increase availability of resources, has also been tied to increased student engagement in the class. Open Pedagogy has been generally found to be positively regarded by students and to have a meaningful impact on the sense of pride students experienced about their work [29, 30]. While previous studies have not found a significant difference in overall course learning outcomes for open pedagogy studies on this have been limited and have yet to consider if the areas of overall skill improvement via open pedagogy may not be adequately captured by course specific learning outcomes.

Research has identified the potential for open pedagogy to benefit student learning and facilitate meaningful engagement and participation within the classroom, yet there continues to be a gap in the literature regarding student perceptions of specific iterations of open pedagogy, particularly the comparison between assignments delivered with traditional and open approaches [29, 37, 38]. Pavotti and colleagues [39] shared the results of a research that looked at the experience of open practices by educators who did not design the course as with the intention of open pedagogical design. However, this study used a community engaged project online and reported data from all parties on their perspectives of the assignment and overall satisfaction [39]. Overall students reported a positive experience with the course yet identified practical barriers to group work outside of the classroom, highlighting the need to ensure that course design has adequate support and set up to ensure success [39].

When looking at the influence of open approaches to CSL there is limited exploration of student perceptions of satisfaction and their desire to engage in future CSL and service-related activities. This is particularly true of for student satisfaction and their willingness to engage in future. The present study builds upon existing research and explores student perceptions of project based CSL assignments one using traditional CSL pedagogy with a disposable assignment and the second employing open pedagogy to the project based CSL assignment. Students in the latter course engaged in dialog about open pedagogy, the role of renewable assignments, and how the CSL assignment fit into this approach. The decision to include the same assignment with two groups was to decrease the possibility of student perceptions of the project being measured rather than the experience of open pedagogy.

#### **4. Methods**

The goal of the current study was to compare students' perceptions of community engaged service-learning projects when implemented using traditional methods and disposable assignments versus when an open pedagogical approach was used. In the open pedagogy rendition, students were aware that their project would be publicly shared and were able to view other examples of similar student work in the repository. The research question addressed was: Does the use of open pedagogy contribute to students' perceptions about a CSL project-based assignment.

The sample included students from a small, catholic, liberal arts institution who were enrolled in and completed courses that employed CSL projects as part of the pedagogical approach. Anonymous self-administered survey responses are regularly collected about CSL courses at the University to measure student perceptions of the

course and CSL integration into the classroom. Archival data from two CSL courses taught by the same instructor in the Fall of 2021 and Spring of 2022 was accessed and utilized for the purposes of this project with approval of the Assumption University's Institutional Review Board. Since the surveys were initially anonymous and completed with the purpose of program evaluation by the Community Service-Learning department at the University, concerns for students' openness were minimized due to the lack of connection to the individual instructor and potential influence on their grade in the course.

Overall, 47 survey responses students' responses were utilized 33 from Fall of 2021 and 14 from Spring of 2022. Exposure to community service-learning as a pedagogical practice varied among the group of students with the majority of the students (n = 27) were taking a CSL course for the first time (Fall = 18, Spring = 9), 5 students reported having taken 2 prior CSL courses (Fall = 4, Spring = 1), and 13 students reported that they had taken one previous CSL course (Fall = 11, Spring = 2). Only 2 students reported having taken 3 or more CSL courses and both were in the Spring Cohort. Of the students in the Spring cohort, only one student reported having heard of open pedagogy before this course (7.1%), with the majority of students (n = 13) being exposed to open pedagogy and OER for the first time.

#### **4.1 Procedures**

While the data utilized was archival in nature, the educational design of the two courses was similar except for the introduction of open pedagogy to the CSL project in the Spring 2022 iteration. Specifically, each course shared the same educational objectives as well as contact hours, both classes met face-to-face and utilized the same teaching approaches and techniques. Each course shared identical implementation of reflective practice and assessment methods related to the CSL project including collaborative class presentations and journals entries, all of which contributed to their final grade. Students in the Spring 2022 iteration of the course were engaged in dialog about open pedagogy and the difference between disposable and renewable assignments and how their project fit into this approach.

Following this conversation, the students completed their community based CSL course in the same manner as students in the Fall of 2021.

#### **4.2 Measures**

At the end of each CSL course, students are asked to complete an anonymous CSL Academic Goals Survey (See Appendix A) by the CSL department on campus. Due to the anonymous nature of the survey, it is not possible to identify which students completed the survey or to ensure that all students in the course did. Therefore, in the Fall of 2021 there were 44 students enrolled in the course across 2 sections and 75 percent (n = 33) completed the survey. In the Spring of 2022, there was 15 students enrolled in the course and all but one completed the survey (n = 14, 93%).

As this study is based on archival data it utilized data was garnered from surveys completed by students that were not integrated into the course experience rather they are asked to complete it as part of their CSL experience via an online platform where the questionnaire is stored. The CSL Academic Goals Survey asks students to answer questions indicating their satisfaction with the CSL portion of the course, specifically if the service experience enhanced their understanding of the other subject matter

*Student Perceptions of Open Pedagogy and Community-Engaged Service Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107099*

in the course, if the other subject matter in the course enhanced their understanding of the service experience, if after the course they would consider taking another CSL course, if after the course they were more likely to do community service in the future, and if they would recommend this CSL course and project to other students. Individual items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability of the scale was positively evaluated as acceptable using the Cronbach's alpha coefficient (0.847). The participants were asked an additional open-ended question to add any comments that they had about the course, CSL project, or community partner.

#### **4.3 Data analysis**

Descriptive statistics were used to identify the students' previous experiences with CSL courses and open methods of instruction. Assumptions for homoscedasticity and normality were not met, therefore Mann Whitney U non-parametric statistics were sample t-tests were used to assess the influence of open pedagogy on student's perception of a CSL class project versus traditional means of CSL instruction. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to control for the influencing factor of previous CSL courses taken on student perceptions. ANCOVA requires an assumption of normality that was not met in the current study, therefore, a nonparametric rank ANCOVA as designed by Quade [40] was utilized. This nonparametric test does not assume normal distribution of data making it an appropriate choice. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 27 for both the Mann Whitney U and the nonparametric ANCOVA. Additionally, thematic analysis was also used to analyze student open responses to identify and similarities in experiences and feedback.

#### **5. Results**

#### **5.1 Students' perspectives on service-learning enhancing understanding of the other subject matter in the course**

A Mann–Whitney U test was run to determine if there were differences in student perceptions of CSL between the open pedagogy and traditional learning methods students. Impact of service learning on their understanding of the other subject matter in the course. Distributions of scores for students in the fall and spring were similar, as assessed by visual inspection. Median engagement scores were not statistically significantly different between the fall students (5.00) and spring students (4.50), *U* = 179.50, *z* = −1.394, *p* = .163.

#### **5.2 Students' perspectives on the other subject matter in the course enhancing their understanding of the service experience**

A Mann–Whitney U test was run to determine if there were differences in student perceptions of the impact of the course content on their understanding of the CSL project between the open pedagogy and traditional learning methods students. Distributions of scores for students in the fall and spring were similar, as assessed by visual inspection. Median engagement scores were equal between the fall students (5.00) and spring students (5.00), *U* = 222.50, *z* = −.230, *p* = .818.

#### **5.3 Students' perspectives on if they would consider taking another CSL course**

A Mann–Whitney U test was run to determine if there were differences in students' consideration of another CSL course between the open pedagogy and traditional learning methods students. Distributions of scores for students in the fall and spring were similar, as assessed by visual inspection. Median scores were equal between the fall students (5.00) and spring students (5.00), *U* = 263.00, *z* = .874, *p* = .382.

#### **5.4 Students' perspectives on the likelihood that of engaging in future community service**

A Mann–Whitney U test was run to determine if there were differences in the likelihood that students would engage in community service in the future between the open pedagogy and traditional learning methods students. Distributions of scores for students in the fall and spring were similar, as assessed by visual inspection. Median scores were insignificantly different between the fall students (4.00) and spring students (5.00), *U* = 260.50, *z* = .763, *p* = .455.

#### **5.5 Student's future recommendation of the course or CSL project**

A Mann–Whitney U test was run to determine if there were differences in students' recommendation of the CSL course, project, or community partner between the open pedagogy and traditional learning methods students. Distributions of scores for students in the fall and spring were similar, as assessed by visual inspection. Median engagement scores were not statistically significantly different between the fall students (5.00) and spring students (4.50), *U* = 179.50, *z* = −1.404, *p* = .160 (**Table 1**).

#### **5.6 Covariates and additional analysis**

Since many of the students had taken previous CSL courses, which may influence their perceptions of CSL and the likelihood of taking future CSL courses, it was important to


*Summary of differences between fall and spring students on Mann–Whitney U test. Note. \* p < .05.*

#### **Table 1.**

*Summarizes Mann–Whitney U test results.*

#### *Student Perceptions of Open Pedagogy and Community-Engaged Service Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107099*

explore this as a possible covariate. Due to the potential impact on reported differences between groups, a nonparametric analysis of covariance was conducted to control for the impact of previous exposure on student perceptions [40]. When controlling for how many CSL courses students had previously taken, differences in student perceptions remained statistically insignificant.

Analysis of student open responses on the prompt "Please add further comments concerning the course, service project, or agency." were reviewed and were not included in the current study due to not providing additional insight into the research questions. Student open responses were overly positive about the CSL experiences highlighting their enjoyment "I enjoyed this because I got to me new people" "Great CSL", the value of the experience "I truly think this opportunity is worthy trying for all students,", and the opportunity to increase their exploration of information that they may not have otherwise been exposed to "It allows for the experience and knowledge to be further explored in areas that we may not have known."

#### **6. Discussion**

The current study aimed to compare students' perceptions of CSL courses when they were implemented with open pedagogy versus traditional teaching approaches. The results revealed insignificant differences between these groups of students. The results of this research are in line with previous research that has found open pedagogy approaches to instructional design are as effective as traditional means [37] with the findings from the current study showing that the application of open pedagogy did not have a significant impact on the CSL project and student perceptions of its place in the classroom.

It is important to recognize that pedagogical models are not in and of themselves avenues to increasing student engagement and enhancing academic skills, they must be implemented in such as way that facilitates the spaces where students can engage deeper with course content and collaborate with faculty and peers. The body of literature that identifies open approaches as being positively regarded by students and faculty does not account for the lack of cohesiveness in implementation and the continued resistance regarding pedagogical change [15]. Implementation of open pedagogy has at-times been found to be time consuming for students and faculty alike [15] and ensuring that considerations for technology, simplicity, and ease of engagement are explored prior to implementation can have significant impacts on faculty and student perspectives [34].

Another potential influencing factor may be the students previous experience with open education and open pedagogy and any hesitancy towards this new pedagogical approach. Previous research has found that some of the challenges to the implementation of open pedagogical approaches have been student hesitancy to have their work reviewed and evaluated by others as well as widely available after the course ends [39]. Throughout the course of the semester, students in the Spring course shared that they were anxious about the renewable assignment portion of the assignment, questioning if their work was good enough to be shared with the general public, a sentiment not expressed by the fall group where the CSL projects took the form of disposable assignments. While the data did not find that previous CSL experience had a statistically significant impact on the current results, future research should account for student comfortability with open pedagogy when attempting to measures its

impact on student perceptions. Only one student in the present study had exposure to open pedagogy prior to the spring semester. The shift in relationship between student and instructor may be felt by students who are not used to a more collaborative mentor role and feel more familiar with instructors who view their role as imparting information [37].

While the data is not statistically significant in highlighting differences in student perceptions of the CSL project with open pedagogy approaches, students also did not report less satisfaction and therefore we can assume that this approach was at least equal to that of traditional CSL assignments. Additionally, Bloom found that faculty found themselves more comfortable and effective in implementing open pedagogy the second time they engaged this way [41], which may be similar for students and should be considered as an area for future inquiry.

At the very least the recognition by educators of the potential for discomfort can create opportunities for important dialog with students regarding the role of openness. Faculty should discuss any benefits and risk factors that they should consider when deciding to publicly license their work and researchers have debated the benefits of providing students with opportunities to complete alternative assignments or decline to make assignments renewable [38]. When students are expected to partner in the creation of the learning and assessment process, it is important to assist them in setting and understanding reasonable benchmarks to avoid preoccupation with a grading process that deviates from traditional methods [38]. This is supported by evidence that has found that faculty implementation of open practices does not improve student outcomes in and of itself, students must also be informed of the benefits, rational, and strategies for successful engagement otherwise this confusion cannot only impact the classroom environment but their willingness to engage with open approaches [39]. Effective classroom practices engage students by providing them dialog to understand why different teaching strategies are being used and their overall role in the class including for assessment purposes.

#### **6.1 Limitations**

While this study attempts to minimize some of the limitations by having the same faculty member for each rendition of the CSL project, there are still several limitations that must be considered. The sample size of the current study is relatively small and limited to one small catholic liberal arts university therefore, generalizations cannot be readily made to a larger student population. These students were all engaged in face-to-face learning models within person community engagement, however, pivots to hybrid instruction continue to be present to manage the spread of COVID-19 which may influence student perspectives on the course. This study utilized archival data, which protected against concerns about students feeling pressured to answer in a positive manner due to worries for their grades, it is limited to the data that has been previously collected. It was not possible to explore other potential covariates such as how many semesters they have been enrolled at the university, previous experience with community-service, perspectives on engagement, and comfortability with the assignments. Further questions directly related to the experience of open pedagogy as it intersects with CSL was not collected and would be an important avenue for future research.

*Student Perceptions of Open Pedagogy and Community-Engaged Service Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107099*

Due to the lack of consensus on implementation of open pedagogy and varying practices of faculty, results may not be easily implemented by other educators who may have differing views on openness. Future research should consider pedagogical approaches that are being implemented as open pedagogy and seek to provide guidance regarding effective approaches in to creating open classroom communities. Additionally, research that explores open pedagogy learning designs as they are experienced by students may help to develop guidelines for implementation that can be added to the tools currently available for faculty.

#### **7. Conclusions and implications**

While the present study did not find statistically significant differences between CSL projects that are implemented with traditional means such as disposable assignments and those that were implemented with open pedagogy, this paper has highlighted the significant overlap in these pedagogical approaches. This is encouraging for educators who seek to increase the experiential learning opportunities that they facilitate for their students. Previous research on CSL and open pedagogical practices highlight student positive perceptions of their learning experience as well as increased outcomes both for the specific course material as well as attainment of academic skills such as critical thinking and collaboration. There is limited research that has explored the intersection of service-learning and open pedagogical practices and should be explored further as a possible avenue for increase student efficacy, engagement, and ownership of course outcomes. Further, the exploration of student connectedness to future career paths via CSL and open pedagogy is another important area to consider as contributions to the field of practice prior to graduation may enhance students' perceptions of their readiness to enter the field and their career trajectories.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **A. Community service-learning (CSL): academic goals survey**

Term:

Course:

List Community Partner:

Please answer the following questions to indicate your satisfaction with the CSL component of this course.

How many CSL course(s) have you taken (check one) in previous semesters? \_\_\_ none, this is my first CSL course \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 1–2 \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 3 or more.

Indicate the nature of CSL requirements:

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Project-based.

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Service provided at the agency in a series of individual visits. For the following statements, please rate the degree to which you agree with the statement. Select a number that best matches your agreement.

#### *Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and Social Sciences Education*


### **Author details**

Christian Williams Assumption University, Worcester, United States of America

\*Address all correspondence to: ce.williams@assumption.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Student Perceptions of Open Pedagogy and Community-Engaged Service Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107099*

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[25] Lawson J, Olson M. International service learning: Occupational therapists' perceptions of their experiences in Guatemala. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy [Internet]. 2017;**5**(1):1-12. Available from: https:// scholarworks.wmich.edu/ojot/vol5/iss1/11

[26] Lawson JE, Cruz RA, Knollman GA. Increasing positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities through community service learning. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2017;**69**:1-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.07.013

[27] Filges T, Dietrichson J, Viinholt BCA, Dalgaard NT. Service learning for improving academic success in students in grade K to 12: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2022;**18**(1):e1210. DOI: 10.1002/cl2.1210

[28] Tijsma G, Hilverda F, Scheffelaar A, Alders S, Schoonmade L, Blignaut N,

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et al. Becoming productive 21st century citizens: A systematic review uncovering design principles for integrating community service learning into higher education courses. Educational Research. 2020;**62**(4):390-413

[29] Clinton-Lisell V. Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. Journal of Learning for Development. 2021;**8**(2):255-268. Available from: https://jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/ view/511

[30] Abri MHA, Dabbagh N. Testing the intervention of OER renewable assignments in a college course. Open Praxis. 2019;**11**(2):195-209. DOI: 10.5944/openpraxis.11.2.916

[31] Lambert SR. Changing our (dis) course: A distinctive social justice aligned definition of open education. Journal of Learning for Development. 2018;**5**(3):225-244. Available from: https://jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/ view/290

[32] Wiley D, Hilton J. Defining OERenabled pedagogy. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 2018;**19**(4):133-147. DOI: 10.1080/01587919.2020.1757409

[33] Brown M, Croft B. Social annotation and an inclusive praxis for open pedagogy in the college classroom. Journal of Interactive Media in Education. 2020;**2020**(1):8. DOI: 10.5334/jime.561

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[35] Werth E, Williams K. Learning to be open: Instructor growth through open pedagogy. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning. 2021:1-14. DOI: 10.1080/02680513.2021.1970520

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#### **Chapter 11**

## Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning

*Gregory Garvey*

#### **Abstract**

This chapter will explore considerations for the adoption of grading contracts with the possible addition of the mechanics of game design, game-based learning, or gamification. The motivation for this approach is to ensure equity and inclusion in the classroom by creating a compassionate environment to enhance student engagement and learning. When introduced in the appropriate way, teachers can track students' progress without the imposition of the added stress and fear that conventional assessment practices engender. Sometimes referred as "ungrading," the adoption of these strategies prioritizes the progress of each individual student and re-envisions learning as a series of achievements that students complete and level-up to take on a series of successive challenges based on previous accomplishments not unlike the playing of a video game. If virtual reality can be called an empathy machine, a well-crafted video game is a learning and engagement machine. In other words, the magic "sauce" of video games is that players put in untold hours and effort to learn new skills and are rewarded by the sense of mastery and achievement.

**Keywords:** teaching, learning, ungrading, labor-based grading, game-based learning, gamification, games, mechanics

#### **1. Introduction**

In "A Proposal to Abolish Grading" Paul Goodman [1] describes the problem with grading: "For most of the students, the competitive grade has come to be the essence. The naïve teacher points to the beauty of the subject and the ingenuity of the research; the shrewd student asks if he is responsible for that on the final exam." Packed into Goodman's statement is the assertion that the emphasis on grading leads to students focusing only on the grade and not on learning and the mastery of the subject. Completely absent is the love of learning for knowledge's sake. Goodman also addresses the question of why do we have a regime of grading? His answer: "It is uniformly asserted, however, that the grading is inevitable; for how else will the graduate schools, the foundations, the corporations know whom to accept, reward, hire. How will the talent scouts know whom to tap?" Goodman wrote this critique more than 50

years ago. His prescription was to eliminate grading but keep testing "for pedagogic purposes as teachers see fit."

In Growing Up Absurd [2] Goodman provided a much broader critique of American Society. Just a few years later in 1971, Ivan Illich [3] went further, calling for "deschooling" and a program of reconstructing education. Illich described a "hidden curriculum" that caused learning to align with grades and accreditation rather than placing importance on skill acquisition.

Also published in 1971, Wad-Ja-Get? The Grading Game in America [4] reviewed over 60 years of scholarship on grading. The authors posed the simple question: "Is the traditional system of grading—the one most of us experienced throughout many years of schooling—the most educationally useful system of evaluation?"

In the forward to new edition of Wad-Ja-Get? [5] published in July 2020 Barry J. Fishman summarized the impact of this seminal book with "Changing how we think about, and practice grading is crucial to redesigning education systems to be more just, more equitable, and more focused on learning." At about the same time Bloom [6] advocated for mastery learning which called for identifying specific objectives broken down into smaller learning units. Unit objectives required mastery through simple feedback/corrective procedures and formative assessments compared to standards of mastery in a field.

Schinske and Tanner [7] trace the emergence and evolution of grading practices along with a review of the literature on grading. The still current practice of assigning letter grades appears to have been already adopted by 1883. F for failure was introduced at Mount Holyoke College in 1898 driven in part by need for standardization between institutions of higher education. The letter grades we use today gained wider adoption by the 1940s but as the authors point out remain controversial to this day. The authors acknowledge that their review of the shortcomings of grading paints a "bleak outlook on the process of grading and its impact on learning."

In A Century of Grading Research: Meaning and Value in the Most Common Educational Measure [8] Brookhart et al. point to a "what's wrong with teachers" as a type of research bias into grading but yet conclude that "One hundred years of grading research have generally confirmed large variation among teachers in the validity and reliability of grades, both in the meaning of grades and in the accuracy of reporting."

A common thread of the critiques of grading is the suppression of natural curiosity through grading. Knowledge becomes a commodity that is instrumentalized toward achievement rather than be driven by curiosity and a quest to understand. Paulo Freire [9] emphasizes an education based on "I wonder" rather than simply "I do." Grades reinforce the later.

In Pedagogy of the Oppressed [10] Freire critiqued the "banking" concept of education. Students should not be seen as empty vessels to receive knowledge. Education should rather be the process of raising consciousness of their condition so they are empowered to take action (praxis). Freire advocates for students to critically appraise the conditions of their education through dialogics to "recognize connections between their individual problems and experiences and the social contexts in which they are embedded." Education is seen as a critical pedagogy as empowerment and liberation. "Praxis involves engaging in a cycle of theory, application, evaluation, reflection, and then back to theory. Social transformation is the product of praxis at the collective level." A focus on grades undermines this project. Educators like Giroux, McLaren, Hooks, Shor, and others [11–14] have advocated for and expanded critical pedagogy, a discussion of which goes beyond the scope of this chapter.

#### *Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

To this day, students' fixation with grades remains a problem in higher education. In the United States, the A–F scale with its many variations and GPA equivalents, has a long history [15]. A simple search of the web reveals this grading system persists in many institutions of higher education. In the Moral and Spiritual Crisis in Education Purpel [16] observed in 2004, that grade fixation "produces anxiety, cheating, grade grubbing, and unhealthy competition." Quantitative correlational studies of grade obsession by Jacqueline Thomas [17] propose four predictor variables: "financial anxiety, the need to receive academic recognition, parental interest and internal pressure." Thomas summarizes the challenge to educators with "the mission of education to promote a holistic student experiences comes under a threat when grades take priority over traditional educational values."

Michael H. Romanowski [18] in pointing to similar factors such as fear of losing scholarships, parental pressures for success and accountability argues that there are "issues that are deeply embedded in America's ideology of success and achievement." Alfie Kohn [19], reviewed hundreds of studies to show that the artificial incentives of grades based on the now largely discredited behaviorism of B.F. Skinner, overlook the role of intrinsic motivation, leading to poor outcomes. Extrinsic rewards and pay-for-performance elevate obedience over learning and turns play into drudgery. However, in the Appendix B [19]: "What is Intrinsic Motivation" Kohn admits that "it is not at all obvious what is meant by the phrase intrinsic motivation. What appears at first blush an uncomplicated idea reveals itself as a tangle of possibilities, all of which have substantive implications for what we counterpose to the use of rewards." We will return to this discussion below.

Grade inflation is also consequence [20] along with an increase in associated grade anxiety contributing to a mental health crisis [21] that has broader societal implications. The Pew Research Center reported in 2019 [22] that "most teens (61%) say they personally feel a lot of pressure to get good grades, and another 27% say they feel some pressure to do so."

The National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) compiles data every 2 years on health-risk behaviors of 9th through 12th grade students in public and private schools across the United States. YRBS data [23] provides "evidence of a significant association between academic grades and suicidal thoughts and behaviors." A report by the Worcester Polytechnic Institute to foster a campus centered on mental health and well-being notes: "Nationally, feelings of disconnection, fear about the future, hopelessness and increased anxiety are more common than ever, especially among the college-age population." [24].

A meta-analysis [25, 26] suggests that when graders have awareness about irrelevant information about students, bias may occur involving subjective and unconscious judgments. Confirmation bias, also the subject of longstanding research [27] remains a "ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises" including education. Kahneman [28] describes strategies he adopted while grading to compensate for the Halo Effect where sequence of who is graded first matters: "The Halo Effect increases the weight of first impressions." For Malouf et al. [29] anonymity in grading is prescribed. An extensive body of research, decades long and ongoing, shows that implicit bias activated by race, age, gender, sexual orientation, and other personal characteristics remains widespread [30–33] with impacts in grading practices [34, 35]. Others such as Inoue [36], recounts his own evolution in questioning grading: "I started by problematizing grades, which led me to problematize my judgment practices, which then led to problematizing the conditions of White supremacy in my classrooms as an on-going antiracist project." Inoue concluded [37] that grading standards "seek to

exclude, not include, by their nature and function, by default, regardless of how we justify them or who uses them". Conventional grading privileges some over others.

Consideration should also be given to differences in intelligence, learning styles and in neurodiversity among students. In 1983, Howard Gardner [38] proposed a theory of multiple intelligences (MI) in opposition to a singular quality of intelligence. He argued that conventional testing, assessment, and measures of intelligence did not capture the full range and different proficiencies that individuals possess due to genetic, cultural, and experiential factors. Gardner introduced eight distinct kinds of intelligences: linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodilykinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. More recently, Daniel Goleman has promoted social and emotional intelligences [39, 40] which might be added to the list.

Marenus [41] suggests the implications for learning of the theory of MI calls for individuation and pluralization: "Individuation posits that because each person differs from other another there is no logical reason to teach and assess students identically." Pluralization is "the idea that topics and skills should be taught in more than one way." In recent years technology has enabled access to alternative teaching, learning, and assessments that can suit the needs of learners. Marenus notes that there was pushback to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence from cognitive psychologists [42] (no empirical evidence for the theory), psychometricians (conventional testing supports the idea of a singular intelligence faculty) [43] and importantly, due to lack of definitions there is no way to empirically measure these different intelligences [44]. Sternberg [45] offers his triarchic theory intelligence as another, alternative theory of multiple intelligences.

It is important to distinguish learning styles from this pluralistic concept of intelligences. Among the many models of learning, the VARK model originally proposed by Fleming and Mills [46] expands upon the earlier tripartite VAK model [47] (visualizing, auditory, kinesthetic modalities). The VARK model distinguishes four perceptual modes or preferential learning styles as follows:


The authors caution that the kinesthetic mode is multi-modal implicating "all perceptual modes-sight, touch, taste, smell and hearing" where any of these perceptual modes are engaged through "experience, example, practice, or simulation." The VARK Learning Style Inventory, among others [48], is used to help learners and teachers identify learning styles.

