**4. Discussions**

#### **4.1 Socioeconomic attributes**

Socioeconomic profiling of forest-dependent communities helps in understanding their dependency on NTFP resources [2, 3, 13, 49, 50]. The settlement of the villages is in the designated forest area of JNP for past many generations with marginal land holding granted to the settlers in recognition of their traditional right to natural resources by the Forest Department. The villagers do not have any additional land to till except for the land around homestead where subsistence farming is practiced, that is, homegarden agroforestry. Rural livelihood is linked to socioeconomic characteristics of households as well as physical factors [51, 52]. Literacy level of the respondents indicates their progressiveness [3], and more than half of the respondents in this study were literates, ranging from illiterates to graduates. The total monthly income of the households surveyed in the study varied from INR ₹ 1000 to ₹ 30,000. The contribution of NTFP toward household income also varied widely from 1–70%.This is because the households earn income from NTFPs after their household needs are fulfilled [3, 53]. Similar variations in income from NTFPs were also reported by many earlier studies [21, 54–56]. Earnings from NTFPs vary from region to region [57, 58] depending on ecological settings, income level, and caste/community [59]. The entire household also had alternate income options. A majority of the households were engaged in daily paid manual labor and as vendors. NTFPs ensure year-round income to the households, and thus, the reliance of the households is more on them than on other livelihood options. This indicates that NTFPs are satisfying multiple needs of food, shelter, medicines, fibers, energy, and cultural artifacts and thus supporting the well-being of the indigenous people of JNP [2, 3, 39, 60].

Due to the availability of limited livelihood options to earn for a decent living and low development in the study area, the indigenous communities living in and around JNP were collecting NTFPs from the forest to meet their daily needs though their cash income varied widely from NTFPs. The cash income from NTFP sale is highly skewed because only the NTFPs that remain unused after satisfying their needs are subjected to sale in the local market and very less to the traders or vendors. It was reported that 43 NTFP species were sold by the fringe communities of JNP but in unprocessed form [3] and thus were undervalued, fetching only the collection charges of NTFPs to the collectors [3, 56]. Deprived of the fair prices of their product, the community is forced to spend more time on its collection, leading to unsustainable harvesting [61]. An absence of fair price mechanism and regulated market links in JNP was reported to be the cause of deprival of fair prices of NTFPs to its fringe communities [3].

Moreover, remoteness and