Students also manifest learning differences (LD) due to various physiological causes. Attention deficit disorders, autism spectrum, dyslexia, dyspraxia (a coordination disorder), dyscalculia and Tourette's are neurological conditions [49, 50], sometime co-occurring, that affect how individuals learn and process information. The [51] Neurodiversity Movement advocates for individuals who would normally be classified as non-neural typical "are simply normal expressions of human function rather than disorders to be diagnosed and treated." Stigmatization and labeling

*Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

exacerbate the gap between what is required and what is accessible to help neurodiverse individuals succeed in higher education.

The preceding discussion is a rough sketch and certainly not a comprehensive review of various factors contributing to discussions of the pros and cons of grading and the search for alternatives. Recent trends have developed new strategies to address many of these shortcomings of grading. Perhaps these strategies share the same conviction as Goodman on the virtues of testing – aiming for mastery of the subject and skill-based competencies. Central to this discussion is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for learning and mastery. In Punished by Rewards [19] Kohn identifies these possible candidate qualities: a desire "to feel good, an orientation toward learning and mastery, a need for competence and self-determination" and "perhaps, to relate to and be engaged with others." We will now examine some strategies that point to alternatives to conventional grading practices.

#### **2. Ungrading**

Writing in 1964, Paul Goodman begins his essay [1] with "Let half a dozen of the prestigious Universities –Chicago, Stanford, the Ivy League –abolish grading, and use testing only and entirely for pedagogic purposes as teachers see fit." He argues that the majority of college level professors would agree that "grading hinders teaching and creates a bad spirit, going as far as cheating and plagiarizing." Goodman is not alone in noting how the grading regime appears to be a necessary common sense and inevitable methodology to "know whom to accept, reward, hire."

Alfie Kohn points out that much has been written about academic assessment [52]. He points out that "We need to collect information about how students are doing, and then we need to share that information (along with our judgments, perhaps) with the students and their parents. Gather and report — that's pretty much it." Kohn reminds us that questions about the value of grading are not new. He points to the extensive literature dating back to the 1930s. Writing in 1933, A.D. Crooks [53], summarizes the perceived shortcomings of grading that to this day reflects contemporary criticisms. For example, Forman [54] that grades are "a certificate of educational veneer and an artificial stimulation which furnishes fear motivation while it lasts." Forman's solution is to provide credit for work that is complete that is original and incorporates knowledge. Crooks also cites Odell [55] who notes that grades become the primary incentive and "leading to working for ulterior rewards, cheating, self-conceit, overwork, discouragement, and jealousy." Other educators argue that grading reflects competitive human nature or the impossibility of demonstrating superior work inevitability of grades. A commonsense recommendation is to avoid the misuse of grades so that "progressive schools would simply use other tests and techniques than those now common."

Over the past decade the ungrading movement has made headway among educators. Susan D. Blum [56] describes how she encountered the secret Facebook group "Teachers Going Gradeless," and captures [57] students' fixation on grades, by summarizing the questions that faculty often hear such as: "*What do you want? What do I have to do to get an A? How can I improve my grade? "What are the criteria for grades?"* The focus is on achievement represented by a letter grade not on learning. Blum points out that rarely are students asked: "what are you learning?" rather they are more often asked (and ask each other) "wad-ja-get?" "Wad-ja-get" serves as the title for the book by Howard Kirschenbaum et al. originally published in 1971 [58]. In the

subtitle of the book, authors characterized the obsession with grades as the "grading game." The book uses the device of a fictional conversation about grades to reveal the shortcomings of grading back in the mid 1960s.

In his introduction to the 50th Anniversary Edition of "Wad-ja-get," Barry J. Fishman references a comprehensive review [59] of the meaning of grades prior to the publication of "Wad-ja-get" and the 50 years following. Fishman concludes "What has changed in those fifty years? Not that much. The general finding that teacherassigned grades are subjective and unreliable remains constant." There remains a focus on graduation rates and educational outcomes. He laments that grading continues to be considered "a useful indicator of numerous factors that matter to students, teachers, parents, schools, and communities…".

In an appendix of "Wad-ja-get" the authors discuss Alternative Grading Systems, [60]. They emphasize the need to distinguish between private and public evaluation. Private evaluation "involves the teacher and student working together, sharing information and feedback, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and planning steps toward improved performance." Public evaluation appears on the transcript and is shared among educational institutions and employers.

The authors insist that Private evaluation should always include the following for elements:

Clear statement of behavioral objectives, how these will be measured, and what levels of performance will correspond to what specific grades (if grades are used).

Meaningful written or oral communication by the teacher to the student, that considers the student's strengths, weaknesses, and possible directions for improvement, with respect to the specific course objectives.

Student self-evaluation of strengths, weaknesses, and directions for improvement, both with respect to the teacher's objectives and with respect to the student's own learning goals.

Time for the teacher and student to read each other's evaluations and engage in a dialog based on this sharing of perceptions.

They then discuss eight alternative grading strategies detailing the advantages and disadvantages of each:

Written Evaluations. Self-Evaluation. Give grades but do not tell the students. The Contract System. The Mastery Approach or Performance Curriculum (Five-Point System). Pass/Fail Grading (P/F). Credit/No Credit Grading (CR/NC). Blanket Grading (do required work receive the blanket grade).

From their review of the literature on grading practices Schinske and Tanner [7] suggest that faculty would benefit from spending less time on grading thereby freeing up time to devote to exploring innovative approaches. Pressure for greater accuracy in grading may interfere with learning and demotivate students. Recognizing that students tend not to read the teacher's comment, instead focus only on the letter grade could be addressed in class discussions with a small award of points for completion. The authors pose the following questions: "What if students themselves used rubrics to examine their peers' efforts and evaluate their own work, instead of instructors spending hours and hours commenting on papers? What if students viewed their

*Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

peers as resources and collaborators, as opposed to competitors in courses that employ grade curving?"

Starr Sackstein recommends the following ten "ways to go gradeless" [61]. To "change the grade mindset" she suggests communicate with the stakeholders; rebrand assignments as "learning experiences;" facilitate student partnerships; leverage digital technology to ease data collection; talk to learners inside and outside the classroom; track progress transparently, use reflection to promote metacognition; introduce selfgrading and use portfolio assessments.

Susan Blum summarizes the major issues with grading [62]: uniformity of grading and lack of nuanced information about the learner and their individual circumstances; grading and college is perceived by students as a game; grading and rules for completing work is perceived to be arbitrary and inconsistent; students learn to focus on achievement, success and accomplishment not on actual learning and mistakes and risk taking are punitive often resulting in lower grades. Importantly Blum asserts that grades do not truly motivate students rather a teacher should keep in mind the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Blum references the minimax strategy [63] and adds that when students only care about extrinsic reward i.e., the grade encourages the minimax strategy [63] and instrumental behavior to do the minimum amount of work to get the highest grade. The result is "Cheating, shortcuts, cramming…all those make sense if the only goal is points or winning."

Ryan and Deci [64] provide a detailed analysis and discussion of the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Appealing to self-determination theory [65, 66] they argue that: "in order to make the critical distinction between behaviors that are volitional and accompanied by the experience of freedom and autonomy—those that emanate from one's sense of self—and those that are accompanied by the experience of pressure and control and are not representative of oneself." Self-determined behavior is based upon the psychological need for "competence, autonomy and relatedness." There is the challenge to integrate extrinsically motivated behaviors, described as "instrumental to some separable consequence" to become part of self-determined behavior.

Blum relies on this analysis to recommend the following solutions [62]: decenter grading; emphasize a portfolio as a semester long project; encourage students to develop an individual plan and self-evaluation and conduct portfolio conferences. Blum further calls for the application of Universal Design Principles. Universal Design for learning success emphasizes providing multiple paths for engagement, representation and for action and expression. The UDL guidelines [67] promote equity by offering "a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities."

Jesse Stommel a prominent voice in the ungrading movement is upfront and direct in his approach practicing a radical project: "I've foregone grades on individual assignments for 17 years, relying on qualitative feedback, peer review, and selfassessment. My goal in eschewing grades has been to more honestly engage student work rather than simply evaluate it" [68]. Stommel decries how the imposition of objective measures of performance, leads to grading practices that privileges some students over others: "Students who are female, black, brown, indigenous, disabled, neurodivergent, queer, etc. face overt and systemic oppression whether expectations are explicit or implicit." All instructors must recognize the role of implicit bias in grading regimes.

Stommel acknowledges there is no single approach to "ungrading." However, successful ungrading does requires that a faculty member can take full ownership of their pedagogical approach in the classroom. A precondition to this requires the support of administrators and the institution itself to respect and strongly support academic freedom.

Stommel encourages experimentation with the introduction of ungrading for a portion of a semester. Stommel has students "write process letters, describing their learning and how their work evolves over the term;" use minimal grading use authentic assessment; introduce self-assessment; introduce contract grading where "Students work toward the grade they want to achieve, and goal posts don't unexpectedly shift. These contracts can also be negotiated with the class." He advocates for the use of portfolios and student made rubrics. Self-reflections at the midterm and end of the semester are ways to give students ownership of their education. Stommel [69] suggests that one can start ungrading in small ways by:

Changing how you talk about assessment. Invite students into a conversation about grades. Grade less stuff, grade less often, grade more simply. Ask students to reflect on their own learning.

Stommel [69] recalls Freire critique of the "banking model" of education and instead argues for "a classroom or learning environment becomes a space for asking questions -- a space of cognition not information." For Freire, education is revolutionary project empowering the learner. Stommel ties his [68] recommendations back to critical pedagogy: "We don't prepare students for a world of potential oppression by oppressing them."Alternatives to "ungrading" might include contract grading, gamification and game-based learning. The following sections will discuss each approach.

#### **3. Contract grading**

Contract Grading replaces conventional grading practices with an agreement between the instructor and the student. The student self-selects the amount of work they commit to along with the corresponding grade. Contract Grading gives students greater responsibility for and ownership of their own learning. This approach deemphasizes the instructor as evaluator and gives emphasis to the student as an autonomous learner. Kathy Davidson [70] gives this explanation of Contract Grading to students: "The advantage of contract grading is that you, the student, decide how much work you wish to do this semester; if you complete that work on time and satisfactorily, you will receive the grade for which you contracted. This means planning ahead, thinking about all your obligations and responsibilities this semester and also determining what grade you want or need in this course."

Davidson suggests that peer review is essential for the success of Contract Grading as a community building action. For Davidson, Contract Grading "is both an idealistic, student-centered way of writing one's own learning goals--and it is, quite overtly, a workaround, a better alternative to conventional grading and credentialing. By adding the peer review component, contract grading is also an act of community."

Davidson [71] recalls Paolo Freire, by offering practical advice about redesigning the classroom to be "inspired by equality, not oppression." The goal of Contract Grading is aligned with the intent of ungrading: "A pedagogy of equality aims to

*Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

support and inspire the greatest possible student success, creativity, individuality, and achievement, rather than more traditional hierarchies organized around a priori standards of selectivity, credentialing, standardization, ranking, and the status quo."

Inoue [72] adds: "Thus the overarching goal of labor-based grading contract ecologies, for me, is to get students to practice a network of interlocking, noncognitive competencies (engagement, coping and resilience, and metacognition)," that he describes as a "willingness to labor." For both Inoue and Davidson contract grading is more than a transaction based on completion of a certain amount of coursework. They see Contract Grading as a way to engage students as complete human beings that are part of community of practice where learners are empowered by the noncognitive competencies described above.

On one level the concept of labor is simply the completion of the required work course work. Inoue goes much further giving a much richer meaning through what he calls "three-dimensional" labor. He draws upon Marx's concepts of labor, concepts of use-value, exchange value and Hannah Arendt's hierarchy of labor/work/ action. Inoue rejects Arendt's privileging of action over the work and labor as elitist. He refashions these into a theory of value and labor that helps students understand what labor should be and what labor means in an "economy" of contract labor. Inoue pushes further in seeing an equivalence between "assessment ecologies and political economies." Three dimensional poses three questions to students to ask of themselves:

How am I laboring and what does it offer me? How much am I laboring? What is the nature of my labor and what do I learn from it?

Inoue continues with an analysis of labor, discussing labor-based grading contracts as "a Marxian critique of the culture of classroom assessment, its relations to the labors involved in learning and to larger capitalist modes of production."

In the Philosophical Manuscripts, Marx [73] proposed a theory of labor based on "estrangement" or "alienation." Marx asserts: "Thus, if the product of his labor, his labor objectified, is for him an alien, hostile, powerful object independent of him, then his position towards it is such that someone else is master of this object, someone who is alien, hostile, powerful, and independent of him. If he treats his own activity as an unfree activity, then he treats it as an activity performed in the service, under the dominion, the coercion, and the yoke of another man."

From one perspective, Marx's analysis is a critique of conventional grading practices. The grade is an objective "commodity" produced by the student's labor. For a student the grade is labor objectified, assigned by someone else and becomes "alien, hostile" to actual learning and diminishes the humanity of the individual. The student loses autonomy and becomes alienated or estranged from this measure of labor.

The forgoing admittedly leaves out a great deal of Marx's analysis but does provides useful ways to think about the key differences between gamification and game-based learning.

#### **4. Gamification**

In 2011, Sebastian Deterding et al. [74] proposed the following definition of gamification "as the use of game design elements in non-game contexts." The use of gamification adopts basic elements of game design that make games fun, engaging and "aim to motivate and engage end-users through the use of game elements and mechanics [75]". In principle gamification can be applied to nearly any activity. Applications include marketing; business and management; employee and customer relations; interaction and user experience design; health, fitness and lifestyle and education. The adoption of gamification across multiple sectors is paralleled by value of the gamification market [76] which has grown from 4.91 billion dollars (US) in 2016 to over 11.94 billion dollars in 2021.

Along with this growth, an extensive literature has arisen on the application of gamification to learning and education. In 2011, Raymer [77] discussed the use of game mechanics applied to eLearning. The extensive meta-analysis by Sailer and Homner [78] answers the question of whether gamification is effective for learning with a provisional yes: "the results suggest that, in general, gamification has the potential to serve as an effective instructional approach for interventions focusing on cognitive, motivational, and behavioral learning outcomes." Noting promising work with self-determination theory [64] they call for further studies to accumulate an evidence-based understanding of how gamification works and how psychological needs can be matched with high-quality learning through gamification. They identify the most promising strategies such using fictionalized worlds with avatars; use of competitive and collaborative interactions and awarding badges increases motivation. They conclude that "the question of which factors contribute most to successful gamification remains partly unresolved, at least for cognitive learning outcomes."

Gamification appropriates the formal elements of gameplay or game mechanics. These include elements such as the number of players, their roles, how they interact; the games goals and objectives; the permitted actions, procedures, and rules of play; available resources; and potential for conflict, boundaries or limits, and outcomes such as win/loss states [79]. Werbach and Hunter [80] identify generalized gamification mechanics that are also part of game design including: challenges, chance, competition, cooperation, feedback, resource acquisition, rewards, transactions, turns, and win states.

Some game mechanics commonly used in gamification to motivate and engage users [81] include:

Narrative or story to give meaning and purpose.

Points as units of measurement for tracking progress, experience, and accomplishments.

Leaderboards to rank players and to inspire competition.

Game goals, missions, quests, and challenges to motivate action and direction. Using badges, certificates and leveling up to provide feedback to gain a sense of progression and achievement.

Creation of a community which gives meaning to achievements.

As the gamification industry matured the game mechanics that are grouped into more complex and sophisticated categories. For example, the Periodic Table of Gamification Elements [82] identifies 52 separate game mechanics that are grouped to support different user types and styles as follows:

Reward Schedule. General.

*Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

Socializer. Achiever. Free Spirit. Philanthropist. Player. Disruptor.

This list of player types builds upon Richard Bartle's taxonomy of player types of MUDS (multi-user dungeon/domain) and their interactions [83]. He characterized the ways that people enjoyed playing MUDS as:


Stewart builds upon and expands upon Bartle's original player styles [84] by synthesizing Keirsey's theory of human temperaments [85] with Bartle's player styles. Keirsey reduced the 16 personality types of the Meyers Briggs Model of personality types to what he called the Artisan, Guardian, Rational and Idealist.

These in turn were combined with Bateman's model of gameplay preferences [86]. In addition to those of Bartle and Keirsey, Stewart adds those of Roger Caillois [87] and Nicole Lazzaro's ideas on the "4 Keys to Fun" [88, 89]. Stewart also brings under his umbrella two models of game design: Ron Edwards' Gamist/Narrativist/Simulationist (GNS) classification of playing styles [90] and the Mechanics, Dynamics, Esthetics (MDA) model [91]. The result is what Stewart calls the Unified Model. Stewart designed the follow table to illustrate how the play styles of the Unified Model relate to associated gameplay features as an aid to game design (**Table 1**).


**Table 1.** *Stewart's unified model of play styles [84].*

While Stewart acknowledges that better theories of gamers preferences and play styles may yet be develop, he concludes that "there is remarkable agreement on the basic ways in which people want to express their playfulness as a function of a general personality style." By demonstrating commonalities and overlap of these models the Unified Model provides constructive ways to think about and design for different player motivations "that will help developers create better games."

Mambo.io [92] provides gamification consultation for a range of sectors including financial services, insurance, education, government, health care, retail, travel & hospitality, telecommunications, manufacturing, and media and entertainment. Mambo.io identifies 108 gamification mechanics and breaks down users into similar categories as above: socializers, explorers, killers and achievers. A further component of gamification is to build in motivational core drives. Yu-kai Chou [93], has developed the Octalysis Gamification Framework that identifies the following eight core drives that motivate people to act:


Chou gives a different twist and emphasis to the meaning and intention behind gamification: "Gamification is the craft of deriving all the fun and engaging elements found in games and applying them to real-world or productive activities." Chou distinguishes between what he calls "Human-Focused Design," as opposed to "Function-Focused Design." Human-Focused Design optimizes for feelings, motivations, and engagement as a design principle in opposition to simple functionality and efficiency. Mechanics appeal to certain motivators as part the player's motivational profile.

The Reese Motivation Profile assesses [94] 16 basic desires that "determine our values, predict our behavior, influence the development of our personality traits, and create harmony or conflict in our interpersonal relationships." These empirically derived traits are acceptance, beauty, curiosity, eating, family, honor, idealism, independence, order, physical activity, power, saving social contact, status, tranquility and vengeance.

Others [95] haven taken a deeper dive into understanding motivational studies to further examine the theories of the growth mindset and intrinsic motivation, to develop a program of research to further the neuroscientific research in education. Cook and Artino [96] articulate intersections, commonalities, and differences between five theories of motivation noting "recurrent themes of competence, value, attributions, and interactions between individuals and the learning context."

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These five theories include expectancy-value theory, where. Motivation is interpreted as a "function of the expectation of success and perceived value." Attribution theory looks at the "causal attributions" learners use to "explain the results of an activity… in terms of their locus, stability, and controllability." Social- cognitive theory focuses on self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. Goal orientation theory "suggests that learners tend to engage in tasks with concerns about mastering the content (mastery goal, arising from a 'growth' mindset regarding intelligence and learning) or about doing better than others or avoiding failure (performance goals, arising from a 'fixed' mindset)." Self-determination theory proposes that actions can be "motivated by intrinsic interests or by extrinsic values that have become integrated and internalized." While there is not space to examine these five theories in detail, it is worth noting that a deeper understanding of theories of motivation and the impact on education requires additional research.

These distinctions lead to the reconsideration of the long-standing critique of gamification which hinges on extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation. Dahlstrøm [97] underscores that gamification increases user engagement, through game like experiences "that afford intrinsic motivation in users." Citing research [75, 98] the gamification trend initially focused on "implementing reward systems commonly found in games through elements such as points, badges and leaderboards." Dahlstrøm concludes that gamification is not necessarily a "solution to a general lack of user motivation." Games should be not only a reward system but rather "about goals, challenges, stories and the experiences" as part of the gameful experience. Dahlstrøm advocates for a meaningful experience that employs mechanics like points and badges to confer "a sense of competence and autonomy in users". More recently, [99] critics point to uncertain and inconclusive results of gamification systems used in education settings.

#### **5. Game-based learning**

James Paul Gee [100] opened the door to the consideration of games as a sophisticated learning system. Learners willingly adopt roles and take on quests, missions, and goals in such a way that the game itself becomes an environment for learning. For Gee, learning is a core game mechanic and sees video gameplay as an inherently social activity that is contrary to common understandings of video gameplay as an isolating activity. Drawing upon his background in fields such as psycholinguistics and new literacy studies [101] he conceptualizes the activity of video gameplay as participating in a discourse community [102, 103]. He describes his own direct observation [104] of game playing as a prosocial activity in observing game play with his own children.

Gee listed [100] the following learning principles that are activated by welldesigned video games:

Identity–Players explore new roles for interacting in virtual worlds.

Interaction–Players engage in content-rich discourse with non-playing and real characters.

Production–Players help determine the direction and outcomes.

of the game world through their decisions, players create representations or play to communicate in-game learning to external audiences.

Risk Taking–Learning results from experiencing failure, receiving feedback, and trying again. Games allow for repeated failure and customized feedback for learning.

Customization–Game worlds adapt to player preferences and playstyles.

Agency–Players react to the challenge of game play to achieve a sense of control over their actions.

Well-Ordered Problems–The game environment scaffolds challenges to support the development of player ability levels.

Just-in-Time in learning–Information in games is provided just as failure happens and just when players need guidance to correct their practices.

Situated Meanings–Play is integrated into a meaningful context.

Pleasantly Frustrating–Games guide players through failure from which they can learn.

Systems Thinking–Play involves navigation and sense making of layered, complex interconnected worlds.

Cross-Functional Teams–Players adopt roles coordinated through organized social groups.

Video games were celebrated as powerful learning environments in part due to how they engage players both individually and socially. The traditional classroom learning environment focuses on learning outcomes resulting in "teaching to the test" and less on authentic learning. Kurt Squire [105] proposed the concept of games as "designed experiences." Through gameplay, students enact new identities within the classroom community of gamers. Through multiple performances of the adopted identity, the student player internalizes and instantiates theories of how the game world works leading to a richer understanding than merely focusing on outcomes.

Homer, Plass and Kinzer [106] indicate that game-based learning emphasizes play in the pursuit of well-defined learning outcomes [107], where a balance is sought between play game play and the need to deliver educational subject matter [108]. Homer et al. also distinguishes gamification from game-based learning, in that the former "involves the use of game elements, such as incentive systems, to motivate players to engage in a task they otherwise would not find attractive." While acknowledging the ongoing debate over the definition of what makes a game, they shift to argue that play as "the essential activity in games—has long been thought of as a critical element in human development."

Plass et al. [109] also argue for a comprehensive approach to game-based learning. Rather proceeding from a single perspective, they advocate for integrating "viewpoints of cognitive, motivational, affective, and sociocultural perspectives" that are essential for both game design itself and for game research.

Multiple perspectives inform the creation of learning environments based on games that foster actual engagement and achieve learning goals. Designing learning experiences from the cognitive perspective "can enhance learner engagement, make tasks meaningful and relevant, and adaptively respond to learner's specific needs and conditions." Understanding the motivational factors to rationalize the use of games for learning emerges from how games for entertainment engage players for extended periods of time and commitment. Affective foundations include the elements of narrative, esthetics, game mechanics, sound, and music. These elements can induce emotional responses to heighten learning. Other researchers, notably Gee [100, 104] point to the rich social interactions that emerge within communities of players both in collaborative or competitive play "may be one of the most important aspects of game-based learning."

Homer et al. further advocate for the concept of "playful learning" which they define "as an activity by the learner, aimed at the construction of a mental model (a coherent representation of the information in memory), that is designed to include

#### *Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

one or more elements of games for the purpose of enhancing the learning process." Game designers, taking into consideration the learning goals, can implement playful learning environments that either fully games or are playful activities, having some game play elements. They distinguish playful learning as incorporating playful tasks where-as gamification adds "game elements to an existing task that may be unengaging, tedious, or boring." Playful learning requires actual play!

Prensky has identified the generations who have grown up with digital technology and playing video games as Digital Natives [110]. Prensky suggests [111] that video games may be creating "people with special skills in discovering rules and patterns by and active and interactive process of trial error." Prensky quotes Greenfield [112], who recognized that playing video games encourages "the process of making observations, formulating hypotheses and figuring out the rules governing the behavior of a dynamic representation is basically the cognitive process of inductive discovery…the thought process behind scientific thinking."

Digital Natives who grew up playing video games do not read manuals. Rather they simply start learning the game by trial and error. In this "fearless environment" they assume the "software is supposed to teach" them how to use it. As gamers, they learn that failure is necessary for success. A well-designed game allows the player to learn through trial and error. Players know that a game can be beat and therefore continue playing [113] despite temporary failure. Players are resilient because they know their persistence will pay off. Mark Rober calls this the Super Mario Effect [114]. The player focuses on the end goal to save the princess rather than on the mistakes and failures. Gee [115] among many others [116, 117] hypothesizes that well designed games incorporate failure as part of learning. Games "allow players to take risks that might be too costly elsewhere, like classrooms, where failure is often seen as an end result [118]".

Jane McGonigal [119], argues that games, unlike the real world, make it safe to fail. Instead, games offer a positive experience "We normally think of games as being fun, kind of trivial, maybe something to pass the time, but what if we thought about them as a platform for inventing the future of higher education?" McGonigal argued that playing games leads to a constellation of positive emotional effects that are essentially the opposite of depression. She advanced games as a cure for lack of engagement and for the potential to transform education citing the following positive effects:

(In descending order) Joy Relief. Love. Surprise. Pride. Curiosity. Excitement. Awe and wonder. Contentment. Creativity.

A key element of game play is the activation of what Csíkszentmihályi [120] identified as the state of flow which is induced by pursuing a goal, confronting obstacles, increasing challenges and voluntary participation that characterizes the experience of playing a game. McGonigal points out that games quickly give immediate

feedback [119]: "The result was a much faster cycle of learning and reward, and ultimately a sense of perfect and powerful control over a 'microworld' on the screen." Prensky [111] describes this as one of the "pay off vs. patience" lessons learned by the Games Generation "if you put in the hours and master the game, you will be rewarded—with the next level, with a win, with a place on the high scorers' list." This is one among ten different cognitive styles that Prensky identifies that educators should take account of when teaching:


Students in Prensky's Game Generation are presumably more receptive to game-based learning as they are more accustomed to fast paced game play; tracking multiple game-play elements in parallel; rapidly switch focus in non-sequential ways; playing networked games and engaging in communities like Discord or Twitch; see the game world, characters and the esthetics before reading; actively engaging in play; grinding in a game is part of play; expecting rewards as the reward for persistence; grew up on a diet of pop-culture fantasy and because of their extensive experience playing games, are comfortable with technology and see it as a source of fun, entertainment and social connectivity.

Game-based learning affords the opportunity to do detailed assessments and track the progress of players-as-learners. Halverson and Steinkuehler [121] suggested that games can be a powerful research tool to generate and collect data on learning. They call for a "game ecology" that affords researchers "opportunities to assess the gameplay skill of players, the degree to which players mastered declarative and procedural content, and the play experience." However, writing in 2014, the authors note the current limitations of the commercial game industry "which include compelling game worlds and interaction spaces, but without clear models of learning assessment, and in academic game spaces, which are developing reliable learning tools, but without compelling game environments."

The challenge for game-based learning remains how to make educational games that are engaging and are actually fun to play. Some efforts are made in defining what games are and then applying such definitions to game development.

#### *Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

The ambition of the Handbook of Game Based Learning [122] is to "help establish a solid empirical and theoretical foundation for the discipline of game-based learning that synthesizes and organizes existing research and sets a research agenda for years to come." This is a comprehensive overview by leading practitioners, scholars, and researchers of what is now a mature field. Divided into four major parts, the handbook provides a three-chapter introduction to game-based learning; an overview of the theoretical underpinnings with four chapters discussing the cognitive, affective, motivational and the socio-cultural foundations of game-based learning. The third part offers eight chapters on practical guides to implementing instructional support with feedback and coaching; guides to providing self-regulation and reflection; adaptivity and personalization, use of narrative and multi-media; strategies of collaboration and cooperation along with emerging design principles for game-based design The fourth part features chapters that discuss gamed-based learning examples in science, math, engineering, technology, language learning, cognitive skill training and workforce learning. The final two chapters cover games for assessment and learning analytics which reflects Halverson's and Steinkuehler's earlier call [121] for a "game ecology" that affords researchers "opportunities to assess." Indeed, popular contemporary game engines such as Unity or Unreal now offer sophisticated analytics which foster tracking and assessments of players in great detail.

The editors are in fact declaring that game-based learning is well-established on a firm theoretical foundation that is further supported by extensive empirical research, having well-established design principles and an ever-expanding library of use cases and successful implementations. The Handbook continues to advocate for, as discussed earlier in [106], a consensus regarding the complementary domains of inquiry–namely the cognitive, affective, motivational, and socio-political as important lens through which to view and understand game-based learning.

#### **6. Discussion**

Vygotsky's [123] zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a road map for cognitive development and learning which provides a powerful way to conceptualize scaffolding. Playing a game and game development also mirror similar zones of proximal development. A gamer initially discovers "what I can do." A game developer, especially when using the discipline of agile development [124] begins with identifying and listing doable tasks (e.g., programming) that they already have had experience solving such as using the arrow keys to control the playable character.

One of James Paul Gee's observation is that playing video is often a social activity. Gamers exchange information on forums like Discord and elsewhere, on how to gain experience points, where to discover Easter eggs, beat level bosses and level up. Similarly, game development is more often done in teams. Agile development formalizes asking the question "what I can do next with help (if I need it)? ".

Both gamers and developers also confront the question of "What I can't do or don't know how to do." Game play and game development also share a methodology of test and iterate. Failure and do overs are part of the process. Gamers must repeatedly lose before they figure out how to beat the level boss. Game Developers make mistakes in programming or even are forced to abandon what appeared to be promising avenues of development or game mechanics.

But designing and building games is hard and time consuming. It takes time and money which are rare commodities for teachers and faculty. Games must be playtested and usability tested. For game-based learning there must be longitudinal assessments of large populations to reveal promising, statistically significant results.

Game development becomes the responsibility of professionals. Where does that lead teachers and faculty? Given limited resources, one option is to gamify the classroom to engage for meaningful learning and shift students from the obsession with grades.

Games are notable for their immersive engagement, fun, play and depending on the game design and genre competitiveness. The key element of fun is often elusive and is not always found in "serious" learning games.

Playfulness is also key ingredient. In Homo Ludens [125], Johan Huizinga defined play as "Play is a free activity standing quite consciously outside 'ordinary' life as being 'not serious,' but at the same time absorbing the player intensely and utterly. It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained by it. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner."

Vygotsky [123] gave a different emphasis to aspects of play as an activity that is "desired" and "always involves an imaginary situation." Play is governed by rules which are shared and understood by the players during or even in advance of the activity of play. For Huizinga [125], this activity forms what he called the magic circle:

All play moves and has its being within a playground marked off beforehand either materially or ideally, deliberately or as a matter of course. Just as there is no formal difference between play and ritual, so the "consecrated spot" cannot be formally distinguished from the playground. The arena, the card-table, the magic circle, the temple, the stage, the screen, the tennis court, the court of justice, etc., are all in form and function playgrounds, i.e., forbidden spots, isolated, hedged round, hallowed, within which special rules obtain. All are temporary worlds within the ordinary world, dedicated to the performance of an act apart.

Huizinga articulated five key elements of play:

Play is free.

Play is not "ordinary" or "real" life.

Play is distinct from "ordinary" life both as to locality and duration.

Play creates order, is order. Play demands order absolute and supreme.

Play is connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained from it.

Salen and Zimmerman [126] took Huizinga's analysis further by discussing Gregory Bateson's notion [127] of how "play occurs within a delimited psychological frame, a spatial and temporal bounding of a set of interactive messages." A key element of play for Bateson is metacommunication between the players which lead Salen and Zimmerman to define that activity of play "as not just to follow the rules and rituals of play, but also to continually communicate the idea that the play-actions are just play and not something else." This is a kind of double-consciousness (after Bateson) frames the simulation of the play activity. This is captured by Brian Sutton-Smith [128]: "Children know that they are manipulating their thoughts about reality, not reality itself; and they know that their play self is not the same as their everyday self." This double-consciousness of the individual player through continual "metacommunication" with other players brings to life and sustains the magic circle during play.

*Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

The holy grail and rationale for gamification was to tap into the magic of gaming and play. Zichermann and Cunningham [129] define gamification as "The use of game thinking and game mechanics to engage users and solve problems."

This definition of gamification does not reference play or fun or any of the elements discussed in the preceding paragraphs. Use of the term gamification served to capture the trend to introduce playful activities and game mechanics in marketing campaigns, product promotion, health and fitness, lifestyle and weight loss applications, political organizing, incentivizing customer loyalty, education and in serious games.

Sententia Gamification [130] is leader in gamification strategy design providing learning solutions for corporate trainers, human resource professionals, educational institutions, and independent consultants. Sententia offers a gamification certification program that introduces a variety of game mechanics (e.g., points, levels, challenges, rewards, chance, collaboration, scarcity, time limits, and leaderboards) where the "goal is to increase learning and engagement through key concepts found in game design and behavioral psychology." By adding game mechanics to training, gamification presumably increases interest, but it also makes training 'fun.' A well-designed and well-implemented gamification program promotes engagement, meaning, mastery, and autonomy."

Both gamification and game-based learning aspire toward fun through "serious" play. Both draw upon an extensive body of research and studies from a range of disciplines to provide theoretical underpinnings and give an evidence-based validity to their outcomes. An important distinction between game-based learning and gamification is revealed by the definition provided by Sebastian Deterding et al. [74] "as *the use of game design elements in non-game contexts*." Game design elements are an add on where-as with game-based learning, the content and learning objectives are intimately bound to the game mechanics and game play.

A common criticism of gamification is that it relies primarily on extrinsic motivation where-as game-based learning incorporates intrinsic motivation sometimes in concert with the use of extrinsically motivating mechanics (e.g., experience points, leaderboards etc.). Hsieh [131] puts it this way: "Intrinsic motivation is triggered by human needs for mastery, curiosity, and overcoming challenges. Extrinsic motivation is relevant to elements not related to the task value, such as rewards, grades "performance and competition or evaluation by others."

The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation follows from selfdetermination theory. By reviewing self-determination theory, Ryan and Deci [64] make the following distinction "between behaviors that are volitional and accompanied by the experience of freedom and autonomy—those that emanate from one's sense of self—and those that are accompanied by the experience of pressure and control and are not representative of oneself." Thus, intrinsically motivated behaviors "satisfy the innate psychological needs for competence and autonomy." Extrinsically motivated behaviors "are instrumental to some separable consequence." Ryan and Deci acknowledge that extrinsic motivations can be aligned with self-determination through internalization and integration as: "the processes through which extrinsically motivated behaviors become more self-determined." Some mechanics can function as triggers and others as rewards. Mechanics appeal to certain motivators and core desires as part the player's motivational profile. An argument in defense of gamification is that a well-crafted, gamified experience aligns the operational mechanics to core desires. This in turn, is sufficient to induce fun.

Both gamification and game-based learning understand play as essential. To ensure playful learning, Homer et al. [132] point to the following key principles:

Playful learning is intrinsically motivating. Playful learning depends on a break from reality. Playful learning requires a polytheoretical approach. New technologies provide new opportunities for playful learning. Playful learning requires an integration of play and learning.

As noted earlier in this chapter, the Handbook of Game-Based Learning Plass et al. [109] propose a polytheoretical approach which includes research into the cognitive, affective, motivational, and sociocultural domains: "For game designers, our approach suggest that the integration of multiple perspectives of learning is required if games for learning are to reach their full potential."

Schwartz and Plass [133] outline a research agenda to collect empirical evidence from each of these domains. They propose a full spectrum understanding "taking into account learner differences, types of engagement, identifying patterns and processes of engagement and the relationship to learning outcomes." By doing so they seek to redefine engagement as "the active and focused investment of effort in a game environment."

Pushing the boundaries of research beyond the boundaries prescribed by the polytheoretical approach that addresses the cognitive, affective, motivational, and sociocultural domains for game-based learning, the National Institute for Play (NIFP) identifies the three broad areas of research into the nature of play [134]:

Neuroscience. Behavioral Science. Ethology (animal behavior).

A deeper dive into the area of neuroscience, as listed above can further distinguished the disciplines examine play, yielding further research are listed below:

Affective neuroscience (how emotions function in the brain). Behavioral neuroscience (the connections between brain function and behavior). Biology. Developmental neuroscience (how our brains develop). Evolutionary biology. Neuroanatomy.

From these different disciplines, this research compiled by NIFP provides and very different lens through which we can begin to understand and appreciate the importance of true play. This is seen in this assertion:

When the play circuits in the midbrain are triggered, the related neurons create a cascade of activity in our higher brain functions. The more often this happens—the more often we play—the more those neurons connect and the stronger those pathways get. The neural connections created when we play are the brain wiring patterns that give us better control over our movement, our thoughts, and our emotions.

NIFP simply asserts that "play is central to leading healthy, productive human lives." As researchers explore the neurocorrelates of play and their impacts on

*Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

affective, behavioral, biological developmental and evolutionary factors and results are published, these results will deepen our understandings that build upon the research agenda as outlined in the Handbook of Game-Based Learning.

#### **7. Conclusion**

This chapter does not attempt to define or appeal to any one definition of what constitutes a game. That is a topic beyond the scope of this one. This chapter, on the other hand, started with a review of some of the criticisms concerning grading and some of the current trending alternatives, such as ungrading and grading contracts. Conventional grading practices are a blunt instrument that obscures different learning styles and needs. Student focus on grades distorts and undermines true learning and should be replaced by a range of assessment strategies that incorporate Universal Design. The goal is to remove the stress, fears and obsession with grades that conventional assessment practices engender and at the same time motivate and engage the learner. Sometimes referred as "ungrading," the adoption of these strategies prioritizes the progress of each individual student and re-envisions learning as a series of achievements that students complete and level-up to take on a series of successive challenges based on previous accomplishments not unlike the playing of a video game. Grading contracts can shift the responsibility and engagement to the learner. Scholarship and research into motivation and theories of engagement yield insights into the efficacy of gamification and game-based learning strategies. A multitheoretical approach through the lenses of the cognitive, affective, motivational, and socio-political domains is needed to address the full spectrum of the needs and learning styles of learners for engagement and motivation.

This chapter also briefly, revisited core themes of play, through a brief discussion of Vygotsky, Huizinga, and others' critical framing of how we perceive and experience games and play. Both gamification and game-based learning seek to harness the power of play to engage to motivate learning and skill acquisition.

Gamification can suffer from a reliance on extrinsic motivation that risks the some of the same drawbacks as conventional grading. Game-based learning in some respects is a better solution but is at times impractical especially for the busy teacher without the resources to build games and therefore must rely on the entertainment and educational industries to offer solutions in the marketplace.

The challenges presented by neurodiversity, gender, racial bias, both implicit and explicit in the classroom, remain persistent. This calls for a multifaceted approach requiring flexibility, resources and commitment informed by continuing research. Both gamification and game-based learning seek to tap into players voluntary commitment to play and are rewarded by the sense of mastery of new skills and achievement. The motivation for this approach to ensure equity and inclusion in the classroom by creating a compassionate environment to enhance student engagement and learning.

Successful gamification and game-based learning experiences aspire to induce intrinsic motivation that is based upon the psychological need for "competence, autonomy and relatedness" while engaging with others. These are features of core desires and motivations intimately bounded to learning styles and play styles that foster a sense of freedom, autonomy and self-determined behavior that is aligned with the player's sense of self and identity.

#### **Acknowledgements**

I acknowledge the support of Quinnipiac University and the College of Arts and Sciences, 2022–2023 Scholarship and Grants Committee.

#### **Thanks**

I am grateful for the insights provided by the one-day online workshop and post conference Gamification Certificate program conducted by Sententia Gamification (www.SententiaGamification.com) as part Serious Play 2022 (https://www.seriousplayconf.com/).

### **Nomenclature**

Agile Development [124]: Most agile development methods break product development work into small increments that minimize the amount of up-front planning and design. Iterations, or sprints, are short time frames (timeboxes) that typically last from 1 to 4 weeks. This minimizes overall risk and allows the product to adapt to changes quickly.

### **Author details**

Gregory Garvey Quinnipiac University, Hamden, Connecticut, United States

\*Address all correspondence to: gregory.garvey@quinnipiac.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105967*

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#### **Chapter 12**

## Learning by Doing Active Social Learning

*Anat Raviv*

#### **Abstract**

Project-based learning and future-based pedagogy are important and effective tools for teaching and learning in the twenty-first century. They are especially suited to instilling social activism among students, which is extremely valuable in today's multicultural society. This study examined the impact of such learning among Arab and Jewish students and teachers in Israel. Following a collaborative program on social activism, in which students from different sectors worked together via digital platforms and face-to-face encounters, the impact of the program and its pedagogical tools were examined. The program, called Living in a Multicultural Society, reflects the mosaic of different people and communities, living side by side yet separated by religion, culture, and language. Through this program, students who may not have otherwise met worked together to learn, research, and create. This study was conducted using the mixed-method approach, whereby the qualitative data were gathered via interviews, and the quantitative data were collected through questionnaires. The findings show that this project-based learning program led to significant encounters, understandings, and co-operations between different sectors, and to meaningful end-products relating to social activism. This study enhances the concept that significant pedagogical processes increase students' motivation, in-depth learning, and outcomes.

**Keywords:** deep learning, social activism, future-based learning, STEEP learning, project-based learning, globalism

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter discusses the unique project-based learning (PBL) program called Living in a Multicultural Society, in which both Jewish and Arab elementary school students in Israel participate and cooperate. With a focus on social activism, the project strives to develop and instill the twenty-first-century learning skills in students – i.e., future-based learning skills that incorporate social, technological, environmental, economic, and political (STEEP) aspects [1–3]. After presenting this special project, this paper evaluates the project's contribution to social activism, i.e., the social and moral call-for action, and reflects on learning concepts that stem from the assumption that the key to deep learning is practical experience, also known as learning by doing. To the best of our knowledge, previous research has not examined the impact of project-based learning or future-based pedagogy on the social activism of learners.

#### **2. Learning in the twenty-first century**

In light of the significant social and technological changes and developments that have occurred worldwide, learning today requires skills that were not previously needed. On a global level, we face unprecedented social, economic, and environmental challenges that are driven by accelerated globalization processes and fast technological developments. By 2030, students who entered the education system, 2018–2020, will be young adults. As such, schools need to prepare them for life in an era of uncertainty and an unclear future; the labor market will require skills and tools that have not yet been created, as well as solution to problems that have not yet been predicted. To successfully navigate through such uncertainty, today's students must develop curiosity, imagination, mental resilience, and self-control; they must learn to evaluate different concepts and perspectives for dealing with interdisciplinary issues. These students also need to be motivated, possess tools for self-learning, and be able to manage their time and resources. In other words, the twenty-first century learner must acquire both humane and technological know-how, with an emphasis on differential-personal development, technology-based tools, and higher-order thinking capabilities [4–6].

The education system must, therefore, teach students to become initiating agents – a term that refers to their ability to act independently, out of interest and curiosity. It is this concept that underlies today's education systems in the west, as seen in the Future of Education and Skills 2030 Project1 presented by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The project seeks answers to two far-fetched questions: (1) Which skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values do today's students need to thrive and shape their world? and (2) How can learning systems effectively develop these skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values? Education systems around the world must therefore embark on interdisciplinary teaching that is based on research and problem solving while instilling self-learning skills among the students.

Furthermore, in order to be both effective and relevant, learning programs in today's multicultural societies must combine both social activism and future-based learning [7]. Harpaz [8] states that "teaching should be an inspiring practice, a lifegiving activity that can exist only in light of excellence, morality, and involvement" (52). In line with this statement, teaching today should be based on three Es: *excellence*, *engagement*, and *ethics* [9]. Moreover, the main dimensions underlying today's learning process include learning by doing, curiosity-stimulating learning, and glocalism – a blend of global and local [2]. In other words, it is the imparting of social and learning skills that shape the profile of the desired learner in the twenty-first century [2].

For lifelong learning to take place, learners must acquire skills with a technological/digital orientation, develop the ability to identify and evaluate learning possibilities, learn independently, and manage their learning – while developing the meta-cognitive ability for analyzing the given learning method. To achieve such a learning process, teachers must assist learners in identifying and choosing the most suitable learning options to suit their learning styles and objectives, monitor their progress, and assist them when problems arise. As such, schools must function as a learning-oriented center that provides learners with guidance and support in identifying learning possibilities and choosing learning services that suit the specific time and place [10]. Studies show that in the near future, teachers will use more than one medium in their lessons (e.g., [6, 11, 12]). Incorporating technology in teaching

<sup>1</sup> https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/

enables multi-modal teaching, new and updated curricula, and rich online research and collaborations; moreover, it allows students to become much more engaged in constructing their own knowledge, and cognitive studies [13].

#### **3. The desired learner and meaningful learning**

In today's post-modern era, education systems should aspire to create a graduate who incorporates three main components: the socialized graduate, the civilized graduate, and the realized graduate. The first refers to graduates who possess the ability to fulfill social functions; the second relates to graduates whose values, qualities, and attitudes are similar to those in the culture in which they study; and the third component relates to people who have acquired the necessary skills and capabilities for learning and working in the twenty-first century ([14]; Amzalag & Masry-Herzallah 2021).

The major twenty-first century skills that the student must require during his/ her school study are the following: nurturing social relationships, leadership, creativity, critical thinking (Ghafar, 2020), problem-solving [15], self-managed learning, teamwork, interpersonal communication and reflection [16], computational perspectives, cognitive skills, collaborative skills, and creative problem-solving skills [17]. We also argue that these skills can be transferred from a learning context to a real-world context [18]. Moreover, learners, today should be curious people who have a strong desire to know, understand, and influence others; students who are aware of their own perceptions and attitudes, and are able to define and realize their goals. Learners must acquire skills and strategies for finding and processing information, asking questions, combining different information sources, presenting arguments, critically evaluating information, and learning through the media channels of the twenty-first century. These learners will then acquire a sense of self-efficacy and the desire to realize their capabilities and express themselves creatively. There will be learners who are able to create social relationships, conduct respectful discourse, and work as part of a team while interacting with the environment [2].

Data, from around the world, indicate that students achieve meaningful deep learning when they are able to transfer knowledge from the classroom to solving authentic problems, and when they participate in projects that require continuous involvement and cooperation with their classmates and with others. The ability to transfer these skills from a learning context to a real-world context, and to implement them successfully is one of the main twenty-first century skills. Nakakoji & Wilson [18] investigated the process of skill transfer in problem-solving, via students' "think-aloud" processes. Think-aloud processes show recursive use of interpretation, integration, and planning and execution of thinking processes, and highlight the meta-cognitive strategies used in the transfer. They argued that the perspective of academics and students on skill transfer is important to optimize twenty-first century learning and that more attention to the concept of skill transfer is needed. A collaborative learning project enhances such skills in the student learning process.

Active learning (i.e., learning by doing) impacts learners' outcomes far more than any other variable, including their background and previous achievements. Students' achievements are better when they are taught how and what to learn. In their review of the research, Barron and Darling-Hammond [19] write that decades of research around the world show that inquiry-based and cooperative learning contribute to developing the knowledge and skills that are needed for students to succeed in our

constantly changing world. Such learning is an inseparable part of learners' training process in the twenty-first century (Sulam, Syakur & Musyarofah, 2019; [5]).

#### **4. Social activism and STEEP learning**

Social activism relates to the development of students' self-esteem and identity in areas such as human rights and responsibility [20]. In the 21st century, changes in society are accompanied by changes in values, at both a local and global level [2]. New values may include individualism and individual empowerment, rather than collectivism which was an important value in the past. Moreover, values such as social responsibility, ethics, transparency, accountability, human and civil rights, and fairness are the basis of fruitful contributions to the community [21].

In education systems, integrating these values into the learning process has been found to be directly linked to social activism and to the development of learners' abilities to thrive in a multicultural society [22]. Through the mutual collaboration of both students and teachers, social initiatives can be created to reflect their personal and civic responsibility, respectfulness, and fairness within the school-community relationship. This type of learning is one of the main STEEP milestones, which enables life-wide learning [6, 10, 23]. STEEP-oriented learning refers to the use of a range of computerized tools for teaching and learning purposes combined with the students' ability to identify and utilize these during the learning process. This provides students with an opportunity to research and learn a subject from a variety of viewpoints, based on each student's own learning characteristics, including trial and error, feasibility, collaborations, and facilitating knowledge [2, 24].

Social activism projects provide an educational experience that incorporates future-based pedagogy, such as the STEEP method and PBL, and implements them in the learning processes and end results. Social activism can become a learning topic through solving problems and executing initiatives that pose significant and authentic challenges for students, derived from our ever-changing environment. Learners can participate in social and community projects, on a local or global level, and then present their participation and outcomes to colleagues, fellow students, students, and other interested parties [25].

#### **5. Leveraging social activism through future-based learning**

Future-based learning (such as STEEP) is both individual and social oriented, develops day-to-day skills and teaching-learning methods, expands learning resources, encourages involvement in the community, and entails the use of innovative technologies [26]. Moreover, future-based learning moves the focus of education from the students' compliance with strict curricula to their active contribution to their studying, learning how to learn, and accessing necessary information [27]. In pluralistic societies, such active learning processes emphasize acceptance and diversity. One key aspect of creating a fruitful platform for multicultural learning is using innovative teaching and learning strategies [28]. In general, innovation in teaching is expressed through various learning methods that encourage the students' self-direction toward active and meaningful learning. Teachers using such methods tend to involve students as partners in the learning and knowledge self-construction processes. The learning process is based on teamwork, significant assignments, time

#### *Learning by Doing Active Social Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105523*

planning, and practical experience related to multicultural subjects. Moreover, PBL develops and enhances students' independence and self-efficacy [29].

With regards to social activism projects, future-based learning encourages diversity and enables students to express their own personal opinions and attitudes. This flexibility is also reflected in the teacher's willingness to give each student an opportunity to express and emphasize their own interest and uniqueness [30]. Teachers who maintain the learners' involvement throughout the study process (using the PBL method) and use thought-provoking questions promote speculation and doubts. The outcome is an integration of knowledge, new information, and higher-order thinking skills among the learner (Lohman 2002; [31]). In addition, future-based learning methods provide students with the freedom and opportunity to present various options for solving problems and encourage the development of critical and diversified attitudes among students [29, 32].

Nowadays, students are expected to be able to combine social learning, technology, and higher-order thinking skills. To do so, they must be exposed to twenty-first-century skills, including information and communication literacy, critical thinking and problem-solving capabilities, and creative and innovative thinking [33, 34]. Digital platforms enable multidimensional communications, collaborations, and teamwork. These socially oriented aspects require students to be able to share information and knowledge with their peers [35] and develop interpersonal functioning, whereby they are able to conduct interpersonal communications with respect, sensitivity, tolerance, and consideration [6, 23, 36].

The education system in Israel, led by the Ministry of Education, designed structured frameworks based on STEEP skills and research concepts (2008)<sup>2</sup> . These frameworks aim at ensuring graduates become curious, critical, independent learners who can make educated decisions and have the skills to be team players. Researchbased learning will be an element in the school culture, encompassed in the teaching, learning, and evaluation processes. Students will acquire research skills while practicing a range of research processes throughout their school. These research skills will be included in a range of topics and each student must conduct at least two research studies each year.

#### **6. Living in a multicultural society PBL learning project**

The aim of PBL is to provide students with a meaningful experience through active learning. While this concept is far from new, it is invaluable in today's fast-paced and advanced world. This type of learning requires students to investigate and make decisions based on collaboration and end products [37]. In this paper, the PBL examined is the Living in a Multicultural Society Project in which Jewish and Arab students from elementary schools participated. This project integrated STEEP future-based learning methods for promoting social activism, enhancing teamwork skills, and creating social initiatives, while increasing personal and civic responsibility, mutual respect, and fairness among its participants. In other words, this PBL provided a platform for significant and valuable learning combined with practical experience, i.e., learning by doing.

<sup>2</sup> Implementing Research Learning in the Israeli Education System, Ministry of Education, Pedagogical Secretary, August 2008: https://cms.education.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/8C17EFF7-3DC9-4DC0-BD96- B74630598D38/146467/resource\_1811190036.pdf

In the multicultural and multi-identity society that is typical of Israel, this project provided a unique opportunity for students from different sectors to meet and become acquainted with one another. Schools from different sectors were paired up, such as a Jewish school and an Arab one, or a Jewish school and a Druze one. Every few weeks, the students from the paired school either met in person or talked via a digital platform such as Skype, to work on joint activity. The sessions dealt with issues such as friendship, accepting others, pluralism, and multiculturalism. Moreover, each pair of schools collaborated to prepare an artifact relating to social activism at the end of the project, such as a poster, talk, or presentation.

Integrating PBL learning activities onto digital platforms, as with this project, enables a meaningful dialog between students, teachers, communities, and cultures. It encourages creative thinking, strong leadership, and effective learning methods. Throughout the project, collaborative team learning was used to encourage meaningful dialogs and cooperation between the participants. Moreover, the product of each team enabled the students to reflect on their work and cooperation and on the attitudes and outlooks of others – in both a verbal and non-verbal means of communication.

The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine the contribution of this PBL project, which incorporated future-based and STEEP learning methods, to the developing and enhancing of social activism among the participating students and teachers. In the project, which was based on *Curriculum for Changing the World* [38], the concept of future-based learning was applied through online platforms and the social involvement of young school students.

#### **7. The research**

Research Questions.

The study examined two central research questions:

	- a.The development of social awareness and social activism among students in a multicultural society.
	- b.Building a network of cooperation between students from different sectors.
	- c.Building a network of cooperation between teachers from different sectors.

#### **8. Methodology**

#### **8.1 Participants**

Living in a Multicultural Society Project was conducted throughout the 2017−2018 academic year. A non-probabilistic sampling process was performed, the sampling was constructed from all project participants, 73% of the students answered the questionnaire, and 100% of the teachers participated in the project.

*Learning by Doing Active Social Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105523*

About 856 elementary school students and 32 teachers from 32 different schools took part in the project. At the end of the project, 622 students and all 32 teachers took part in an evaluation process, to assess the impact of the project on social activism.

The 32 teachers included 16 Arab teachers and 16 Jewish teachers. The Arab teachers included four Druze teachers, three Christian teachers, and nine Muslim teachers. Each teacher was from a different school across Israel: 16 from the center of the country, 10 from the northern region, and six schools from the south. On average, the participating teachers had been teaching for 14.3 years.

In addition to the teachers, 622 students participated in the study: 264 Jewish students (42%) and 358 Arab students (58%). The Arab population included 19 students from a Druze school and 17 students from a Circassian one. All students were from grades four−six. The Jewish students were from eight Jewish schools, and the Arab students were from six Arab schools, one Druze school, and one Circassian school.

#### **8.2 Research tools**

The study included a closed questionnaire for students and teachers, that was validated by two inspectors in the Ministry of Education and two school principals who were partners in the planning of the project. Students filled out a questionnaire composed of 29 items from six indices, as detailed in **Table 1**. Items were rated on an agreement scale from 1 = (does not agree at all) to 5 = (agrees to a great extent), and scale scores were computed with mean of the items. The teachers were presented with


#### **Table 1.**

*Questionnaire indices, sample items, and internal consistency (N = 622).*


#### **Table 2.**

*Indices and examples of items from teachers' questionnaire (N = 32).*

42 items from 9 indices as shown in **Table 2**. The teachers were asked to rate each item on a 1–5 scale (1 = Not at all, 5 = To a great extent).

The questionnaire has analyzed the findings, which shows that some of the internal traces are normal, but some were low. Considering the low internal consistency findings in some of the indices, it was necessary to update some of the statements in the questionnaire for the evaluation of the program. In all cases, the index score was composed of the average of the items. See **Tables 1** and **2**.

In-depth interviews with students focus groups and interviews with accompanying teachers were done between 1−2 weeks after the project ended. All the interviews were validated by two inspectors in the Ministry of Education and two school principals.

#### **8.3 Research procedure**

The research was conducted using the mixed-method approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative measures. The data was collected from the participants via a questionnaire during each group's final meeting of the project. Moreover, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted through six focus groups, each including six students (N = 36), and one-on-one interviews with school principals, teachers, and students during the last week of the project and a week after it ended.

#### **8.4 Data analysis**

The mixed-method research approach was used in this study, combining both qualitative and quantitative methods for answering the research questions. To analyze the findings descriptive statistics, T-Test, and multiple regression analysis was applied, MANOVA and ANOVA test were used.

Using skewness (SK < [2.0]) and kurtosis (K < 7.00) procedures, each teacher index was examined. Moreover, multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed, using the different sectors as a variable, followed by ANOVA for each index separately.

Sabra Ben Yehoshua [39], Shelsky and Arieli [40], noted the significance of the qualitative approach to understand the impact of the project on the perception of students and teachers. The reasons for integrating the qualitative paradigm in the study lie in the desire to understand in-depth the effects of the project on the participants in a deductive way. To create a diverse sample with maximum variation (Variation Maximum), the sample included participants from different schools with different religions, gender, and place of residence. Deductive thematic analysis was conducted based on categorical repeating patterns of the content. The process was carried out by organizing the various parts of the text by coding into categories, locating common meanings, and repeating patterns in the analyzed texts.

#### **9. Results**

The survey evaluated the contribution of 21st learning skills, including PBL and STEEP methods, for enhancing pluralism and collaborative learning, and social activism among students from a range of groups in Israel. **Table 3** presents the mean scores for each index on the students' questionnaire (N = 622) and on the teachers' (N = 32). The students' input is presented for all participants in general, and according to each sector in particular. The results show high evaluations for the first index, *Teaching/ Learning social activism via PBL in a mixed multicultural team*, with an average score of 4.65 out of 5 among students and 4.70 among teachers. These high scores indicate that the experience was both successful and meaningful, for students and teachers alike.

The second index, relating to *The impact of the project on raising awareness of social activism*, was also highly evaluated by both teachers (M = 4.51) and students (M = 4.50). One teacher from a Jewish school stated that: "The students were exposed to the issue of children's rights in Israel and around the world as part of their PBL research, including the International Children's Rights Day." Participating in the project greatly contributed to enhancing the students' learning and know-how; meeting the Druze students was also fascinating for them, and the collaborative end-products reflect significant learning and cooperation between the two groups of students.

#### *Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and Social Sciences Education*


#### **Table 3.**

*Mean scores for eight indices presented to teachers and students.*

The third index, *The extent of learning about social activism using STEEP methods (digital tools, Skype, mind maps, digital platforms)* scored higher among teachers (M = 4.55) than among students (M = 3.40) yet is still an above mid-scale score. The fourth index, regarding *Cross-cultural cooperation through learning teams*, also achieved high scores by both teachers (M = 4.61) and students (M = 4.02). Finally, both teachers (M = 4.45) and students ((M = 4.32) highly ranked the fifth index, *Entrepreneurship, and social activism; end products of the project*.

The findings presented in **Table 4** show that in-depth learning and internalization of social activism did take place via the PBL project, which entailed collaborative learning in mixed multicultural student teams using future-based tools. A sixth-grade student from a Druze school said: "We explained to the sixth-graders in another school [a Jewish school] what social activism is and how it is expressed through the acceptance of others in a multicultural and pluralistic society. We used a digitally shared presentation on social activism and the acceptance of others that we had prepared as a part of our PBL project. We then held discussions via Skype with those students and devised a plan for researching our mutual subject. In another session, we conducted a joint activity that included preparing a digital poster about friendship from an intersectoral perspective. For us, it was very interesting and empowering to collaborate on digital platforms with students from a different school as a joint research team."

A teacher in an Arab school summarized the learning and implementation process using digital platforms and multicultural teams: "Following a theoretical introduction


#### **Table 4.**

*Intercorrelations between students' evaluation of the program (N = 622).*

to the main concepts of social activism, acceptance of the other, equality, and students' rights, students' work teams were formed in the classroom and were then paired up with students from our associated school. The teams from both schools (Arab and Jewish) collaborated via a digital platform and talked via Skype. Their main topic was the value of accepting others in a multicultural society. As a PBL project, the students chose to prepare a digital poster as a tool for disseminating information among all their school students. The students prepared a poster that was presented in the school corridors of both schools. The poster was written in both Hebrew and Arabic. It was fascinating to see the collaboration between the students, despite the language gaps between them." At the beginning of the following school year, the principal provided each student with a school diary with a copy of this poster appearing on the front page of each diary.

In addition to the quantitative data gathered via questionnaires, qualitative data were obtained through interviews with students and teachers from the various schools. A student from an Arab school said, "The idea of working with children that we do not know via the computer is a good idea, but there were language difficulties, and we did not always understand each other; our teacher helped us at the beginning of the project and translated some of our ideas. After several sessions of joint work, we managed to build a joint PBL product in Hebrew and in Arabic." One of the Arab students reflected on the learning process, explaining: "We produced a short video clip in Arabic and in Hebrew, illustrating the common points of interest among young students in the twenty-first century." In addition, a teacher from a Jewish school remarked that: "The project via the computer was a new experience for our students, who worked as a collaborative team on a global online project called *Cultural Mosaic – the acceptance of others* on an online project. It was complicated but very interesting. It took the students a few sessions to decide what their subject of interest is and what to create for their final product."

With regards to the overall evaluation of the program, both teachers and students evaluated the program positively (students M = 4.17; teachers M = 4.52). One student from a Jewish school said: "We conducted an activity in a mixed cultural group from the two schools. Our PBL product was an advertisement that was exhibited on the school corridors. We prepared the advertisement in Hebrew and Arabic on social activism, friendship, rights, and the acceptance of others." Another student from a Jewish school said: "As a result of our activities, students from other schools (Arab and Druze schools) visited us, and together we conducted activities on social activism and on the acceptance of others in a pluralistic and multicultural society."

project evaluaon

**Figure 1.** *Students' and teachers' evaluation of the STEEP/PBL project.*

To examine possible differences between students and teachers, additional statistics were conducted. With regards to students, T-tests were run on their evaluation of the program, as shown in **Figure 1**. Significant differences were found for four of the five indices, all except for the first index, *Studying social activism via PBL in a mixed multi-cultural student team*. For all five indices, the average scores among Arab students (ranging from 3.90 to 4.80) were higher than the average scores for Jewish students (ranging from 2.90 to 4.53).

Using skewness (SK < [2.0]) and kurtosis (K < 7.00) procedures, each teacher index was examined. Moreover, multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed, using the different sectors as a variable, followed by ANOVA for each index separately. Significant differences (p < 0.05) are presented as Cohen's standardized values.

The MANOVA revealed a significant grouping effect [Wilks*' λ* = 0.51, *F*(9, 22) = 2.30, *p* = 0.05, *η* 2 = 0.458.] Follow-up ANOVAs performed for each index revealed significant mean differences between the Arab and Jewish teachers for only two indices: *The extent of learning about social activism using STEEP methods (digital tools, Skype, mind maps, digital platforms)* and *The impact and value of the project regarding interactions between teachers from different sectors* (**Table 5**). Finally, comparing means revealed the following significant effects (*p* < 0.01): Arab students had higher values for using digital tools (*d* = 1.1) and for inter-sector relationships (*d* = 1.25). **Table 6** presents the mean values and SDs for the five index variables.

The impact of future-based learning (i.e., STEEP and PBL) on the collaborative work between students from different schools and between teachers from different schools was examined through interviews and questionnaires. Students noted that learning through PBL and digital tools was effective for building a relationship and communicating with students from the paired school; while there were certain language gaps at the beginning of the process, requiring teachers' intervention and


#### *Learning by Doing Active Social Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105523*


*Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and Social Sciences Education*


#### **Table 6.**

*Regression coefficients for impact of program on social awareness.*

assistance; students overcame the language barrier and managed to work in mixed groups via digital platforms – creating meaningful opportunities for mutual learning and for creating a significant end product. One-sixth-grader from a Jewish school explained: "Through the computer activities, we managed to get to know each other and corporate in an effective manner, in order to produce a significant PBL end product that was introduced to other students in our schools." A fifth-grader from an Arab school noted: "In the beginning, it was hard to get to know our team members for the other school via the virtual world, but through our weekly mutual sessions, we got to know each other and collaborated very well."

Intercorrelations between the **students'** evaluation of the program reveal that most are positive and significant. The index *Studying social activism via PBL in a mixed multicultural student team* is positively and significantly related to all other indices. Indices *The extent of learning about social activism using STEEP methods (digital tools, Skype, mind maps, digital platforms)* and *Entrepreneurship and social activism; end products of the project* are also positively interrelated. In addition, *The extent of learning about social activism using STEEP methods (digital tools, Skype, mind maps, digital platform)* is positively related to *Cross-cultural cooperation through learning teams.*"

The participating teachers were asked whether networking between teachers from different sectors had been achieved. This index scored 4.31 out of 5 points, with most teachers agreeing with this (63%) to a great extent. Moreover, they stated that most interactions were conducted during the mutual activities and when developing the learning materials.

Intercorrelations between the teachers' evaluation of the program were analyzed by performing Pearson's tests. A medium-to-strong relationship (r = 0.67, (P ≤ 0.001) was found between *Teaching social activism via PBL in a mixed multicultural team* and *The impact of the project on raising awareness of social activism*.

One main issue that hindered collaboration was the language barrier. More than half the teachers mentioned that there were some communication difficulties among the students – especially at the beginning of the project. Despite this difficulty, the students did not give up, and relationships were formed via digital channels, with the help of their teachers. (It should be noted that not all paired teams had different mother tongues. For example, students from a secular Jewish school and their paired students from an orthodox Jewish school are all Hebrew speakers.) The teachers stated that most connections were formed during the face-to-face encounters, that were both exciting and meaningful for the students and teachers and enabled the

continuation of the project via the digital platform. One teacher from a Jewish school wrote: "The research work was very interesting because the students did not speak a common language. We [the teachers] had to translate for the students, thereby making our role more dominant. By the end of the project, however, the students had managed to produce a joint product, which was in both Hebrew and Arabic." A teacher from an Arab school said: "The language was not an obstacle but rather a challenge; the children from the Arab school improved their Hebrew and the Jewish children were patient and spoke more slowly."

Significant collaboration occurred through the teachers working together to develop the study program and the joint project. Pearson tests showed a medium relationship between *studying social activism via PBL in a mixed multicultural student team* and *added value of the project for connecting teachers from other sectors* (r = 0.40, P ≤ 0.05).

In order to examine the indices that predict the impact of the program on increasing awareness about social activism, a multiple regression analysis was performed on the indices, as shown in **Table 5**.

The regression model is significant (F(5,26) = 34.44,p < 0.001). The predicting factors explain 86.9% of the variance in the degree of awareness of social activism. The strongest predictor is *the extent of learning about social activism using STEEP methods (digital tools, Skype, mind maps, digital platforms).* The correlations between the variables in the model show that additional indices also have a strong positive correlation with social activism. Moreover, the *added value of the project for connecting teachers from other sectors* was strongly correlated with the dependent variable, yet this index was not included in the model as it has a strong but insignificant correlation with *the extent of learning about social activism using STEEP methods (digital tools, Skype, mind maps, digital platforms)*. **Table 6** presents the regression coefficients of the model.

The qualitative data gathered from the students shows that the pedagogical methods used in the PBL project enhanced the students' learning and cooperation. First, the program enabled the students to become *learners and thinkers*. Asking open-ended questions requires skills of inquiry, especially when dealing with inter-sectoral connections, i.e., the acceptance of the different others in a pluralistic and multicultural society. One student from a Druze school relates: "As part of the program of social activism, we explored our rights using different questions. In our PBL team project, we explored a few rights and understood their significance in a pluralistic society. In a joint meeting with students from the Jewish school via Skype, we decided to create a mask together for our final product. We decided to write on the masks the rights that we think are most important to be preserved in a pluralistic society."

Next, the program encouraged students to *be independent and take responsibility*, as the teachers in the program allowed the students' freedom of choice and challenges that would enhance their independence and skills. One teacher from an Arab school said: "One of the subjects of the program was social activism from a cross-sectoral perspective. We discussed the issues of acceptance and of the different other in a pluralistic and multicultural society." Dealing with such issues in relation to solving authentic problems enables learners to use different learning sources and engage them in problem-solving and active research. The teachers in the program also allowed great flexibility and shifting of the focus throughout the activities, in response to the student's interests and questions. One-sixth-grader from a Jewish school said: "During a mutual activity, we were talking [the students from the paired schools] about our rights, friendship, rejection, and central values of a pluralistic society. As a final joint activity, we created a graffiti project that formulated a convention dealing with accepting the different other in a pluralistic and multicultural society."

#### *Learning by Doing Active Social Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105523*

An additional theme reflected in the project relates to the *use of diverse sources of information*, as the learned materials are accessible to students in both Hebrew and Arabic – through digital platforms, posters, pictures, videos, hard copies, and more. With PBL projects, this type of learning exposes students to new experiences, enabling them to create new structures for integrating the information. A Jewish teacher said: "The students in the Arab school researched the subject of accepting the other in a multicultural society and then created a poster. My group of students researched the subject and prepared a presentation. During the sessions via the Skype digital platform, the students decided to create a joint final product of a presentation in both Hebrew and Arabic about the values and principles they had researched. They presented their work in the form of a digital poster about the acceptance of the different other. The presentation was then used to disseminate the subject among the other students in both schools."

A fourth theme seen in the study refers to *creating connections between theoretical and practical issues that relate to the learner's life and global issues (i.e., glocalism).* The learning process created links to the real world outside the school walls, relating to everyday situations. For example, students from different schools jointly created shared thinking maps using a common digital platform. Teachers from an Arab and Jewish pair of schools explained that: "During the program, the students were introduced to the different values that characterize a pluralistic society. Each group chose a value and researched it. During the research process, the students built a concept map of the values that were studied. At the end of the research process, they created a large concept map and held a debate with other groups that participated in the program."

Finally, actively learning in groups provides a *significant emotional experience* involving the development of intrapersonal and interpersonal communications, empathy, and tolerance toward the other, increasing the learner's personal involvement, intrinsic motivation, and enjoyment. A student from a Jewish school recalled: "Learning on the program contributed to me and to the other students. As well as learning, we were also engaged in the dissemination of the subject to other students in our school and in the Arab and Druze schools, and this was a huge contribution to me because introducing the material to other students boosted my self-confidence."

Analysis of the findings reveals that with regards to learning and assimilation of the program, the subject of acceptance of others in a multicultural society was significantly implemented among students, through a variety of future-based teaching strategies such as PBL, STEEP, and digital tools. The end products presented by the students and teachers indicate a significant level of assimilation and learning, creativity, and active learning achieved through digital platforms, debates, group training, and joint creations. A sixth-grader from an Arab school shared his impressions: "Working with computers helps create activities regarding social activism. The project's 'acceptance of others – social activism' was based on teamwork within the school and with peers from the other school. We constructed a mutual research process, accompanied by creating joint products." A Jewish student from the paired school added: "After building the joint products, we shared them with students from the paired school and from our school."

As shown in the findings, the index of the *extent of learning about social activism using STEEP methods (digital tools skype, mind maps, digital platforms)* was positively related to all other items. A fifth-grader studying in a Circassian school related: "We talked about the right to equality in a pluralistic society. The product that we created was done in cooperation with the students from the Jewish paired school. We were corresponding via the forum and shared ideas via Skype. We worked in full

cooperation (despite the language difficulties) on a digital platform and created a joint product in Hebrew and Arabic. It was very important for us to meet our colleagues and get to know each other." A sixth-grade student from a Jewish school also said: "What we acquired was another type of friendship, with more knowledge and experience in the field of friendship, discourse, and acceptance of the different other in a multicultural and pluralistic society. I now understand what social activism is in the context of accepting the other and rules for conducting fair discourse."

#### **10. Discussion and conclusion**

Enhancing social activism among students requires innovative, future-based learning methods. The teachers and students who participated in the Living in a Multicultural Society PBL project reported significant and meaningful learning among the paired teams, combined with the planning and execution of collaborative initiatives between students from different sectors. The findings reinforce the concept of teaching/learning using new pedagogical approaches for enabling multi-dimensional learning – in order to develop learners' research skills and produce diversified products. One possible explanation for the significant differences in the evaluation of the program between students in the Jewish and Arab sectors could be that PBL, STEEP, and future-based learning methods may not be use as widely in the Arab schools as in the Jewish schools. If these methods were new to some students but not to others, this could have led to differences in the levels of appreciation and evaluation of the students.

Moreover, the final project products were displayed and explained to additional students from the schools who did not participate in the project. This social activism initiative provided teachers with the opportunity to experience innovative pedagogical methods based on digital tools that enable learning, innovation, creative thinking, curiosity, and research methodologies – all of which are highly all relevant to the students' day-to-day. In other words, this learning provided a new platform for developing thinking, creativity, work ties, and teamwork between class students and students from different sectors.

The moral international issue of social pluralism and accepting others is the core issue of most western societies that accept immigrants from around the globe. Therefore, this topic is of the utmost importance when educating students to become good and meaningful citizens. Moreover, providing students with a range of pedagogical tools, twenty-first century skill is of great educational value [18]. As such, the contribution of the Living in a Multicultural Society program is significant. First, from a social point-of-view, active group learning develops interpersonal communications and helps achieve a balance between group and individual learning. In the twenty-first century, being able to work in a team and internalize social intelligence is invaluable [6, 32]. Furthermore, from a language point-of-view, this type of project develops and enhances communication capabilities and dialogs with people from other cultures, nationalities, and religion, as well as enriching the participants' vocabulary. Finally, from a cognitive point-of-view, this type of active learning contributes to acquiring existing knowledge and creating new knowledge [41].

The program presented in this study encompasses future-based pedagogy for dealing with glocalism [2, 18], i.e., the nurturing of the global citizen. By implementing this concept in the educational initiative of social activism, the students had to act outside their comfort zone, creating learning partnerships with students who do not

*Learning by Doing: Social Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105523*

belong to the same cultural background. This was meaningful, as opportunities for such intercultural encounters build and strengthen the local and global perceptions within the learner's personal development.

With globalization becoming more and more widespread in recent years, a range of populations has begun migrating to western countries, turning the issue of multiculturalism and acceptance of the different others into a major topic. This social activism project creates a platform for educating the students toward tolerance and acceptance of others. Educating students and youth from an early age toward tolerance and recognizing others as having equal rights and worth will make human society more tolerant and less discriminative toward minorities. In addition, the acceptance of others will also lead to the assimilation and integration of cultures, thereby creating a more egalitarian and pluralistic society. Social activism in a multicultural society is necessary in all schools in the Western world.

The findings of this study strongly indicate that such projects are effective in educating the younger generation toward tolerance and inclusion of others. Moreover, they indicate that using a varied range of future-based learning processes based on PBL and STEEP contributes to the assimilation of social activism and basic values of a pluralistic society.

#### **11. Limitations**

This study on social activism was conducted among elementary and junior high school students in a number of sectors in Israel. Future studies could benefit from expanding the research and conducting a joint study with schools from different countries, such as Germany, France, and Italy – in order to examine the impact of the program for raising social activism awareness on a large international scale. In turn, the assimilation of this program on an international scale, among young students, could leverage the understanding of how social activism impacts acceptance and tolerance among all sectors of the population.

#### **Author details**

Anat Raviv Tel Hai Academic College, Israel

\*Address all correspondence to: anatraviv34@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 13**

## Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students' Perceptions and Experiences

*Davison Zireva*

#### **Abstract**

One of the contemporary global education thrusts in teacher education is the generation of context-based theory through engagement in action research. While practicing in the classroom, the teacher education student is essentially in the laboratory creating procedural knowledge. Action research in the classroom involves reflective practice, which is indispensable to praxis. Despite the efficacy of action research in facilitating *mathetics* (learning how to learn), there are some militating situations that are fuelled by diehard traditional perceptions and practices. An exploration of teacher education students' perceptions and experiences with action research was done with 16 informants who were selected purposively and exposed to in-depth interviews. The data were thematically analyzed and the findings were that some students develop agoraphobic dispositions toward action research due to some miseducative experiences that are largely attributed to traditional educational practices. The teacher education students are exposed to vices like technical rationality instead they should be oriented toward epistemic and pragmatic rationalities that are the linchpins of professional development. The experiences that precipitate agoraphobic dispositions in action research should be known and subsequently obliterated.

**Keywords:** action research, reflective practice, agoraphobic dispositions, mathetics, perceptions

#### **1. Introduction**

There seems to be a dearth in the generation of theories in the education phenomenon despite the large volumes of educational research that scholars have produced [1, 2]. The "intellectuals" generally take recourse to technicist education, which is characterized by the overreliance on technical rationality. The practitioners consider what was discovered by renowned academics to be the effective panacea to all academic ills even in situations that are apparently diverse. There is a tendency to apply the all-size-fits-all approach. The education practitioners are thus involved in miseducative practices which make the learners unaware pawns in written theories [3]. The teacher,

education practitioners, both lecturers, and mentors lack knowledge about action research to the extent that they eschew it. Consequently, they adversely affect the lifelong professional development of the teacher education students. The student should learn how to acquire procedural knowledge through action research.

This chapter aims at providing insights into the precipitation of agoraphobic dispositions when teacher education students are exposed to action research. The chapter is hinged on an empirical study with some teacher education students. For the clarification of issues that are in the discourse, firstly there are explications of critical concepts. The informants' (teacher education students') verbatim responses are then used to substantiate some viewpoints in the discourse.

#### **2. Background**

At Columbia University in the United States of America, action research was formally introduced by Stephen Cory in teacher education in the 1950s [4]. Cory as a staunch advocate of action research postulated;

We are convinced that the disposition to study ... the consequences of our own teaching is more likely to change and improve our practices than is reading about what someone else has discovered of his teaching.

Cory was emphasizing on the essence of action research as far as theories can be generated by the practitioners themselves. He was encouraging the education practitioners to embrace action research as it could liberate them from the academic slavery of technical rationality and systematicity. When action research was introduced in the United States of America, it was branded to be riddled with more vices than virtues [4]. In the 1970s, there was a revival of action research and educators questioned the applicability of conventional research that was grounded in positivism in generating solutions to educational problems. Some critical education practitioners postulated that conventional research was too theoretical and too general and thus not grounded on practice [5].

The renaissance of action research in the USA came with so much vigor that it was considered to be synonymous with professional development. The importance of action research was explained;

*Action research emphasizes the involvement of teachers in problems in their own classrooms and has as its primary goal the in-service training and development of the teacher rather than the acquisition of general knowledge in the field of education [4].*

Action research is considered a requisite for professional development. The practitioner who embarks on action research is actively involved in the creation of knowledge about how to improve practice.

#### **3. Agoraphobic dispositions**

Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder that is manifested by a person in situations that are perceived to be unsafe for the well-being of that person. It develops when one thinks that the immanent situation is potentially prone to causing feelings of entrapment, helplessness, or embarrassment. In other words, agoraphobia is the fear of situations that are suspected to cause estrangement or embarrassment. The person affected will go to great lengths to avoid these situations [6, 7]. Agoraphobia is often,

#### *Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students' Perceptions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106188*

but not always, compounded by a fear of social embarrassment. In most cases, the person who experiences agoraphobia avoids the situations and stays in the comfort of his/her safe haven [8]. Due to agoraphobic dispositions, some people refuse to leave their old practices even when the old practices are no longer valuable because the fear of being outside of their comfort areas is too great.

Agoraphobic dispositions are habits of the mind or tendencies to be apprehensive of some situations [9]. Being habits of the mind, agoraphobic dispositions are precipitated by some experiences. Experience is the conscious involvement of a person in a situation or event which requires that one thinks, feels, does, and concludes at the time or immediately thereafter [10]. It is given meaning and value when one does some reflections, that is when one recaptures his or her experience, thinks about it, mulls it over, and evaluates. Thus an experience shapes one's perceptions. The definition of perception is given as;

*... the process by which people translate sensory impressions into a coherent and unified view of the world around them. Though necessarily based on incomplete and verified (or unreliable) information, perception is equated with reality for most practical purposes and guides human behavior in general [11].*

Thus, perception is the viewpoint of an individual that was developed through interaction with the environment in particular situations. Through perception, the respondent gains information about properties and elements of the situation, which are critical to his or her survival [12]. The nexus between conception and experiences conjures up praxis.

#### **4. Praxis**

Praxis is about action informed by theory and the construction of theory from practice. The contemporary conception of praxis was developed from the conception of the ancient Greek philosophers who considered it as human action in the natural and social world [13]. Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, considered praxis as transformative and emphasized on the prominence of action over thought [14, 15]. Thus, according to him, praxis is a goal-directed action. The conception has since been developed to refer to the enactment or embodiment of theory. The worthiness of the theory was determined by the extent to which it could be put into practice for the transformation of the natural and social terrain.

In the education realm, praxis is realized through the cyclical process of experiential learning that was propounded by David Kolb [16]. In other words, praxis is also considered as reflection and action focused on critical consciousness of the oppressive structures [17]. The philosophy of praxis is emancipatory since it is antithetical to one-sided counterfeit venerations of reasoning that are rampant in spheres of life like religion and intellectualism [18].

Praxis is about philosophical discourses that consider the close intertwinement of empiricism and rationalism. In other words, praxis involves knowing, acting, and reasoning [19]. In praxis, reflection is the nodal point between theory and action. Reflection makes theory valuable by enabling its contextual embodiment. On the other hand, reflection provides rationality for action. Thus in praxis, the reality is interacted with consciously with the express purpose of transforming it for the improvement of the natural and social world [20, 21].

#### **5. Action research**

Action research is a mode of research in the quest for the requisite attitudes, knowledge, and skills about how to improve one's practice. The educator-researcher embarks on research to improve the self in terms of teaching skills, techniques, and strategies. The value of action research is in the change that occurs in everyday classroom practice. Action research can be viewed as a tool for classroom practice reforms [4].

Action research is defined as;

*... a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social and educational practices and the situations in which these practices are carried out [22].*

Thus action research is a requisite research strategy that should be employed by educators when they are learning to solve contextual problems in their working environments [23]. The educator develops introspection and is not susceptible to externalization of teaching-learning problems. Thus the essence of action research is to improve on own practice which is tantamount to sustainable professional development [24]. Action to improve on practice is connected to research. Thus research and action are done simultaneously [25].

#### **6. Research methodology**

The teacher education learners' perceptions and experiences were empirically explored by employing the qualitative research approach. The focus was on the generation of verbal data, which were about the descriptions of the learners'


**Table 1.** *Informants' bio-data.* *Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students' Perceptions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106188*

perceptions of and meanings that they gave to experiences with action research. Thus the paradigm that guided the empirical part of the chapter is hermeneutical phenomenology. The essence of hermeneutical phenomenology is to interpret the lived experiences of the informants [26–29]. The data were generated through in-depth interviews which were carried out one-on-one with 16 teacher education learners. The informants were purposively selected after they had abandoned the action research, which they had initially chosen. The interview questions were pilottested on four teacher education learners who had attributes similar to the sampled learners. The data generated from the pilot test were judged to be trustworthy and then the interview questions were presented to the informants whose gender data are presented in the **Table 1**.

The interviews carried out were audio-taped so as not to miss any data that were generated. The data were then transcribed and analyzed by employing the thematic approach. The data were coded according to themes that were identified and scrutinized for intra-coder consistency through reflexive, critical, and rigorous thinking guided by the Johnson-Christensen method. Thus the teacher education learners' verbatim perceptions and experiences were categorized into themes that gave meaning to the prevailing situation [30–32].

#### **7. Manifestations of agoraphobic dispositions**

Agoraphobia is the condition where sufferers become anxious in unfamiliar situations or when they perceive that they have little knowledge about a situation is precipitated by some experiences [33]. Informant 1 met with experiences that precipitate agoraphobic dispositions. He posited:

*"My research supervisor hinted that I could be putting my studies in jeopardy by embarking on action research since I was not intellectually gifted to do reflections that could contribute meaningfully to the stock of didactic procedural knowledge."*

Similar experiences were met with by informant 2 who stated:

*"I was told by fellow students that I was becoming overzealous doing action research which is as of now hazy - and that in the end, I was going to meet with humiliation when I fail. Thus I decided to stop doing action research."*

#### **8. Denigration of action research**

Action research is denigrated by some education practitioners. The denigration is miseducative and causes agoraphobic dispositions toward action research. In formant 3 postulated,

*"My mentor bluntly attacked me saying that action research was good for nothing. I then had to do the traditional fundamental research."*

The condemnation of action research was corroborated by informant 4 who posited:

*"Though I had embraced action research, I could not pursue it during my teaching practice. The mentors belittled it as amateur research which could yield nothing more than opinions that could not be generalized."*

Further corroborative remarks were given by informant 5 who claimed:

*"Lecturers do not mince their words when it comes to their preferences concerning the research type. They are blunt that they prefer that their supervisees do the traditional fundamental research which they appraise as being more organised than action research [17, 34]."*

The stage of action research non-acceptance in education that was explained by the teacher education learners was once experienced in the USA in the 1950s. Action research was attacked as being unscientific, a bit more than common sense, and an amateur's work [4]. The attack was exacerbated by the increased interest in positivist inquiry during that era. The academics exalted positivism to utopian levels of objectivity and verifiability. To some extent the situation experienced by the teacher education, students could be worse off since some influential education practitioners are skeptical about the essence of action research.

Action research is surrounded by skepticism since most of the teacher educators did not formally study action research but the traditional conventional research. Informant 6 explained how she developed agoraphobic dispositions towards action research;

*"My research supervisor told me that action research is a new type of research as such very few lecturers are well versed in it. If the supervisor professes lack of adequate knowledge who am I to venture onto the academic slippery ground."*

Further remarks were given by informant 7 who asserted:

*"My research supervisor advised me that action research is hardly done at higher degree level and is thus potentially difficult. Thus I was afraid to do action research since I am simply a mediocre student."*

In the same line of experiences, informant 8 gave the remarks;

*"The mentors do not offer adequate support on action research. When asked about research, they readily produce the researches that they did at university or college and encourage students to plagiarize. I was left with no option but to stop doing action research."*

Some teacher educators are not well versed in both declarative and procedural knowledge about action research. Such a situation leads them to the conservatism of their traditional research orientations and vilifications of action research. Lack of adequate knowledge of academic issues evokes some agoraphobic dispositions towards that issue. The dispositions are latent in some teacher educators when they insidiously discourage teacher education students to undertake action research. Thus the action research supervisors have an influence on the perceptions and experiences of students in action research.

*Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students' Perceptions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106188*

#### **9. Agoraphobia from lack of praxis**

In academia the separation of theory from practice makes the practitioners of education lose touch with reality. Detachment from reality begets alienation which according to Marx is the estrangement of learners from their experiential realities [35] which could subsequently cause the development of agoraphobic dispositions. The panacea to alienation is praxis which is conceptualized as the action and reflection upon the world in order to transform it [17]. Thus, the theory is used in studying the word and action uses the studied 'word' to interact meaningfully with the world. On the other hand, interaction with the world begets the generation of the meaningful 'word'. Thus the word-world gulf is closed by the philosophy of praxis.

Informant 9 explained some experiences that lacked praxis and were causing agoraphobic dispositions;

*"I identified a problem in teaching learners and I decided to carry out action research on the problem but my supervisor discouraged me when I was generating baseline data. She said that the whole research was going to be a fiasco. She said that the theory I learnt at college was not supported by my practicing findings."*

Praxis is regarded as the only philosophy that is based on practice [36]. It is concerned with practical reasoning which is reasoning about what should be rather than what is there in real- life experiences.

#### **10. Agoraphobia enhancement due to lack of mathetics (learning how to learn)**

The teacher should forever be a student [17]. There should never be a time of complacency and feelings of omnipotence in education since society is never at stasis. The teacher education student should always be learning how to learn in order to be an effective educator. Learning how to learn is *mathetics* [2].

Learning is a pedagogical activity that focuses on the acquisition of requisite skills, knowledge, and attitudes for sustainable interaction with the environment. Learning cannot take place without a bearing on the contextual realities of life. If there was an instrument that measures the extent of learning (learnometer) it was supposed to focus on how the acquired attributes can be put into practice. The teacher education learner shows that learning would have taken place if he or she is in a position to embody the learned theories and discover their contextual virtues and vices. This can be shown when one embarks on participatory action research, which has an emphasis on reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action.

In pedagogical situations, there are some pseudo-learning activities which among others are; memorizing, cramming, mimicking, plagiarizing, and reciting. These activities lack reflection but are often confused with the learning activity by most education practitioners and learners. Informant 10 exposed how he developed agoraphobic dispositions from colleagues who had not been exposed to *mathetics*;

*"I was ridiculed at by fellow students when they were through with their traditional fundamental researches which they had plagiarised. They teased me that I was* 

*expending time and energy on research which could make me fail other disciplines as well as the research. I then thought otherwise to circumvent the imminent embarrassment."*

#### Situation bereft of context-based learning.

*Context-based learning lies within the framework of the theory of change (ToC) [36]. The theory of change when reflected upon culminates in the action of change (AoC). The action of change is realized in action research. The practitioner is challenged to critically reflect on his or her own practices thus becoming introspective. If one is poised for the action of change, then agoraphobic tendencies should be done away with.*

Agoraphobic tendencies could be precipitated when pedagogical situations are bereft of context-based learning (CBL) scenarios. The CBL scenarios are efficacious since they make references to the use of real-life examples in teaching-learning situations. Thus the learners hinge learning on their practical experiences. The efficacy of the theories that are exposed to the learners should be tested against their lived experiences. Furthermore, practical experiences should help in the development of theories [37].

Informant 11 described a situation that was bereft of contextual learning, which precipitated an agoraphobic disposition in action research;

*"I was told by my lecturer that during external examination, some external examiners are hyper-critical about the processes and the findings from action research. It was stressed that findings at diploma level should be biased towards theories established already. Thus I perceived action research to be scary since my realities were not a carbon copy of theories that I learnt."*

#### **11. Lack of awareness of conception of the laboratory school**

In 1896 John Dewey, the American pedagogue philosopher experimented on the efficacy of the first laboratory school [38]. The school was the first embodiment of praxis. Dewey wanted to show the intertwinement of empiricism and rationalism in the creation of knowledge. It was Dewey's conviction that all ideas about education should be tested empirically in the laboratory (the classroom) and reflected upon to create contextual knowledge. Dewey's praxis orientation can be considered contemporary action research [39]. Lack of proper awareness of the essence of action research exacerbated the development of agoraphobic dispositions towards action research. Informant 12 postulated;

*"I was advised by my research supervisor that if I choose to do action research, I could it to my own peril. He emphasized that nothing sensible was going to come out of my teaching experiments. I found the advice quite forbidding."*

The laboratory school was characterized by the experimentation of teachinglearning ideas and practices. The other issue focused on by the laboratory school was the relevance of the curriculum content in solving the problems experienced by the learners and society at large [40]. Taking from Dewey's laboratory school, contemporary teacher education should discourage the practice of traditional education

#### *Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students' Perceptions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106188*

that is characterized by the regurgitation of facts given by the 'educator' or found in textbooks or the internet. The teacher education students should be encouraged to be creators of knowledge in the 'laboratory' which is the classroom.

The students who were exposed to monological teaching techniques are apprehensive of challenging the status quo in the acquisition of knowledge. Researching in teacher education has become confirmatory of the hunches of the renowned "educators." Informant 13 exclaimed:

*"I later on realized that I was supposed to get some anchoring of my teaching on what I was taught and how I was taught. Grappling with action research was something else. My lecturer wanted me to be his education image!"*

The informant had acquired the traits of a traditional teacher. When encountered by a problem, the traditional education-oriented learner 'researches' from the textbooks, or the internet when instead he or she is supposed to research with the learners focusing on the context of the learners he is teaching.

The other strategy that is followed by the traditional teacher education student is absolution. The student abstains from intervening in the problem and thinks that providential intervention would bring the solution. Informant 14 postulated:

*"I was once worried when I failed to teach my grade five learners a certain concept and I wanted to research on my practice. After some time I dropped the concern and I know with time all will be fine."*

#### **12. Inadequacy of declarative knowledge for action research**

The teacher education learner in a traditional education setup is by and large exposed to the acquisition of declarative knowledge which can also be referred to as descriptive knowledge, propositional knowledge, or "know that" knowledge. This type of knowledge focuses on specific facts [41]. It is content-based and could be associated with pseudo- learning activities such as cramming and memorization. Informant 15 described an agoraphobic situation derived from considering declarative knowledge on its own;

*"I had to stop action research when the knowledge I had about theories of learning could not augur well with what I was experiencing with my class."*

The implication is that declarative knowledge is not adequate for teacher education which requires the learner to be an effective facilitator of learning. The worthiness of declarative knowledge is realized when it provides insights into the contextual practicing of teaching. There should be a strong bond between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. The dearth of knowledge from experiences or practicing begets technical rationality [42].

#### **13. Technical rationality**

One who succumbs to technical rationality relies on declarative knowledge which is acquired from external and secondary sources which are among others; teachers,

textbooks, or the internet. The technical rationalist learner memorizes theories that he or she can hardly actualize or authenticate their efficacy in contextual situations. Informant 16 proclaimed;

*"I don't think that action research is for the mediocre learner. There is a lot to be done in trying to put theory into practice. One cannot profess to have concrete truth from action research. I wouldn't want to dice with failure in my research studies."*

Technical rationality is embedded in logical positivism since its adherents have the view that social reality is objective, measurable, explained in rational terms, and reflected upon in professionalization to enrich scientific problem-solving abilities [43]. The approach of technical rationality to problem-solving is linear since it purports that there is a systematic application of tried and tested solutions to some professional problems [44]. Thus technical rationality is employed by established professions in solving problems by considering concrete technical knowledge [45].

Technical rationality forecloses reflection-in-action for the creation of procedural knowledge. It also pertains more to the scientific and objectifiable manner in which knowledge should be obtained while reflection-in-action correlates more to the application of action that practitioners employ within their given professions to attain knowledge [43].

#### **14. Procedural knowledge**

Procedural knowledge is concerned with the knowledge of how to perform a specific skill. It is also known as; practical knowledge, imperative knowledge, performative knowledge, or "knowing-how" knowledge [46]. The prime activity is practicing a skill that is focused on problem-solving in particular situations. Practicing and experiencing with reflection enhance the development of effective teaching skills [47]. In the context of the teacher education student, procedural knowledge about the skill of teaching is best developed when the student is oriented in action research which promotes practical and pragmatic rationality.

#### **15. Practical and pragmatic rationality**

The teacher education learner as a practitioner should develop both practical and pragmatic rationality. Practical rationality is the substantiation of one's knowledge anchored on one's reflections on own experiences. In other words, practical rationality is the intellectual capacity for resolving a problem through reflection on the actions performed [48].

Practical rationality is closely related to pragmatic rationality which is now a contemporary educational value. This rationality is antithetical to the systematicity that is inherent in traditional education [48]. It makes reference to the results that are produced out of conscious action. Pragmatic rationality requires the practitioner to actively participate in making interventions to solve a problem. Subsequently, there should be reflections on the process adopted to come up with the desired results. Pragmatic rationality is realized by reflecting in action.

*Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students' Perceptions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106188*

#### **16. Reflection-in-action**

Schon is credited for integrating the role of science into professional practice and education through reflection-in-action [49]. Reflection-in-action entails active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further consequences to which it leads [1].

The employment of reflection-in-action in professional practice is characterized by the practitioner's actions that show his/her desire to learn, obtain knowledge, and understand the situation that he/she works in [44]. Thus the practitioner reflects on phenomena and considers prior interpretations of knowledge that are understood and then employs this knowledge in the operation of generating new knowledge [50]. The theoretical framework in which reflection-in-action is found is reflective practice.

#### **17. Mitigation of agoraphobia through reflective practice**

Reflective practice provides the anchorage for reflecting in- and on-action when being engaged in the process of continuous learning. Thus, the continuous reflection that the practitioner does on his or her own practice promotes lifelong learning. Reflective practice involves paying critical attention to the practical values and theories which inform everyday actions, by examining practice reflectively and reflexively [51]. From the definitions above, the prime rationale for reflective practice is that experience alone does not necessarily lead to professional development but the reflection on experience. Professional development does not come about with experience but is influenced by how one reflects on experience [52].

Reflective practice can be an important tool in practice-based professional learning settings where people learn from their own professional experiences, rather than from formal learning or knowledge transfer [53]. Reflective practice is one of the most important sources of personal professional development and improvement. It is also an important way to bring together theory and practice. Through reflection a practitioner is able to see and label forms of thought and theory within the context of his or her work [54]. A practitioner who reflects throughout his or her practice does not merely review the past actions and events but makes conscious scrutiny of his or her emotions, experiences, actions, and responses to gain insights into his or her existing knowledge base so as to develop professionally [55].

The concept of reflective practice is now widely employed in the field of teacher education and teacher professional development and is the basis for many programs of initial teacher education [56]. The practitioner in education is expected to embrace reflective practice since it entails the process by which the practitioner studies his or her own teaching methods to discover the best practice of learning facilitation. It involves the consideration of the ethical consequences of classroom procedures on students [56, 57]. Reflective practice in education can be described as teacher metacognition [58].

The term reflective practice is complex since it incorporates a wide range of the practitioner's metacognition of activities in teaching-learning situations. Teaching and learning are complex concepts, and there is no universally right approach since their effectiveness is contextual rather than global. Reflecting on different approaches to teaching, and reshaping the understanding of past and current experiences, will lead to improvement in teaching practices in particular contexts [53].

The practitioners can gain insights from Schon's reflection-in-action since they can develop professional knowledge from their experiences in the classroom.

Reflection can be regarded as learning from experience and is paramount to the educator's practice since it evokes awareness of being accountable. Without reflection, educators are not able to look objectively at their actions or take into account the emotions, experiences, or consequences of actions to improve their practice [59]. Through reflective practice, educators get engaged in continuous professional learning. The educators are conscientized on the essence of retrospection in their practices and reflect on how they support learners to achieve optimal learning outcomes.

Reflective practice moves teachers from their knowledge base of distinct skills to a stage in their careers where they are able to modify their skills to suit specific contexts and situations, and eventually invent new strategies [60]. Thus through reflective practice educators are able to develop themselves beyond existing theories in practice and become responsive to the dynamic environments of their day-to-day practices.

#### **18. Conclusion**

Agoraphobic dispositions in action research of the teacher education learners are precipitated by the miseducative experiences of the learners. The teacher education practitioners, the lecturers, and the mentors are the perpetrators of the miseducative experiences. They have a proclivity to traditional education, which in research emphasizes the traditional fundamental research at the expense of action research. The educators explicitly vilify action research. The learners though in the laboratory (classroom) are not encouraged to be creators of procedural knowledge. The learners are credited for exhibiting technical rationality which focuses only on the use of declarative knowledge. Instead, the learners should be encouraged to focus on practical and pragmatic rationality, which uses procedural knowledge created by them. The agoraphobic dispositions could easily be warded off when learners are exposed to *mathetics* (learning how to learn) in particular contexts.

#### **Author details**

Davison Zireva Morgenster College of Education, Zimbabwe

\*Address all correspondence to: dzireva63@yahoo.co.uk

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students' Perceptions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106188*

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#### **Chapter 14**

## Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals in Education

*George Frempong and Raavee Kadam*

#### **Abstract**

The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the fragility of our development systems and drawn attention to the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In this chapter, we acknowledge the critical role of education in supporting sustainable development. We argue for inclusive education for the Sustainable Development approach and offer the African philosophy of Ubuntu (I am because we are) as a mindset that should drive the transformative change required. We contend that this mindset serving as a theoretical and methodological model offers unique potential possibilities of bringing learners close to their social realities and helping them learn together better, the Africentric way. We expect this model to help better understand the intervention and transformative changes required for sustainable education that works for all learners.

**Keywords:** Ubuntu, Africentric, education, sustainable development, transdisciplinarity

#### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Impact of Covid-19 on educational systems**

The March of 2020 was the start of the most significant pandemic that the world has ever seen and unleashed a crisis of gigantic proportions. We never imagined that the so advanced human race would be defeated by a virus, impacting different aspects of human development such as education, health, income, well-being, etc. As news of the Covid-19 virus traveled from the Wuhan province of China to the rest of the world, national borders were closed overnight, flights suspended, and lockdowns imposed globally in the first attempt to contain the spread of the virus. The Covid-19 virus brought the entire world to a standstill. With many lost lives and livelihoods, we continue to fight the virus tooth and nail. The virus had a devastating impact on people, businesses, and economic systems, with the entire world, turned upside down. To ensure continuity in how we worked, learned, and lived, the world embraced

digital transformation, overhauling systems over the next few months. Lockdown measure shifted many activities online. However, this adoption of technology brought the digital divide globally to the front. The World Economic Forum indicated that more than 4 billion people, mostly in developing countries, still do not have access to the Internet [1]. That is almost half of the world's population. And, as expected, the impact was severe for people without Internet access. Even with technological advances, Internet access and availability are issues in several countries globally. Many rural and low-income communities worldwide, including those in large urban areas, lack reliable, affordable access. So, when schools and other educational institutions adopted online schooling to ensure learning continued, that was a start to one of the most prolific challenges and changes in the history of educational systems.

The pandemic brought about the most extensive disruption of education systems ever. The United Nations estimates that approximately 1.6 billion students in more than 190 countries were out of classrooms due to the lockdowns imposed by governments across many countries. Schools and other educational institutions closed overnight to contain the spread of the virus, impacting 94 percent of the world's student population and up to 99 percent in low and lower-middle-income countries [2]. However, education systems worldwide were swift to react and digitally transform themselves. The crisis stimulated innovation within the education sector, with solutions previously thought difficult or impossible to implement were seamlessly adopted within the educational landscape. Educational stakeholders quickly developed distance learning solutions, with online learning becoming the new way of acquiring education from home. Though this shift to online learning mitigated the pandemic's adverse effects on education, the entire experience also caused many students' trauma and loss of knowledge, particularly in disadvantaged and vulnerable communities. For these students, the crisis exacerbated the already existing educational inequities globally. Without access to or availability of the Internet, electronic devices for learning or a home environment conducive to learning, students lose learning times. A lot of schools also lacked the infrastructure to help such students. According to the United Nations, the economic impact of the pandemic coupled with school closures could turn the learning crisis into a generational catastrophe impacting the future of many students. Nevertheless, the pandemic has taught us that while technology is here to stay, creating sustainable and resilient systems is required to overcome the challenges and avoid this crisis turning into a generational catastrophe.

#### **1.2 Impact of Covid−19 on disadvantaged students**

According to UNESCO, millions of children do not go to school each day due to emergencies and ongoing humanitarian crises. Schools protect children from the physical dangers around them, provide food, water, health care and hygiene supplies, and ensure their physical and emotional well-being [3]. Education attainment is a significant factor in reducing poverty and increasing a student's ability to lead a healthy life and participate in society. Despite the enormous benefits of education to children and communities, the United Nations points out that education is often the first service suspended and the last to be restored during a crisis. And this scenario is what we experienced during the Covid-19 pandemic. Though most students experienced the negative impact of the pandemic on their learning, the vulnerable ones before the pandemic were disproportionately affected widening the pre-existing opportunity and achievement gaps.

#### *Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104929*

Schools are a source of daily meals and provide a safe and comforting environment for many students globally, alleviating the difficulties at home. While school closures led to the quick adoption of alternate learning modes, the prominent rise of online learning as a delivery model impacted students from different walks of life. The hardest hit were those from vulnerable and marginalized communities. Students from privileged backgrounds could find a way to work around the new learning systems with access to all or most of the resources required. However, many students from disadvantaged backgrounds lost access to education and other facilities when schools shut down. Students lost access to their meals, health facilities and other benefits apart from learning that schools provide. The Covid-19 pandemic exposed many shortcomings and inequities, such as; limited access to the internet and devices for learning, supportive home learning environment, putting many students at a further disadvantage. Furthermore, other students faced mental and emotional health issues due to social isolation from their friends and peers.

In the United States, the McKinsey & Company [4], analysis of schools showed that the impact of the pandemic on K–12 student learning was significant. Their research indicates that students, on average, were five months behind in mathematics and four months behind in reading by the end of the 2020–2021 school year. In math, students in most Black schools ended the year with six months of unfinished learning, and for students in low-income schools, the deficit was seven months. High schoolers have become more likely to drop out of school, and high school seniors, especially those from low-income families, are less likely to go on to postsecondary education. And the crisis had an impact on not just academics but also on the broader health and well-being of students. Students of color and low-income students suffered the most. Long-standing inequities such as disproportionate levels of punishment, suspensions, assignment to special education programs, inherent racism, stereotyping and social labeling have further compounded other pandemic-related factors such as social isolation and family economic losses. These challenges reiterate the urgent need to build educational systems that are resilient and sustainable and where every child can succeed, irrespective of their background.

#### **1.3 Building sustainable education systems with an "Ubuntu" mindset**

Extant research since 2020 in the context of K-12 education examined the impact of Covid-19 on learning loss for students across different parts of the world. Several studies have brought to light the inequities and injustices faced by marginalized groups. Research has also revealed that systems and structures in educational institutions were under immense stress during this crisis. This time of global upheaval and uncertainty allows us to question the design of educational systems that perpetuate and aggravate historical barriers to equitable education. With several kinds of inequities within the educational systems brought to the front during the pandemic, we believe in the need to broaden the notions of academic resilience and bring about a remarkable transformation in the education landscape.

An important lesson from the pandemic is the realization that we as individuals do not exist in isolation, and we are all interconnected. The lesson that we argue can serve as a systematic transformation required to overhaul education systems and redesign them based on strong partnerships and collaborations among its stakeholders. We contend that such sustainable educational systems are required so that all students from every walk of life succeed at school and in life. We argue that creating such sustainable systems would require a mindset that we as a human race are connected,

and in order to progress, we must do so together. We characterized this concept as "Ubuntu" mindset that is critical to understanding our interconnection with each other required to build strong partnerships to transform learning environments. Educational leadership and management can benefit from developing an Ubuntu mindset to bring about a transformation where every stakeholder works collaboratively to ensure that every student succeeds. This idea fulfills one of the fundamental principles of 'transdisciplinary education,' which scholars highly recommend as one way to accomplish sustainability goals.

#### **2. Education for sustainable development**

The United Nations adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity [5]. The movement serves as the blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all and address the global challenges we face: poverty, climate change, and educational inequity. The 17 SDGs aim to ensure that development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability, given their interconnectedness. SDG 4 – Quality Education focuses on '*ensuring inclusive and quality education for all and promoting lifelong learning*'[6]. According to the United Nations, education enables socioeconomic mobility upward and is a key to escaping poverty. Education also helps reduce gender or socioeconomic inequalities and is crucial to fostering tolerance and creating more peaceful societies. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) was born from the need for education to address the growing sustainability challenges and posit education as the most critical factor for ensuring holistic development [7]. ESD, an integral part of SDG 4, recognizes education as a means of societal transformation and is posited as the critical factor in accelerating progress across all the other SDGs.

'ESD for 2030'is the global framework for the implementation of Education for Sustainable Development from 2020 to 2030. The framework emphasizes education's contribution to the achievement of the SDGs. It aims to review the "*purposes and values that underpin education and reorient all levels of education and learning to contribute to sustainable development*" [8]. The framework takes a 'whole institution approach emphasizing that "*to encourage learners to become change agents who have the knowledge, means, willingness and courage to take transformative action for sustainable development, learning institutions need, themselves, to be transformed*" [9]. This wholeinstitution approach to ESD calls for learning environments where learners learn what they live and live what they learn. An expert review of literature on processes of learning for Education for Sustainable Development by Prof. Tilbury [10] identified certain key processes that underpin ESD frameworks and practices, including processes that engage the 'whole system'. ESD seeks to challenge existing educational systems, structures and/or practices and adopt a systematic approach to change. The process supports the attainment of – as well as the education of – sustainable development, which brings to life not only in the curriculum but also in other educational systems such as teaching practices, pedagogy, data systems, and processes [10]. And to successfully foster these transformative and sustainable changes will ultimately depend on effective leadership and management within the educational system. The pandemic highlighted the interdependence amongst students, teachers, families, school leadership, government and the community as a whole. Educational leadership and management (EDLM) played a critical role in the pandemic. They will now again

*Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104929*

play a vital role in reorienting the whole institution towards an innovative, democratic environment that is responsive to social and community needs. EDLM will be a significant factor in bringing about the transformation by adopting the Ubuntu philosophy to build back a shaken system.

#### **3. What is Ubuntu?**

Ubuntu is a philosophy that inspires the beliefs, values, norms and practices of different African societies [11] and is one of the "inspiring dimensions of life in Africa" [12]. Ramose [13] states that "Ubuntu is simultaneously the foundation and the edifice of African philosophy" (p. 49). The notion of Ubuntu has its roots in the sub-Saharan African culture and focuses on the interconnectedness and relationality amongst the human race [14]. The concept is indigenous to the African continent and one of the foundations of the different cultures across Africa. Ubuntu is one of the foundational tenets of African communal cultural life [15], and its meaning is often explained with the phrase "umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu", which means "a person is a person through other people" [16]. Similarly, Mbigi [17] also stated that Ubuntu literally means "I am because you are – I can only be a person through others" (p. 6). According to Lutz [18], Ubuntu signifies the notion of one being truly human only as a part of the community rather than in isolation. This means that "people are not individuals, living in a state of independence, but part of a community, living in relationships and interdependence" ([19] p. 36). The basic concept is that our social and economic development evolves through relationships with the larger group. Malunga [20] describes Ubuntu as a cultural worldview that captures the essence of being human and humanity. According to Woermann and Engelbrecht [21], Ubuntu "addresses our interconnectedness, our common humanity and the responsibility to each other that flows from our deeply felt connection."

Describing the core values of Ubuntu, Mangaliso et al. [11] stated vales that include harmony and solidarity, reciprocity, respect for elders, collaboration, mutual concern, compassion, consultation, and consensus". Similarly, Horwitz [22] points out the significance of collective solidarity and interrelationships, stating that "values such as adherence to social obligations, collective trust, deference to rank and seniority, sanctity of reciprocity and good social and personal relations are relevant" (p. 2943). Ubuntu "addresses our interconnectedness, our common humanity and the responsibility to each other that flows from our deeply felt connection" ([12], p. 1). Oviawe [23] describes Ubuntu as "a philosophy of being that locates identity and meaning-making within a collective approach as opposed to an individualistic one" (p. 3).

Relationality and interconnectedness are central to the concept of Ubuntu. According to Nussbaum ([12], p. 1), "one of the ontological assumptions of Ubuntu is the communal or relational nature of being" The entire idea of Ubuntu is opposite to that of individualism, which characterizes many Western cultures. According to Hofstede [24], individualism can be defined as "a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families" (p. 1). Contrarily, the central belief of Ubuntu is the fact that we are humans only because of the connection that we share with other human beings. Explaining the same, Mbigi ([17], p. 69) stated that, "I cannot separate my humanity from the humanity of those around me". Pérezts et al. [14] reiterated the fact that "such a relational approach to morality and ethics grounded in harmony, and brings a different ethos to Western approaches, which prioritize utility, autonomy and capability" (p. 736). Ubuntu stresses "an I/we relationship as opposed to the Western I/you relationship with its emphasis on the individual" ([25], p. 21). An individual is bound by others and a sense of community and does not exist independently. Luthans et al. [26] stated, "under Ubuntu there is an individual existence of the self and the simultaneous existence for others" (p. 515).

In his book titled "Ubuntu: Shaping the Current Workplace with (African) Wisdom", the author Vuyisile Msila [27] demystified the concept of Ubuntu and explained its meaning for everyday corporate life and organizations. He talks about the "five P's in Ubuntu philosophy:


According to Mangaliso et al. [11] "a great deal of research on Ubuntu has offered positive vantage points for revaluing African philosophies and translating them into management practices, most notably in the field of human relations" (p. 4). Msila [28] stated that Ubuntu is a very crucial concept for many institutions in the society, including the understanding of leadership and management in varied organizations. Though Ubuntu might be an African philosophy, its basic ideas and ethos have a global appeal for leading and managing people and organizations effectively. According to Lutz [18], the first step in developing a leadership and management style based on upon the philosophy of Ubuntu, is to recognize the organization or institution as a community, where every individual is critical to the success of the community. According to Karsten and Illa [29] "Ubuntu provides a strong philosophical base for the community concept of management" (p. 6). Similarly, McFarlin et al. [30] state that the African management philosophy that "views the corporation as a community and can be summed up in one word – Ubuntu" (p. 71). The idea here is not about maximizing the value for only the owners or shareholders of the organization, but for the entire community and its members who are important stakeholders of the organization. The central idea of Ubuntu is interconnection between individuals. Ubuntu espouses the idea of the collective achievement of the goals of the organization. It does not relegate an individual's own goal as secondary, but confirms to the idea of achievement of individual goals and the achievement of group goals are equally critical and go hand-in-hand. Ubuntu is about pursuing your own good through the common good [18].

*Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104929*

#### **3.1 Ubuntu for educational leadership and management**

To ensure that we overcome the barriers faced and become more resilient to such drastic effects on schooling systems, a systematic transformation is required. Scholars have indicated that traditional top-down hierarchical structures in school are rigid and not agile to change and adaption. Such hierarchical styles have resulted in dysfunctional schools and researchers call for the need to adopt newer and contemporary leadership and management styles in educational institutions. The pandemic brought to light the interdependence amongst educational stakeholders including children to overcome the difficulties faced during the pandemic. Collaboration, co-operation and partnerships were some of the basic qualities that helped schools overcome the challenges and ensured that there were no interruptions to learning. As we navigate an uncertain future, leading with such a people-centered and collaborative mindset is critical to developing resilience and sustainable education systems. And this is where an Ubuntu mindset comes into the picture. Msila [31] contends Ubuntu as a classic model for educational leadership and management. The communal nature of Ubuntu can help the success of any institution including educational leadership and management. He states that leading with an Ubuntu mindset would enable school leaders to lead school effectively with the resources at their disposal.

Extant research has established the benefits of leading with an Ubuntu mindset for educational leadership and management. The basic fundamental principles of Ubuntu, namely interconnectedness and relationality are important to cater to the diverse stakeholders in educational institutions. Schools have students with different nationalities, cultures, social class, language, values and belief systems. Ubuntu brings together people from different walks of life, to work and live harmoniously. Mbigi and Maree [32] explain that Ubuntu enables one to move towards a common goal based on the belief of collective shared values and solidarity with the group. Similarly, Ubuntu style of leading an organization involves "a departure from hierarchically structured management relations and rather introduces a cooperative and supportive form of leadership in which collective solidarity of the group is employed and respected" ([31], p. 149). Here the leader seeks co-operation and interdependence amongst members of the organization to achieve its goals. Collective solidarity amongst team members can enable the effective achievement of goals. Rather than a top-down management approach, Ubuntu is about shared decision-making, participation, collaboration, cooperation and a shared vision. It is about fostering a culture of collectivism among the organization and progressing the entire system with a 'whole institution' approach. Mboyo [33] reiterated how leadership and management of educational systems can benefit from the unique Ubuntu operational patterns such as understanding others' needs, negotiating and prioritizing needs, assessing available resources, attending to others' needs, and raised expectations and commitment to organizational goals.

#### **3.2 Ubuntu for teaching and learning**

Ubuntu as a philosophy not only helps leading and managing educational institutions, but also can be adopted as a teaching philosophy by teachers to reconstruct their behavior and effectiveness in schools [34]. Today's culturally diverse societies are reflected in classrooms, where we have students from different walks of life. Ensuring the learning of diverse students requires teachers to adopt strategies that ensure inclusive education processes that help every learner succeed. Ubuntu as a philosophy that can assist teachers to manage classrooms effectively, as it encourages working together amongst people in various settings [35]. Broodryk [36] stated that underlying values

of Ubuntu include that of humanness, trust, empathy, respect, tolerance and compassion. Embodying such values would help teachers connect better with their diverse students and this would make a significant difference in the school and student outcomes [37]. With students from marginalized and vulnerable communities facing racism within schools, educators with an Ubuntu mindset would help us address the systematic barriers within the school system. Given the benefits of adopting Ubuntu, Mutanga [38] called for teacher education premised on the indigenous Unhu/Ubuntu philosophy. Pather [39] contended that Ubuntu as a concept, encourages inclusion and cohesion in education, where there is a continued focus on a segregated approach to supporting children. According to Elder et al. [40], Ubuntu can help us with defining and understanding newer interpretations of inclusive education, where every child feels included and an important part of the classroom. Beets [41] recommended "infusing the principles of Ubuntu in the way teachers act, opens new possibilities for deepening the morality of their teaching practice - of how they, for example, use assessment to enhance both teaching and learning in the interests of each learner and ultimately society" (p. 70). Furthermore, Brock-Utne [42] calls for the need of an Ubuntu paradigm in curriculum work, language of instruction and assessment to redesign school systems based on the basic principle of humanity. Similarly, Nxumalo and Mncube [43] recommend the inclusion of Ubuntu philosophy in the school curriculum using indigenous games for teaching a decolonized curriculum content and instilling moral principles and cultural beliefs such as the value of communal identity.

#### **4. Transdisciplinary education with an Ubuntu mindset**

In order to prepare students to cope with the challenges of an uncertain, volatile, ever-changing and a complex world, an approach to teaching needs to meet the ideals of ESD. Only academic or discipline knowledge is inadequate to prepare students to tackle sustainability challenges. Thus, ESD promotes an inter- and a transdisciplinary, learner-centered, participatory, and locally relevant approach to learning and teaching [44]. Sustainability problems are often acknowledged as complex or "wicked problems" that require a multifaceted approach, and this is where transdisciplinary education plays a pivotal role. Transdisciplinarity is characterized by its focus on "wicked problems" that need creative solutions, its reliance on stakeholder involvement, and engaged, socially responsible education [45]. According to UNESCO, "transdisciplinary approach is an approach to curriculum integration which dissolves the boundaries between the conventional disciplines and organizes teaching and learning around the construction of meaning in the context of real-world problems" [46]. This approach focuses on producing knowledge with the help of non-academic stakeholders who bring in practice-based, local and indigenous knowledges [47]. Mutual learning, collaboration, decision-making and problem solving amongst educational institutions, businesses, government and the society characterize transdisciplinarity in education. A transdisciplinary approach to education can "facilitate transformative learning through a focus on real-world challenges, complex systems thinking, the integration of diverse knowledges and reflexivity" ([48], p. 1). According to Kubisch et al. [44], "transdisciplinarity is characterized by three aspects:

1.The starting points are socially relevant issues, which are jointly identified and which are researched by means of integrative scientific methods, with the aim of developing interdisciplinary solutions or strategies for transformation;

*Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104929*


We focus on one critical aspect of transdisciplinarity, that is, the integration of out-of-school partners or reliance on stakeholder involvement in achieving holistic education. This approach is emphasized in the concept of partnerships [49] and the Ubuntu mindset enables development of successful partnerships [50, 51].

Ubuntu can provide a theoretical foundation for adopting a transdisciplinary approach to education given the fact that community and partnerships are central to the Ubuntu mindset. Achieving the SDGs requires the co-production of knowledge between academic and non-academic actors [52]. Transdisciplinarity considers society as an equal partner and recommends the inclusion of practice-based, local and indigenous knowledges, and to "build capacity and consensus by mutual learning processes" ([47], p. 2). Developing an Ubuntu mindset can help educational institutions to develop strong partnerships with the community that can bring in diverse stakeholders and diverse knowledges within the ambit of learning. Building such partnerships with the community gives students an opportunity to actively conduct research on real-world problems and develop sustainable solutions with out-of-school partners [53]. It enables students to integrate knowledge from diverse domains, recognize real-world complexity and engage affected stakeholders in processes of mutual learning [54]. The inclusion of community partners in setting varied challenges for students provides an important source of practical and contextual knowledge, and helps them understand what they have learnt from a real-world perspective. In partnerships, dissimilarities in knowledge, know-hows, competencies and experiences are not considered as a deterrent but as a foundation of productive partnerships, whereby both students and out-of-school partners stand to gain [49]. Such collaborations offer students access to new and different types of knowledge, such as experiential knowledge and different disciplinary methods [55]. Furthermore, according to Rieckmann [56], partnerships enable students to learn "on the basis of a real societal challenge in local contexts" (p. 57). From an ESD perspective, collaboration with various stakeholders, both in and outof-school, is desirable as it enables students to engage in competency and societaloriented learning processes around a real-world sustainability problem. Developing an Ubuntu mindset puts collaboration at the heart of all activities within the school, which helps students learn from diverse stakeholders, value multiple perspectives, analyze their own viewpoints, and make informed sustainable decisions. Ubuntu emphasizes interdependence and relationality, and echoes the ideals of transdisciplinarity.

#### **5. Concluding remarks**

*"We think of ourselves far too frequently as just individuals, separated from one another, whereas you are connected and what you do affects the whole world. When you do well, it spreads out; it is for the whole of humanity".*

*- Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu.*

These words from the late Archbishop Tutu, the embodiment of Ubuntu, captures the essence of the need to re-imagine our individual selves connected to human development that support our collective survival leaving no one behind. This is an Ubuntu mindset that we have argued is needed to drive the transdisciplinary transformative processes required to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and make the world a better place for us all.

Msengana [57] reiterated that adopting an Ubunutu mindset can help in building social relationships in a socially and racially divided organization. The author further stated that cultivating an Ubuntu mindset would help foster the spirit of harmony and reconciliation within the organization and society as a whole. Inequities, discrimination or biases, on the basis of race, gender, socioeconomic status, etc., existing in societies are replicated in schools as well Covid-19 has shaken up the entire education system globally and our traditionally entrenched ways of learning & schooling. Survival and resilience became the mantra of educational institutions and pushed all stakeholders to test their limits to ensure learning continued. While the pandemic opened up new possibilities, it also revealed several challenges and systematic barriers. To bring about a transformative change where every student can succeed, requires a mindset change. Desired organizational goals cannot be achieved in isolation but only through the collective efforts of all members of the organization. In a transformational change, people are the most important part of the system and hence, are critical partners in the process and the desired state. Achieving the desire state of change requires multiple partners who come together for a greater good. Such a transformation requires everyone to understand our interconnection and interdependence on each other in order to complete the bigger picture. An Ubuntu mindset is one such concept that would help bring these multiple stakeholders together and create sustainable and future-proof school systems based on a transdisciplinary approach to learning and teaching. Responses to Covid-19 have been an emergency fix to ensure there were no interruptions in schooling. So, as we move towards a new post-pandemic era, this necessitates recommitting and reimagining our humanity to inform the fundamental transformation required in our schooling systems, right from academic achievement to building inclusive education systems that leave no child behind.

### **Author details**

George Frempong\* and Raavee Kadam\* Delmore "Buddy" Daye Learning Institute, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

\*Address all correspondence to: raavee.kadam@dbdli.ca and george.frempong@dbdli.ca

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104929*

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#### **Chapter 15**

## Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults

*Analía Mignaton*

#### **Abstract**

In recent years, with the arrival of the pandemic, children and families have had to reduce their exchange environments. It has been necessary to reconfigure play spaces at home, redefine the roles of adult caregivers, and plan strategies to accompany early childhood without digital screens being the only option to explore and discover the world. The enriched environments are a game and exchange proposal to support the role of the adult who cares for young children. The care systems that are offered are based on stimulating functions and leave aside fundamental actions, such as interacting and perceiving sensitive transformations in the exchange with the little ones. Prioritizing these early interactions favors children's learning and play if they are supported by social and cultural educational spaces that include the entire community as a basis for meeting and collaborative care.

**Keywords:** family network, context, enriched environments, playful experiences, affective support, opportune interactions, community

#### **1. Introduction**

Childhood is a particular time in people's lives and has been going through important changes in their social representations, in their characteristics, in the forms of bonding with people and objects in the environment, and in the spaces destined for their care. In recent years, with the arrival of the pandemic, children and families had to reduce their exchange environments, among other variables, due to the isolation proposed to prevent the spread of the virus. This situation put distance between family and institutional ties and families, leaving them in a situation of certain solitude and individuality within their homes. Although the virtual educational proposals were sustained in this period, each child and adult was physically in a different place without the possibility of bodily contact, essential in these first moments. From there, it has been necessary to reconfigure play spaces at home, redefine the roles of adult caregivers, and plan strategies to accompany early childhood without digital screens being the privileged option to explore and discover the world, and also take care of adults if they are alone or exhausted by the task of raising and educating.

The forms of bonding between children and adults are strongly influenced by the coordinates of time, where adults are performing multiple tasks, in a temporal and

spatial configuration that leaves little room for leisure, spontaneity in relationships, bodily availability for an approach, a close and affective exchange, in a world where knowable objects and new technologies abound in everyday spaces and come into direct contact with children and adolescents, often without the mediation of adults.

In this framework, the care systems that are offered are frequently based on stimulating functions (motor, cognitive, and linguistic), and fundamental actions, such as interacting from a place of bodily implications and perceiving sensitive transformations in this dialogue of bodies, are usually left aside, in the exchange with the little ones through multiple sensory modalities. Prioritizing these early interactions promotes children's learning and play. At this point, proposing enriched environments consists of thinking of coordinates to generate or enhance the game and the exchange of spaces and times to support the role of the adult who cares for young children in the daily interactions of early childhood.

#### **2. Current coordinates to think about early childhood and families in postmodernity**

In each space-time, the variables have undergone visible transformations that show the characteristics of the direction of the human era. Geography, architecture, cultural and aesthetic expressions, ways of relating, material and symbolic conditions of our existence change, and homes and educational spaces change. In these configurations, everyday life acquires meanings that materialize in concrete and natural settings for each generation. "The dimensions of space and time have been sustained in that period by the constant pressure of the circulation and accumulation of capital, and have culminated (…) in disconcerting and distressing accesses of space-time compression" [1].

We live in a time that is not chronological, continuous, or without interruptions, but rather an event, of instants [2]. The temporal order acquires special dimensions in our time, constituting an ephemeral, vertiginous time. These times of liquid modernity are characterized by a punctuated or "pointillist" time, marked by ruptures and discontinuities, more prominent for its inconsistency and lack of cohesion than for its cohesive and continuous elements (…) Pointillist time is broken, or more well, pulverized, in a multitude of "eternal instants" -events, incidents, accidents, adventures, episodes-, monads closed on themselves, different morsels (…)" [3]. The current experience of time is fleeting, we feel that it is getting out of hand, divided into a thousand moments.

We move in a fragmented time, characterized by cascades of knowledge. For Harvey, already in the 90s,

*"The experience of time has changed, confidence in the association between scientific and moral judgments has disappeared, aesthetics have triumphed over ethics as a fundamental social and intellectual concern, images dominate narratives, transience and fragmentation take precedence over eternal truths and unified politics, and explanations have moved from the realm of material and economic-political foundations to the consideration of autonomous cultural and political practices" [4].*

We also notice that we are going through times of confusion and uncertainty, where the appeal of aesthetics (whatever its form) becomes more pronounced. The forms of production after modernity allow us to access a series of goods and services that make

#### *Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105157*

our lives comfortable in a different way from that of our ancestors. We access multiple objects quickly, and at home, we have a wide variety of gadgets and devices that make our lives easier and more comfortable. Some arise from the intention of collaborating with the task of caring for and raising young children. We are also governed by the logic of the image, a visual aesthetic that marks its mark on each daily act. "Today we no longer seek our truth within ourselves, opaque to the gaze of others, the search is directed to the media outside before which we feel transparent" [5].

We can think that the connection with the media is responsible for the connective immediacy but also productivity influences the speed of life in our times. We live in rushed times, where the times of childhood are also affected, childhood is reduced, children rush to learn skills for the future, the productive logic of the adult world organizes the day, both at home and in institutions, adults feel that they do not have time, that it is not easy to accompany and respect the times of childhood.

In general terms, homes have changed, as well as the times and spaces where children spend their lives, work/home time, productive and leisure time, shared time, and the objects we use on a day-to-day basis, objects called toys, etc., the sensations and experience of being a boy or a girl in this concrete material and the symbolic world have changed.

We can say that there is a plurality of worlds within postmodernist fiction. It is useful for our analysis to reflect on a certain fragmentation, pluralism, and the authenticity of other voices and other worlds, so that communication can circulate and not only exercise dominance over our ways of seeing. The rise of postmodern thought can be traced back to the communication languages of advanced capitalist societies as a major force of alienation and domination [6].

The modern liquid structure of consumerist society and culture is characterized by "an advanced state of deregulation and deroutinization of human behavior in direct relation to the collapse of human bonds, known as individualization" [7]. How to move then in the midst of fragmentation, the liquidity of relationships and the social, cultural, and material elements that cross us? Faced with the tendency toward individuality in the course of people's lives, is it possible to propose collective proposals that contain us and allow us to reflect on our daily lives, to find other ways of caring for and educating?

We can see that we live in the age of mass television. At present, aesthetics predominates over any other cultural form and supposes a transformation in the habits and attitudes of consumers. The postmodernist current is rooted in everyday life under the premises of capitalism. We can perceive this in the large number of objects that are in our homes and in the constant need to upload images to social networks to be rewarded by followers, and in the advertising invasion that we experience daily. Today there is more concern for surfaces than for roots, for collage than for depth, for superimposed images to the detriment of elaborate surfaces. There is also a sense of time and space that disdains solid artifacts, alluding to the transience of our time, a transience and liquid feel against the weight of the solidity of earlier times. From a materialist point of view, objective conceptions of time and space have necessarily been created through the material practices and processes that serve to reproduce social life, which vary geographically and historically. We will review these categories since each particular mode of production or social formation embodies a set of practices and concepts of time and space" [8].

In this then-fragmented landscape, governed by image, which weakens social ties in the face of individual proposals, dominated by the idea of consumption and crossed by a pandemic situation, is where betting on recovering ties becomes an

indispensable task. We require a pause, a time to listen to alterity as an experience and sustaining exchange for children and adults.

#### **2.1 Reflections on everyday space and time**

Space and time are basic categories of human existence. They are intimately involved in the processes of production and transformation of social relations. The history of social change is evidenced in part by the history of conceptions of space and time. It is then necessary to reflect on the space experienced, perceived, and imagined in a dialectical relationship within everyday life [9].

If we stop to analyze the spaces and the passage of time today, we notice that the places for children's games have been significantly reduced. It is rare to find children playing on the sidewalks, and in homes, the distribution of play spaces for children is variable. Childhood usually takes place in institutional spaces, regulated by the logic of teaching and skills for future life. In homes, technological devices coexist with us on a regular basis, and it is common to find the television on, even as "background noise".

In terms of time, the distribution of tasks revolves around the work of the parents and the care of the children, where on many occasions the time for leisure and sharing has been reduced. There is a "family time" as time for raising children and transmission of knowledge and goods between generations through kinship networks, and this time responds to the demands of an "industrial time that distributes and redistributes the workforce in relation to tasks, according to the powerful rhythms of technological and locational change brought about by the relentless pursuit of capital accumulation" [8].

Looking at our time is complex because it requires a certain distance from our time and from our own representations of life and the current world. To do this, it is necessary to find clues about where we are and broaden our own perspectives. It is necessary to review the symbolic orders of our own spaces and times.

It is possible to glimpse in the internal arrangement of the houses and the external arrangements the relationships with the annual, weekly calendar, and the divisions between day and night, work, rest, activity, leisure, etc. Capital production systems suppose the constant disorganization of temporal and spatial rhythms, times that follow the logic of work and consumption, where "one of the missions of modernism is to produce new meanings for space and time in a world of the ephemeral and fragmented" [9].

#### **2.2 Objects and materiality of space**

To refer to the materiality in current life systems, we focus on the spaces of daily life, in which there are many objects, functional and decorative, also intended for children's play. It is common to see baskets or boxes with stored objects that are usually emptied by the little ones to carry out a quick exploration of them. These toy objects are part of the everyday scene, even with all their regional or social diversity, and they carry the problem of storage and order that is difficult for adults to maintain. In addition, among the objects that are offered to the little ones are the screens, which are already part of the space and participate in the organization of parenting time.

Adults are thus immersed in a vicious circle where ordering, entertaining, and caring for the little ones becomes difficult and laborious. Whether because of the speed of modern life, social and cultural demands, adults in charge of young children find few alternatives to these situations or because of the diverse and simultaneous tasks of the adult world. If we go back a few decades, there was no such number of toy objects

#### *Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105157*

for children, and these have arisen from consumerism that sneaks into each advertisement. Is it possible to recover the idea of exploring the world by offering "natural" or everyday objects instead of consumer objects? In a way, the proposal is to give in the sense of donating objects to be explored, instead of acquiring toy objects, especially in the era of the advent of plastic.

It is also possible to review the way they are offered, in small doses, in baskets, or storage boxes within the reach of children, as Montessori proposed more than a century ago. Is it possible to take care of a small child at home and at the same time work from home or do housework? The exhaustion expressed by adults is enormous. And that is why we resort to objects that replace us at certain times, instead of offering objects within a bonding relationship of interest that promotes the discovery (cognitive and affective) of the world.

Both in homes and in institutions for the care of young children, there have been instances that regulate the presence and absence of the significant adult, not always in a respectful manner, although in recent times with greater criteria on the affectivity of babies in the early stages of life. At present, it is necessary to rethink the existence of a certain presence/absence alternation, since the premise is usually to care for and protect the little ones, leaving the development of their personal and social autonomy in the background. Although it is sought to protect children from domestic accidents, children remain under strict control with few possibilities to move, be creative and autonomous and develop a "being alone in the presence of the adult" as Winnicott proposed in the path of mental health [10].

In Argentina, there is a great variety of styles in the care of young children, ranging from the demand for personal autonomy to overprotection and the constant presence of hypervigilant caregivers. It is necessary to reflect on the attitude of adults toward children, care, ways to encourage play, and actions that adults favor in children's lives. Paying attention to our attitudes will allow us to think about childhood in terms of rights and carry out care practices that favor child development.

Among the privileged objects of today are the screens, mobile phones, tablets, and televisions. All of them coexist and pre-exist with today's children, are part of their natural world and are usually available from an early age. Ana Bloj, a doctor in psychology in Argentina, wonders if perhaps technologies are producers of subjectivity. And he adds that it is often heard that the work of parents and teachers in relation to new technologies is to try to "get them out" of them [11]. The author also states that it is possible to ignore a person and the environment itself to focus on mobile technology, a new way of being connected since this disconnection implies new ways of connecting, different ways of relating to colleagues, to the world, and with parents.

The experience of disconnection due to cell phone use is a different experience. That is to say that the boys are connected, but in a different reality, in a virtual space. There is a generational difference, parents, educators, and adults today did not grow up in the midst of the virtual reality that screens propose, those fictional worlds that are imposed on us from the consumer society as instant paradisiacal spaces, without resistance [12]. In addition, Bloj adds that it is impossible for parents to know how, where, and when to regulate their children's use of new technologies because that use was not part of their own childhood experiences. But we have, as in any generational difference, other experiences to pass on. The problem is that these other experiences are overshadowed by the brightness and mobile sound of the cell phone, and are difficult to recover as valuable cultural assets for new generations. This is where it makes sense to think about time, shared, offered, and lived.

It is necessary to review cultural spaces, to detect if they have been reduced or modified during the pandemic, if they coexist with virtual spaces, if they replace them, and to what extent they do so, and the possible consequences that this may have on people's lives, especially in childhood. In order not to generate alarms about the new ways of being connected and linked, but above all to know if the creative experiences lived in each home or early childhood space are sufficient, from the beginning of life in a background of shared pleasure in interaction with others.

Background noise and images are now part of the everyday scene. Let us think that there is, in addition, a difference in terms of the age of the boy, girl, or adolescent. In the early years, it is the closest adults who offer or have a cell phone or screen for the little ones on certain occasions, because they are there as part of the daily scenario, because they "help" or relieve the adult in the task, and have fun for a while. In addition, we are surprised by the speed and dexterity with which children handle technology from an early age and to see the fascination that the flash of images, sounds, and movements with the concomitant arrest of the body produces on their faces. In addition, adults sometimes leave their little ones at the mercy of their mobiles to recover some leisure/rest time after the working day, even considering that they are harmful to the little ones. But we surrender to the need to have our own personal space, without bodily involvement, both during the confinement due to the pandemic and in previous or subsequent work periods.

We can think that this offering of screens to the little ones can be shared between both, they can be "given" to explore and they can be given to the mercy of the child, sometimes without filter, with a significant share of guilt because it is not easy to resolve in that situation or it can be a non-affective involvement situation. Can we think of childhoods without screens? It is not possible to generalize the attitude of the adults involved in each scene, but it is noted that they are part of the daily scenarios of what we call parenting. As Moreno, an Argentine psychoanalyst, affirms,

*"Kids today definitely prefer connective presentations. They are able to connect the central threads of the plots they inhabit and respond to them even when they cannot explain them. Perhaps that is why they love and are fascinated by screens. The initial stitches of the child's subjectivity are conditioned by the fact that he connectively captures the threads of the situations he inhabits, such as family expectations and experiences, even when he does not understand them from a rational, causal or associative point of view. They are open to the content of the representative packages and not necessarily to the representations that from the associative point of view could be considered essential to "understand" [13].*

The experiences of children in front of the screen circulate through another scenario, as already mentioned, virtual, often alien to adults. The little ones connect, capture, and capture with their senses in extraordinary ways. In certain situations, screens can offer pleasurable experiences linked to fast and effective sensations that quickly reward the nervous system. What they cannot offer (at least at present) are modulations to the behavior of the little ones, exchanges of rhythms, or gestural or corporal communications; only with their wide variety of sensory modalities do they capture the attention of children who stop their bodies to observe the virtual representations. This can produce fascination instead of propitiating interactions between the subjects. As Bloj states, "we then have a displacement of adults for the exercise of their functions in these scenarios and an advance in the capture of new technologies, especially video games, to seduce them in a new virtual space/scenario" [14].

#### *Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105157*

It is not about rejecting screens and the use of new technologies, after all, adults participate in virtual spaces interacting with other people, recreating times of exchange, sometimes longer and more unique than in face-to-face interaction direct. It is important to recognize that there is an enormous attraction to screens so as not to fight in vain against them, but to place ourselves in a possible place as adults and offer significant experiences in other areas that favor exchange and communication. Be mediators and provide opportunities for intersubjective experiences. The challenge then would be not to relinquish the place of co-star in early childhood development.

María Emilia López, pedagogue and childhood specialist, points out that in our industrialized societies intersubjective spaces have been reduced, that is, interpersonal spaces, mediated by language. It would not be possible or desirable for screens to replace the human voice, embodied, "embodied in another real in simultaneity of presence, cooing and cooing made of voice, contact and breath are replaced by television machines, tenderness displaced by the image -merchandise coming from the screen" [15].

How then to think about the role of the adult, in the face of such an offer of continuous, asynchronous stimuli and with the potential to capture the attention of boys and girls? Redefining a place for adults, from a container asymmetry that does not block or leave without borders the actions of childhood is the current challenge. Rethinking the places of authority in times of reparation and historical vulnerability is a complex and arduous task that requires a lot of personal and social reflection. For Lutereau, an Argentine psychoanalyst,

*"Authority today is not tied to the knowledge that a child may suppose the adult possesses. Children no longer believe that adults know a lot, nor are they afraid that they will get angry. Because they are the ones who teach parents to solve problems – in this aspect, technology has played a fundamental engine of change – in the same way that students are no longer ashamed of not knowing (…) It does not mean that the authority has disappeared and, therefore, that there are no limits. In any case, limits cannot be imposed today in the same way as before" [12].*

The displacement of adults is not reduced to a matter of authority against children and adolescents, it is a complex problem that overwhelms us and exceeds us as individual subjects. What is at stake is the level of participation, a certain asymmetry that guides and protects, and the revision of the ways of imposing authority from a few decades ago, to generate situations of mutual respect and emotional support for the new generations. That is to say, another place, new to the extent that it opens up to the novelty of childhood, but also that gives meaning to certain gestures of care in which their participation is essential.

In any case, adults can participate in this strong interest of children and adolescents in virtual content, dialoguing, questioning, putting into words, opening up to participation, and pulling toward reality. "This would open a path that could perhaps lead to a rapprochement between generations. But they are just hypotheses to continue thinking among all" [16].

It is necessary to recover shared spaces where it is possible to dialogue, play, offer experiences with objects, allow exploration, transform space, etc., as a path toward exploration, creation, fiction, and narration—that intermediate zone where play and creative experience exist, as Winnicott [10] proposed. Both to offer spaces of resistance against the experience in front of the screens, and proposals to stimulate certain functions with objects, reducing the child to an apprentice who reacts to the flow of information that is offered.

So, we notice that having available materials and objects and the use of new technologies do not always generate an experience, they do not necessarily go through our subjectivity. Currently, there are cascades of stimuli and this does not guarantee that there is a subjective appropriation of them, including the experience in front of the screens, but not only these, but all experiences with objects in the real world. In these times, it is difficult for us to produce a common sense, a certain bodily distance from the adult, which, although it allows us to explore objects, to know their physical characteristics, is not enough to enter the middle ground, a space generated between the internal world and the external world with the adult during the first interactions.

Reflecting on the subject, María Emilia López tells us:

"If in exchange for the human voice, the tenderness, the conversation and the cognitive possibilities offered by books, games with music, body cooing to babies, exploration and investigation in the game itself, several hours a day of connection to the television or the computer screen, with the children still and hypnotized by the image, the expectation of enrichment from parenting vanishes. If the proposed activities always focus on instructions with results predetermined by the adult, the spontaneity so typical of early childhood is buried, and this loss brings negative consequences for the symbolic and cultural development of children" [14].

When speaking of "experience" in the sense of what moves us, María Emilia López proposes offering materials, offering stimuli; but he also adds that the mediating role of the adult is indispensable in the construction of shared events. The author affirms that "there is no possibility of imaginary construction without the other human who helps to organize experiences, who names, who accompanies, who offers the cultural richness that precedes the child and, above all, who favors the creation of time and space. Experiencing something more than the actions of survival or everyday life" [17].

#### **3. Encounters and disagreements between adults and new generations**

In this section, the proposal is to review some conditions for communication and interaction in early childhood, especially the first year of life, from conceptualizations that allow recovering the leading role in the exchange between the new generations and the adults in charge of their care and education.

Thanks to the contribution of psychology and other disciplines that include a corporeal vision of development, we know the existence of certain fundamental functions of the adult and the child that are vital for the construction of the psyche. At first, the support capacity of the young child, a body wrap that offers a relationship of proximity, continuity, and security for the little ones at an early age [18]. And then, the first affective exchanges, the playful activities between the baby and the adult, the joint gaze and the attention shared by both interlocutors and other founding functions of this stage. The joint gaze is understood as bodily intentionality, as a triangulation between the child's gaze, the adult's face and mimicry, and the object to be explored; the little one reads, intuits in the gestures of the adult, and even questions him to know his intentions about that imagined, performed, or desired action on the object. It is in these interactions in which both direct their gaze toward a common fact, and somehow communicate their intentions through this gesture, that is to say, that a bodily, gestural, affective dialogue takes place, in an affective exchange between child and adult.

The subjectivation process then occurs within this interactive, participatory dynamic of construction of meanings between both subjects of the relationship. The little one,

#### *Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105157*

with the help of the adult, participates in the experience of giving meaning to his experiences, supported by the attitudes, gestures, and corporal expression of the adults.

For the Uruguayan psychoanalyst Víctor Guerra, the subjectivation process also refers to "the construction of the self from the body-mind association, with the passage from a sensory function to a representational one, and the need to link the drive and sexuality to one desiring another who can also open it to others" [19], that is, to thirdness, as Winnicott proposed in the construction of the real [10].

In short, we could explain the process of subjectivation as the process through which the baby could build his own perspective together with that of the other based on the ego support offered by the adult. With this, Guerra prioritizes the nature of the process, in that active exchange between the two where the child is being built as a subject and has an adult who allows him to open a space for the baby to show "his perspective, his way" to explore "objects with their time and rhythm" [20]. This process would be possible, thanks to the availability of the adult, giving rise to the Winnicottian concept of a mother (as a function) sufficient, neither good nor perfect, but capable of putting herself in the baby's place in the early stages and be open to their expressions [21].

This capacity of the adult to allow himself to be transformed by the gesture of the child is the foundation of the intersubjective process and requires a certain availability, both of presence, level of attention, and participation, as well as possibilities of involvement that the caregiver has. With this idea, let us review whether in the daily times of people's lives (perceived as fleeting, as mentioned above) it is possible to generate spaces and times for this encounter. This malleability of the adult, essential for the expression of childhood experiences, "implies a slow step in the construction of their psychic life, through a body language that integrates step by step the value of words and metaphors" [20]. This slowness is due to the necessary continuity and frequency in the contact that allows a subjective event to be recorded.

The author uses the term "silent colloquy of glances," similar to the tonic emotional dialogue proposed by Julián de Ajuriaguerra [22]. This is the metaphor of a dialogue (perhaps silent in terms of words) but significant, impregnated with meanings, encounters, and mutual transformations. He adds that "the beginning of contact and human subjectivation refers to an encounter that starts from the body, from sensory experience and opens up to music, to a rhythm, to a drawing, to a game. Significant signs that open the way to the emergence of the word" [23].

This step from sensory to representational functioning allows us to go from sensations to words, but not just any word, but the word that, impregnated with sensoriality and charged with emotions, allows us to go from the "blind instinct" to the drive. It is about building a continent, "a house" that houses the polychrome set of experiences that we call subjectivity… [24]. Let us go back to the idea of wrapping or containing the child's body during early body support. But also the need to rethink the offer of stimulating objects to children to recover the rich multisensory flow offered by the bodily exchange, contact, support, and affective dialogue as a source of pleasure and communication.

Also, in the process of discovering how babies are interested in understanding and understanding the intentionality of the actions of others, the concept of intersubjectivity emerges.

For Martínez, a doctor in psychology in our country, "Colwyn Trevarthen" attributes the concepts of primary and secondary intersubjectivity, qualifying them as "two different ways in which babies intersubjectively engage with their parental figures" [25]. Trevarthen used the term "primary intersubjectivity to describe the temporally and emotionally regulated exchanges observed in early dyadic interactions between mother and child between 2 and 9 months" [26]. There are also other indicators or manifestations of primary intersubjectivity, such as neonatal imitation, proto-conversations, and interactive synchrony, functions that originate in the early communicative exchange with the significant other.

He also uses the term secondary intersubjectivity "to describe those situations in which the baby is able to combine two types of acts, praxis - pointing, showing, giving, offering, taking an object, consecutive manipulation, in interaction with his mother, praxic imitation, regulating the action on the object, resisting, touching the object, extending the hand- and the interpersonal ones -smiling, vocalizing, looking at the other's face, extending the arms towards the adult, touching the other, vocal imitation- (…). This type of exchange or psychological contact arises between 9 and 12 months" [25]. These gestures, signs, and exchanges given to another constitute an early communicative repertoire (preverbal) that occurs between the child and the adult.

Many authors propose the concept of intersubjectivity as a fundamental aspect in the construction of the child's psyche. Even with different theoretical positions, they invite us to think of the baby as an active subject, a co-star in his process of subjectivation. Today there is scientific evidence of the influence of the environment on the baby, for example, from epigenetics, and we also know that it is a spiral process of mutual transformation. The conceptualizations of the interactive possibilities of babies and the evidence of the first ludic exchanges are fundamental. For example, see refs. [18, 26–28].

For Guerra, intersubjectivity would function as a "universal language" that is expressed at the beginning of life through non-verbal communication codes that include, in addition to verbal content, message, envelopes, prosody, rhythm, tone of the voice, the face and the gaze as a mirror, imitation and empathy. And he says: "All the semiology of human gestures that comes into play when there is the possibility of gradually discovering the desires inside the human being" [29]. This multidimensional, bodily, and affective communication is at the base of intersubjectivity, it is not limited to verbal exchange, but to tonic and affective modulations and adjustments between the baby and the caregiver. Intersubjectivity constitutes "the experience of sharing emotional states with others" [29]. Recovering corporality in the first affective exchanges between a baby and the adult caregiver is a priority, then, redefining times and spaces that enable these dialogic instances in development.

Raising the idea of the construction of subjectivity and intersubjectivity is essential to support interactive processes between infants, young children, and adults in the early stages of life. Our lifestyle can lead us to physically distance ourselves from children, or to the aforementioned difficulty of alternating moments of presence and absence based on shared pleasure, in a process of building the inner and outer world of the little ones. Recovering these conceptualizations can guide us toward favorable attitudes in adult caregivers and their affective and temporal needs for this to happen.

The availability, the affective charge, and the exchange that can occur from the introduction of the world in that small dyadic or triadic world is a founding fact in childhood experiences. Every object that appears in a child's life is placed there by their referring adults. It is not a question of minimizing the presence of objects, but of offering them in a link that links each subject from the beginning with the human world that receives it. Neither gives prominence to replace the presence and interactive participation of the adult nor exacerbates their physical characteristics (color, size, and name) to the detriment of the experience that occurs in the act of exploring or playing to produce a transformation at a symbolic level.

#### *Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105157*

The mother (or whoever performs the care function) is bodily and affectively involved in the exchange to try to decipher and share her baby's emotional states, for which she experiences a libidinal encounter, based on the pleasure of the exchange. This encounter has a sexual dimension with all its phantasmatic unconsciousness and makes possible the separation of the self. It is an experience of separation and of feeling accompanied by another. For Guerra, the intersubjectivity derived from cognitive psychology must dialogue with the theory of drives, calling it "interpulsionality" [19].

It is also suggested that the task of those who surround the little ones and their first links (we could think of educators, therapists, caregivers, and people from the immediate environment) should not impose our own music, but identify and tune the instrument that they must play to reproduce your own music.

It is important to highlight the role of initial support and also of a joint rhythmic exchange, early social play, shared attention directed toward a common event, body and gestural dialogue, and the narration of the first affective exchanges between the baby and the adult significantly. These are the elements of the process of subjectivation in the first year of life. An "adult malleability during play" [30] is also necessary. This refers to a malleable, accessible, available environment, as the basis of symbolization processes, ideas that are based on Winnicott's premises [18], as long as the mother or whoever fulfills that function allows herself to be transformed by the child, thus creating the fantasy of action in the outside world. We could say that without psychic and bodily malleability, the creation of the transition space would not take place [30].

In this same sense, the term "interludicity" arises to explain the action of the child, co-creator with the adult, as he seeks "to find in the other a playful malleability that also allows him to co-construct his psychic life: express his desires, integrate the experiences of the mind and body, explore and tolerate their adaptation to reality, and elaborate potentially distressing situations" [31]. These first games between the baby and the adult are loaded with multimodal elements (voices, sounds, contacts, waiting, rhythms, synchronicities, smiles, also misunderstandings, etc.) that occur between the child and the adult and introduce them to the dynamics of communication. It is a pre-verbal dialogue and a prelude to verbal dialogue, loaded with musical, sound, temporal, rhythmic, affective, and interactive elements, the basis of affective exchange and basic security.

#### **4. Build and enrich children's environments**

Now we can raise the need to review family spaces and institutional spaces that collaborate with the first interpersonal context of the little ones, and public spaces that could make possible on a large scale the inclusion of shared instances of babies, small children, and adults in the environments. These environments empower and make room for the need to weave support networks for adult caregivers.

There are several functions to review as potential spaces to strengthen daily and institutional practices. Here I will list some possible ones.

The first refers to recovering the bodily proximity of the first times in the lives of babies without objects that hinder this early contact, publicized as necessary or indispensable objects for a good upbringing. In other words, to recover the body as a space for contact and early communication, as a source of experiences of envelopment and emotional support that provide security and pleasure in the early stages. To do this, adults must recover their own bodily experiences, to understand that the early interactive process is full of multimodal sensations, not just language and visual stimulation.

Another aspect to take into account is the times of shared experiences, not only of the individual subject who discovers the world but also of the adult who reveals the world in small doses. An adult who offers, makes available, and is bodily involved in the relationship, but without losing his dynamic spaces, so as not to exhaust the caregiver and raze his own subjectivity in search of an idealized childhood. Let us think of the failures that Winnicott talks about [18], of doing enough, of questioning the good of motherhood and fatherhood, and focus on the adjective sufficient, that reaches, that lays the foundation for development, instead of masking an adult attitude of total presence, which only leaves powerless when exhaustion reaches a physical, emotional, and mental limit. Find quality time, at a leisurely pace necessary to get in touch with the rhythm of babies and toddlers, in the midst of the accelerated time that productive life offers us today.

Also the idea of resignifying the spaces and times that collaborate in the construction of the body as a psychic and corporal knot, in the performance of daily functions, such as feeding, bathing, hygiene, children's sleep and a time of interludicity. developed in the previous section. This playful adult attitude towards play and early interactions.

In these moments of adult-child exchange, the independence of the little ones is often demanded instead of opening up to contact and communication. These situations have the children's bodies as protagonists of the scene, and the attitudes of the adults are varied, they allow themselves to be relieved by the presence of the screens, and they limit themselves to caring without getting bodily or spontaneously involved. For Calmels, an Argentine psychomotricity professional, the embodying function of adults is "a construction product of the (asymmetric) relationship established between the adult and the child. The child is embodied by another that fulfills this function, this link is the foundation of the gesture of various bodily manifestations, such as the look, the listening, the contact, the expressive gestures, the face, the voice, the praxis, the attitude posture, tastes, awareness of pain and pleasure, etc." [32]. The adult collaborates in the construction of the body of the other, offers border, contact, proximity, security, and in vital functions, such as eating, sleeping, and cleaning, regulates and supports the forms of coping of the own body. We understand the body as a construction that is assembled in the bond with others, in an asymmetric relationship, of care, where the child is loved, imagined, and named before being able to love, imagine and name and assume his own body functions.

Adults fulfill this embodying function, although sometimes upbringing or education is understood as a mere application of stimuli. It is necessary to be alert about these and their "stimulating effects," intentional or not, but present in the environment of the little ones. Calmels states that "deficiencies do not exist for lack of stimuli, but for the absence of stimulating links [33].

The bet is to value human exchange as a source of pleasant, rich, and diversified experience, in the family context, but also to have support networks to carry out this task in the company of other caregivers who contribute their experiences. In this way, we highlight the role of the other, adult, caregiver as a mediator, who offers, donates objects and meanings to be taken by newcomers. It gets involved, shares meanings, and bathes the baby or young child in language, respectfully accompanies bodily processes in early childhood as a basis for mental health.

Body care (understood as a dedication to hugs, caresses, and words) are apparently natural instances that require much review and reflection on the part of the educator or caregiver and a careful accompaniment" [34]. This is a valid contribution for both family groups and early childhood institutions. And it is necessary to review

the ways in which we carry it out, to put in tension the knowledge reproduced in an uncritical way that does not generate subjectivizing situations. To do this, reflection and "doing with others" are a source of exchange and production of new knowledge that creates new ways of caring.

The possibility of opening accompaniment networks in the face of the individuality of the subjects is raised here. Although there are unique ways of being a mother, father, caregiver, or educator; there is a need to review old precepts and the new ideals that underlie the cataract of images of happiness that are projected on social networks. Generate listening spaces, where being one is possible, in a group that supports the idea of humanity for both new members and adult caregivers. These spaces, experiential workshops, meetings, rounds of exchange, nurseries, libraries for babies, toy libraries, and meeting instances, can be generated from the public, health, educational, or social sphere, from private or semi-private proposals and constitute a source of exchange extremely rich. It is a privileged way of weaving support networks for caregivers of young children and parents.

For Maria Emilia Lopez,

"Traditionally, where there were children there were social networks. The children invite to community life; (…) Gathering around the human cub guaranteed the continuity of cultural gestures transmitted generationally. The encounter with others facilitates in itself the emergence of the game, the entertainment, the fun, the conversation, the flow of the word, and the narration. But social spaces move away from community practices" [35].

The enrichment of children's spaces also includes attending to the availability of adults, since as adults we put aside the richness of the languages we have to express ourselves. Addressing this aspect includes reflection, games, and workshops that allow us to open ourselves to a free and creative corporality, and also containment during the child-rearing process, sharing experiences as axes of revision and transformation of practices and knowledge.

For López, the care of babies and young children requires "learning to read to children" as a complex task, "it is about reading between the lines, reading between gestures, reading timestamps, or reading without words. The task of interpreting their feelings and their needs, their ways of thinking, requires particular sensitivity and availability, in addition to certain specific knowledge about child development" [36]. This task also includes unlearning certain knowledge and retracing the path of certain teaching to enter into shared reciprocity that gives rise to the new.

This availability involves us and moves us; it is attention directed toward the other that makes us resonate and enter into an emotional, tonic, and affective dialogue; and it is a bodily activity (muscular, tonic, affective, and cognitive) that offers support to the activity of the little boy. And it constitutes an important demand of the adults who care, hence the need to have social spaces that strengthen and support those who care, that overcome individualism as a common way of doing and communicating. López proposes "Betting on a richer cultural development for early childhood also implies an endowment of social, affective, and cultural resources in the mediators" [37]. It refers to parents, relatives, educators, librarians, and social agents who participate in the process of raising and being hospitable to young children.

The author proposes to speak of "didactics of tenderness," as a metaphor, which implies "an integral intervention" that "is hospitable to the baby and the small child and their family in a physically and mentally supportive creative space, with affective availability and in good conditions they are generated for cognitive development" [38]. This idea allows us to think of the child as a bonding subject, and not just a

learning subject who is "taught" certain skills. This subtle but enormous difference places the child in an active place, in relation to another theme that offers and chooses elements of the world to share with newcomers: "For children, tenderness is something that is received (…). It is something that is only learned to do from second-hand, tender if it has received tenderness" [39]. Let us think of the exchange in the key of intersubjectivity, of sharing the experience of discovering the world with another who welcomes, allows himself to be malleable, gives meaning, and stops the gesture while waiting for the expressiveness of the baby. Tenderness here does not refer only to caresses but to a hospitable affective exchange of the other.

Those who go through motherhood, fatherhood, or the process of raising a child, find themselves crossed by the ideal of being "good parents," longing for times of happiness without conflicts or anguish. The anguish of fatherhood is intrinsic to that role. For Lutereau, "Many times we think that we have to do everything quickly, like when we are at work. As if living with the family were just another job. And we think that children's play is something they do alone, that they should put aside to come and be with us" [40]. This aspect, of personal reflection on one's own role, can occur in therapeutic spaces, but they must also be accessible in collective, educational spaces, generated from various social spheres, and that allows us to think of ourselves as subjects of training in relation to other subjects and with forms diverse and respectful care alternatives.

Another fundamental aspect to think about environments rich in experiences and creativity are playful environments. Shared spaces and times, both family and social, where the fictional experience of acting and interacting with others can take place. For Lutereau "long before being neurologically ready, even before pronouncing a word, the human being is ready to play" [41]. Speaking of play in early childhood, he adds that "all the early games consist of the art of manifesting the alternation between what appears and disappears, such as the little sheet, the little face in the hands, the hide-and-seek, among others, as well as what disappears, what is imagined, puts our utilitarian life in parentheses, so that the only time that matters is that of the complicity of the search" [41]. There is a playful attitude shared between adults and children that offers the possibility of recreating a fun and innovative way of being together.

Playing is doing, stated Winnicott [10]. We could say that playing is also undoing time and space, reinventing it, transforming it, letting adult logic explore the unknown, apprehending it, dominating it, and conquering it over and over again. For this reason, it is essential to propose a time of observation, carefully observe the children's play and let the children explore, suspending the knowledge about what a child should do, but giving rise to unproductive times where they explore without knowing very well what to do. Just observe. This would allow us to make more adjusted interventions in the game, prepare better spaces and relevant objects and promote the game with an empathetic and open attitude as it is presented to us at each stage.

Playing with children is discovering other logics of doing and knowing, without imposing our own, it is waiting, stripping ourselves of certain certainties, stopping and making room for the new. Currently "few parents really know what their children like to play, much less allow themselves to be tempted to enter that territory where time is wasted" [42]. For Lutereau "Raising a child is not knowing what to do, but enduring times of maladjustment that growth implies" [43]. And it proposes to adults the task of carefully and disinterestedly observing the playful activity of children, without pretending to dominate it but rather to understand and accompany the processes in children.

#### *Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105157*

It is also possible to recover the traditional games in the transgenerational dialogue to inhabit that space and gain ground in the virtual space [43]. Let us think about these and other possible responses and trials in the face of the advancement of new technologies within the home, of exchange spaces and in the ways of caring for and raising a young child. It is important to value the use of new technologies, as part of our daily reality, and if necessary, giving them a place, but not everything. It is proposed to bet on the power of childhood and "invent ways of being together, of producing dialogic situations, of generosity and listening, and, in these spaces, generate an own experience around the artistic objects of cultural assets" [44]. It is about producing and creating new cultural goods, and not just transmission or teaching.

Together with López, we can propose the idea of carrying out a cultural intervention, that is, promoting "access to play, art, reading, speech and narration as community events, in addition to expanding the universe of family practices that spontaneously accompany boys and girls from their arrival. For her, children are those who are learning to express themselves, those who seek to understand the world and need a loving and dialogical environment to enter the culture and build their own psyche [45]. But at the same time, he points out that they are also the least visible in society. Let us think about the spaces we pass through every day: how many of them are prepared to receive young children, and how many do not include them yet?

Within these proposals, it is possible to think of other objects, such as puppets, mediator dolls, and recreational spaces that house and contain characters that express emotions and share collective meanings. Elena Sana Cruz, renowned Argentine puppeteer, talks about playful objects. These are mediating resources between the individual and the collective, emotions and words, the inner world and artistic expressions. For the author, they are "intermediary objects and embodied metaphors that allow, in short times, to generate enormous spaces. They are not just pleasant objects to attract attention: they are bridges to reach the other, affective and effective scaffolding (…). Playful objects can arise in many ways. Some for a specific need to say or show something in particular; others because someone needs to speak and so that they can scaffold their expressive capacity" [46].

"The insertion of dolls as transitional objects in different contexts allows resuming communications interrupted by pain and traumatic situations" [47]. He defines the puppet as a doll to play with, an intermediary object to connect with someone, a cultural artifact, created with a purpose where the natural object acquires meaning, and a theatrical character [47]. That is to say, with it you can act, exchange with others, weave stories, put together sequences, represent, in the here and now, not to entertain but to create.

Understanding upbringing in all its modalities and the links between children and adults as "a high-density cultural background in the lives of children and families" [48], requires reflecting on parenting practices and the forms of accompaniment that are offered by the family, community, and social spheres. So the bet here is the construction of daily or institutional spaces, in the public and private spheres that bring the cultural baggage closer to families, to recover reading practices, narrations, music and bodily expressiveness, and play as transversal to any proposal where the commitment of the entire community makes it possible. The recognition of the playful attitude of the adult, its malleability, and its permeability to the actions of the little ones, are the gateway to the creative, cultural, fictional world and to language.

Proposing a proposal for the rights of early childhood, which expands the cultural offer and the spaces it offers for exploration, the creation of the little ones, and also for the exchange with significant adults and between family groups, is a huge and complex task. And it is a challenge to our current society. It is necessary to promote

and guarantee the cultural rights of children in environments enriched by subjectivizing practices, in spaces that contain them and also their affective ties.

#### **5. Conclusions**

It is difficult to conclude the debate when we are traversed by this particular time and space. But it is necessary to point out some ideas to broaden our perspective and not to propose certainties but rather possible paths that allow us to transform our practices.

It is important to accompany children and the adults who care for them on the road to autonomy, offering exchange spaces to those responsible for generating a secure base for early childhood, with elements ranging from corporality, affectivity, proximity, and the early wrapping, the exchange between children and adults, and valuable cultural assets for our community.

Also care for and support the function of accompaniment of the child's body process, as a guarantee of the present and future mental health of our society. Support and promote the availability of those who care for young children with the creation of networks and meeting and exchange spaces. Promote affective and bodily contact in the early stages of life. Allow the origin of fiction, play, creativity, expression, and cultural interventions in their broad manifestations. It is necessary to claim the significant role of the adult to gain ground in new technologies and allow the experience to be an inexhaustible source of creativity and solidarity.

In addition to acting and interacting in the midst of uncertainty to walk toward new terrain, populated by words, metaphors, throbbing bodies, and human subjects emotionally capable of accommodating their various ways of being and relating. These new ways of acting together with children cannot occur in the individuality of each educational space or family. They must be based on a network of multicultural spaces, a network that forms a community and that listens and offers other ways of being and communicating with early childhood. It is about accompanying adults and children in their subjectivation process. Forming a community means working with others and designing spaces where words and imagination circulate, where adults feel accompanied in the face of the overflow produced by raising, educating and accompanying children in their growth process.

I borrow the words of María Emilia López to conclude:

*"Producing community around babies and young children through books, songs, stories, games, is a form of emotional, cultural, and poetic care. Who cares for the one who raises, protects humanity" [49].*

*Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105157*

#### **Author details**

Analía Mignaton Superior Institute of Teacher Training N°1, Neuquén, Argentina

\*Address all correspondence to: analia.mignaton@mail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 16**

## Visual Discrimination: Spatial Reasoning Activity for Enhancing Children's Spatial Skills

*Samuel Obara and Jake L. Hammons*

#### **Abstract**

Children can connect with and grasp complex geometric concepts when we harness and integrate spatial thinking into learning situations. In this chapter, we'll look at a couple warm-ups and a few classroom exercises that show how thoughtful resources and unique geometry assignments may help students enhance their understanding in the complex context of the K-12 classroom. Throughout the class, students used a number of spatial abilities, such as visualization and mental rotations, while building and working with polyominoes.

**Keywords:** visual discrimination, spatial thinking, polyomino, isometry, spatial skills

#### **1. Introduction**

A person's capacity to display and manage spatial figures, relationships, and figure formations are referred to as their "spatial reasoning aptitude" [1, 2]. In other words, when it comes to thinking spatially, we think about the placement and movement of things and ourselves, both mentally and physically. There are many ideas, tools, and methods that make up this skill or process [3]. Mathematical exploration and solutions, especially non-routine ones, depend largely on spatial thinking, and many students find mathematics easier to learn when it is handled spatially [4].

Although it is seldom that spatial thinking is explicitly taught in schools, spatial vocabulary and principles like rotation, visualization, identification, and translation are indeed often employed in math disciplines like geometry and calculus. Researchers have developed a strategy for providing explicit spatial instruction that involves collaborating with classroom instructors to create spatial interventions [5, 6]. Such instruction typically focuses on developing selected aspects of spatial reasoning skills through the use of up-to-date methods and processes that are helpful for solving nuanced math classroom problems. There is a need to distinguish between spatial ability and spatial skills. Spatial ability is described as a person's natural capacity to envision a solution before having received any formal instruction, i.e., a person is born with the ability. In contrast, spatial skills are learned or gained via training. Tartre [7] distinguishes two types of spatial skills: spatial visualization and spatial orientation. Spatial visualization is the art of visualizing 2- and 3-dimensional objects in one's mind. At rest and in motion,

spatial orientation is the capacity to maintain our bodily orientation and posture concerning the surrounding environment (physical space) [8]. According to research, spatial thinking skills and geometric reasoning are essential to the development of problem-solving abilities, mathematics learning, and reading [9, 10]. Strengthening the link between spatial thinking and mathematical accomplishment. Mathematical knowledge improves as spatial thinking improves since both can be learned and improved through practice [11–15]. This study will explore activities that help students enhance their spatial skills.

#### **2. Research method**

The subjects of this qualitative case study were 40 middle school students from low-income neighborhoods in one of the southern states of the United States. Throughout the 2017–2018 school year, students worked on honing their spatial reasoning abilities by using manipulatives. Data was collected using various methods, including interviews, observations, artifacts, and video recordings. Data was initially input into a word processor before being entered into NVivo (qualitative data analysis software) to be coded and evaluated.

#### **3. Results**

#### **3.1 The warm-up activity**

The teacher started the class with a warm-up activity involving visual discrimination, which is a visual perception skill that refers to the ability to differentiate one object from another. The development of visual discrimination skills can help a person to compare and contrast visual images accurately and can likewise enhance one's ability to think and see things differently. The capacity to visually identify letters and words becomes vital in learning to read; visual discrimination must essentially occur at all times while a person is reading [16]. One must be able to discriminate visually in terms of color, foreground-background, form, size, and position in space. Observation is a fundamental thinking skill as it underlies and supports other identification skills for gathering information.

The warm-up activity was called "I'm going on a hike." For this activity, students were shown on the overhead projector a picture of a jungle with twigs, leaves, trees, and a snake that required careful observation to identify. Some students were able to locate the snake, whereas others did not see it until the teacher traced it out.

Teacher: Alright, visual discrimination, I'm going on a hike. I'm going on a hike. Do you see anything?

Student 1: Grass. Student 2: Grass, leaves, twigs. Teacher: I see a tree. I see branches. I see dirt. Student 3: I see a cobra head Teacher: You see a cobra head? Come forward and show me. Student 3: I lost it. Teacher: Maybe under the leaves? Student 4: I see it. It looks like a mop, though. You don't see… It's right there. Student 4: Oh, I see it. I might get excited if I see that when I go on a hike.

*Visual Discrimination: Spatial Reasoning Activity for Enhancing Children's Spatial Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106189*

The students used visual discrimination to find the snake, which was not apparent to some students.

The teacher also gave another warm-up about going on a picnic.

Teacher: Okay, the game we're going to play is called, "I'm going on a picnic." You happen to know it; don't give any hints out, okay? We're going to see who can figure this out. Alright, are you all ready to get started?

Students: Yeah [nodding].

Teacher: Alright, here it goes [crosses her arms]. I'm going on a picnic, and I'm going to bring… chocolate chips. Good job, Ms. Hanes, you can go. Okay [calls on Student 38].

Student 38: I'm going on a picnic, and I'm bringing apple pie?

Teacher: You want to bring apple pie. Well, come on up here with me [Student 38 goes to stand next to the teacher in front of the class].

Student 39: I'm going on a picnic, and I want to bring pizza.

Teacher: Can she come [asks Student 38]?

Student 38: No [shakes his head].

Teacher: Nope. Uh, I hope you can come to our thing too, or you… I think you might not be doing the right thing [to Student 38]. Oops, did you forget [to Student 38]? You have to sit back down. You're not remembering [sends Student 38 back to his seat]. Alright, yes, ma'am [to Student 40].

Student 40: I'm going on a picnic, and I'm going to bring blueberries.

Teacher: Oh, I'm sorry, I don't need blueberries. Yes [to Student 41].

Student 41: I'm going on a picnic, and I'm bringing an elephant.

Teacher: An elephant, I would love an elephant; come on up here! [Other students in the class laugh.] Okay, yes, ma'am [to Student 42].

Student 42: I'm going on a picnic, and I'm bringing sandwiches. [At the same time Student 42 is speaking, Student 43 is also saying the following].

Student 43: I'm going on a picnic, and I'm bringing watermelon.

Teacher: Uh, watermelon and sandwiches, you said watermelon, right? Okay, both of you all come up. The purpose of the exercise was for students to emulate the teacher's body language while declaring in front of the class what they would bring to qualify for the picnic. It did not matter what one brought to the picnic; what was important was how well the students emulated the teacher's body language.

For example, the instructor crossed her arms while discussing what to bring to the picnic and expected pupils to do the same. Other physical signals utilized were eye closure, making a fist, and standing on one leg. Many students did not qualify for going on a picnic as they did not visually discriminate what was going on with the teacher's body language. The students loved the game and engaged in what was going on. The teacher transitioned to the next activity, which involved distributing one domino to each student.

#### **3.2 Dominoes**

Teacher: Okay, now that is awesome. We're going to be doing many things here that have to do with visual [points to her eyes]. So, when you walk in here, make sure your eyes are open because they will do great stuff. Now, since we just talked about visualization and I'm going to give everybody one of these things [holds up bucket of dominoes and starts passing out dominoes to the students]. You all know what these things are?

Students: No, yeah, dominoes! (**Figure 1**)

#### **Figure 1.** *Dominoes.*

Teacher: This is your vision at the moment, so pay attention to it. What did you observe about these dominos?

Student 4: There's a dragon on the back.

Teacher: Alright, cool, so there's an animal on the back. What else did you notice [points to Student 5]?

Student 5: They're black.

Teacher: What else did you notice [points to Student 6]?

Student 6: White dots.

Teacher: What did you see [points to Student 8]?

Student 8: They have a middle line separate.

Teacher: Ooh, a line, 2 sections. Ooh, I want to work on that little line thing; if you all can think of more things about her line, that's a good start there.

Student 10: Have two sections.

Teacher: Ooh, two sections; kind of goes with her idea, thing. Tell me about those two sections [to Student 10]. What shape are they?

Student 10: Square, two square sections…

Teacher: Hmm, 2 squares… What else [points to Student 11]?

Student 11: They're rectangular.

Student 17: The dragon on the back is asymmetrical.

Teacher: What? [Exclaims and then turns and writes on the board.] Student 18: No, it's not

Teacher: The dragon on the back is asymmetrical… Can you tell us what asymmetrical means? (**Figure 2**)

The teacher's goal was to lead the conversation as students came up with terms that describe dominoes. Their description stated that dominoes have texture, black and white spots, two line-separated sections, two squares, and eight corners.

Teacher: Two squares, okay. What we're going to be working with are called… All the "ominos."

*Visual Discrimination: Spatial Reasoning Activity for Enhancing Children's Spatial Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106189*

**Figure 2.** *Polyomino.*

Students: Ominos. All the dominoes… Teacher: Did you know that there's a bunch of ominos? Student 33: Yes. Student 34: Yeah. Student 35: No. Teacher: Well when you start what we did now [pointing to the board]. Was that dom… The dominoes… Do you think there are other ones? Student 36: Yeah. Teacher: Okay… Student 37: Yes… Teacher: So if I wrote… Student 38: Pentomino.

Student 39: A what?

Teacher: If you saw a monomino, what in the world, I mean, what do you think about that one? For this one [circles two squares on the board], we wanted to make sure we saw that they were two squares. What do you think the monominoes would look like?

Student 40: One square.

Teacher: Ooh, it would look like one square, right?

Then the teacher drew the shape of one square above where she had written "monominoes" and drew two squares joined by a single side above where she had written "dominoes" for students to make the connection between monominoes and dominoes.

Teacher: You know about the pentominoes; how many squares? Student 40: Five. Teacher: Okay… Teacher: Triominoes, how many do you think? Student 50: Three. Teacher: Okay, anybody thinks they have another one? Student 43: A hexomino? Teacher: Ooh! How many do you think are on the hexominoes?

Student 45: Eight. Teacher: Hexominoes. Student 46: Six! Teacher: Okay, anybody thinks they have another one? Student 50: Did you say there was a quadromino? Teacher: Quadr… Student 50: Four [holding up four fingers].

Teacher: I don't know because my thing doesn't have one… Yes [to Student 51]? Student 50 was trying to associate quadr- with the number four in that instance; the teacher turned it into a learning moment by asking Student 50 about a game played on the computer with four blocks. The teacher turned to the board and wrote, "tetrominoes." The teacher's purpose was to reference the game Tetris, which the students knew and even played.

Teacher: Tetrominoes has how many?

Students 54: Four; Tetris!

The teacher then asked the students if there was any other way to make dominoes using two squares since they had made dominoes with two squares. Some students thought it was possible by only using one square, but they were making monominoes in the real sense, whereas others vertically placed a domino next to the original horizontal one.

Teacher: Ooh, she said to put it like this [horizontal and vertical placement]. Student 64: Right.

Teacher: Hold on a second, let's think about math stuff. Is that the same [pointing to the two placements of a domino]?

Student 65: Yes.

Student 67: It's all turned…

Teacher: Yes, it's turned… Or rotation, remember those words?

#### **3.3 Triominoes**

The teacher used the learning moment to capture mathematics concepts like flip and turn that change the orientation without changing the figure. That is to say, one could move it anywhere, but it would still be the same. Using only two squares to make dominoes, students were asked to pick three squares to make triominoes. The teacher reminded students that a triomino consists of three equal-sized squares connected edge-to-edge.

Many students had a bit of an issue with making trinominoes when joining edges with the three squares. The task was to find all triominoes formed by the three squares. Most students came up with **Figure 3**, which sparked a conversation among classmates.

Teacher: Uh oh, remember when we talked about the dominoes [pointing to the board]? Wouldn't that be the same if you put it up like this [gesturing towards a vertical arrangement of the figure]? Does it not look different?

Student 82: Yes

Teacher: Okay, no matter how I turn it or move or reflect, it is still the exact figure. Most students moved one of the squares in the first picture and then continually moved one of the squares to generate the remaining four photos after creating the first two images in **Figure 3**. Some pupils, it seems, were unaware that they were producing identical triominoes and only shifting them around (rotating or reflecting the item). This sparked a debate on whether rotating, translating, or reflecting an entity

*Visual Discrimination: Spatial Reasoning Activity for Enhancing Children's Spatial Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106189*

**Figure 3.** *Trinominoes first stage.*

changes its shape (length). As seen in **Figure 4**, some pupils understood that there are only two triominoes. This activity effectively brought the concept of isometry to the forefront (**Figure 5**).

#### **3.4 Tetrominoes**

Teacher: Okay, we just did the triominoes right now, I want you to grab one more piece, the same color. Okay, if we have four, what are those called?

**Figure 5.** *Student responses.*

Student 87: Tetrominoes.

Teacher: Tetrominoes, okay, build it and see… Raise your hand if you can tell me a way to make it.

Student 91: Uh, like, uh, up and down.

Teacher: Up [gesturing with her finger in a vertical motion]. Like a real long rectangle?

Student 89: You could have two at the bottom and two at the top.

Teacher: Two at the bottom [draws two squares] and two at the top [draws two more squares]. Looks like a big square; is that kind of what it's looking like? Awesome. What else [points to Student 90]?

Student 90: L-shaped.

The students utilized their newly acquired visualization skills to link the four squares edge-to-edge to generate various combinations that comprise the set of tetrominoes. At that moment, examples in **Figure 6** demonstrated what edge-to-edge implies for constructing tetrominoes or any other polyomino.

Student 90 began with a large square, then shifted one of the squares to make an L shape. The student then moved the top square to the left to form Z-shaped tetrominoes. Finally, one of the Z-shaped tetrominoes had one of its squares moved to become T-shaped tetrominoes.

Teacher: Put it on the table so I can see. I need to use my visualization skills [pointing to her eyes as she walks over to Student 90].

Student 90: [Shows the teacher his table.]

Teacher: Alright, fantastic!

The student argument continues as the lecturer sketches what the students come up with on the board. Student 90 anticipated that any more movement of the squares would lead to isometry. The students could tell it was the same picture even when the orientation reversed, and there were five alternative ways to construct the tetromino pieces.

#### **3.5 Pentominoes**

After the discussion and the exposure of students to dominoes, triominoes, and tetrominoes, the teacher wanted to take students to another level using pentominoes.

**Figure 6.** *Tetrominoes.*

#### *Visual Discrimination: Spatial Reasoning Activity for Enhancing Children's Spatial Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106189*

Teacher: As discussed in other polyominoes, a pentomino is a polygon made up of five equal-sized squares joined edge-to-edge. When rotations and reflections are not seen to be separate forms. Pentominoes… So right now, make sure you have five square pieces. I'm going to put a pentomino piece down on your table. Cool enough? Then, we're going to try to find all of them. Students worked in groups of five at five separate tables to create pentominoes using the information they had been provided. Working in groups enabled students to contribute to the making of pentominoes from five squares and facilitated assistance for those who were having problems learning. The instructor exchanged the produced pentomino piece with a genuine pentomino while the kids worked out the parts. This continued until the kids found all twelve pentominoes. The instructor noted that the twelve pentominoes pieces represented alphabet letters and utilized FLIPNTUVWXYZ, which is the mnemonic for the twelve pentominoes. As opposed to other polyominoes, pentominoes feature special properties that may be employed in spatial thinking, particularly in puzzle games. Before the game, students were given twelve pentomino pieces and invited to play with them to build a rectangle. Using their eyes only, they were asked to try using their free hand to build the rectangle on the table using all the pieces. This puzzle was very intense and the students were deeply engrossed in what they were doing. During the making of the rectangles, the discussion at one table was particularly interesting.

Teacher: Can you talk more about the strategy used in making the rectangle? Student 90: I know that since each piece has five squares and sixty squares in total, I had to decide which type of rectangle I could make. I decided to come up with a six by ten rectangle.

Teacher: Why six by ten?

Student 90: I just decided to because to me it seemed easy to work with. Student 90 did have a strategy on how to make the rectangle by starting with the shortest side on the right and working to the left. The student made sure that the number of squares along the longest side added up to ten. The student then had to select which remaining pieces to use. That strategy paid off for the students who completed the square shown in **Figure 7**. The student also noted that at each point they had to keep asking themselves how many squares were needed at that particular point and also what impact this could have on the assembly of the rectangle going forward.

At the same table, four students came up with six-by-ten rectangles, but the pieces were located in different places. Students were curious, and even asked how many different arrangements of the pieces had been created for the six-by-ten rectangles.

But at other tables across the classroom, other groups of students were dealing with different dimensions of rectangles, which were five by twelve, four by fifteen, and three by twenty. It was noted that some students had different rectangle patterns but identical dimensions, whereas others had different dimensions but identical patterns. This elicited discussion in the classroom about how many possibilities might exist for each dimension.

Student 89: This seems familiar with what we learned last week about positive divisors of 60, right? The number 60 has 12 positive divisors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60.

Student 89 was looking at possible rectangles that can be created by factors of 60 (1 × 60, 2 × 30, 3 × 20, 4 × 15, 5 × 12, and 6 × 10).

Teacher: Can we generate each one of those rectangles using 12 pieces of pentominoes?

Students: Yes, no, yes, yes, no.

**Figure 7.** *Six by ten rectangle.*

Some students believed that all conceivable rectangles (1 × 60, 2 × 30, 3 × 20, 4 × 15, 5 × 12, and 6 × 10) could be built with the 12 pieces of pentominoes, while others disagreed. Some students pointed out that it is not feasible to make a 1 × 60 rectangle, which can only be done if all of the parts are formed like the letter "I." However, a rectangle with dimensions of 2 × 30 cannot be constructed since parts like x are generated by three squares attached together, and hence cannot fit into the 2 × 30 rectangle size. One of the problems asks the participant to create a rectangle from twelve pentominoes; this is a frequent introduction to polyominoes. Because 60 has 12 divisors, there are six alternatives (1 × 60, 2 × 30, 3 × 20, 4 × 15, 5 × 12, and 6 × 10). Once again, due to the construction of certain pentominoes pieces, building a 1 × 60 rectangle or a 2 × 30 rectangle with pentominoes is unfeasible. Each of the other dimensions offers multiple options. Although these puzzles are rather basic, they are nonetheless highly effective for their essential didactic purpose.

#### **3.6 Extension**

Another set of simple-sounding yet challenging rectangle problems involves building two rectangles at the same time with twelve pentominoes. The better puzzles involving pentominoes are the ones that allow for multiple solutions for each rectangle. However, the best puzzles in this regard are those that don't require the use of a rectangle at all. Here below is an example of an extension for this activity:

Form a 3 × 5 rectangle and a 5 × 9 rectangle with twelve pentominoes at the same time.

Form a 4 × 5 rectangle and a 4 × 10 rectangle with twelve pentominoes at the same time.

Form a 5 × 5 rectangle and a 5 × 7 rectangle with twelve pentominoes at the same time. Form two 5 × 6 rectangles with twelve pentominoes at the same time.

*Visual Discrimination: Spatial Reasoning Activity for Enhancing Children's Spatial Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106189*

#### **4. Conclusions**

The study of spatial visualization is significant because of the correlational and logical-intuitive evidence for its relevance to most technical and scientific jobs, including mathematics, science, art, and engineering. Involving students in activities that stimulated spatial skills are critical in equipping students with this needed skill. Activities can range from visual discrimination, games, and activities involving polyominoes. It allows students to create polyominoes pieces using squares manipulatives and then use the real polyominoes pieces for class activities createing a spirit of collaboration and promoting active learning.

#### **Author details**

Samuel Obara1 \* and Jake L. Hammons2

1 Department of Mathematics, Texas State University, USA

2 Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of the Incarnate Word, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: so16@txstate.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### *Edited by Delfín Ortega-Sánchez*

This book provides theoretical answers, applied methodological models, and didactic experiences that seek to reflect and analyze the potentialities and challenges of the active learning concept in STEAM disciplines and social sciences education. It also contributes to the understanding, intervention, and resolution of contemporary social problems and to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals through the design, implementation, and evaluation of educational programs that incorporate integrated active learning as one of its explanatory axes.

### *Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos, Education and Human Development Series Editor*

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Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and Social Sciences Education

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Active Learning

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*Edited by Delfín Ortega-Sánchez*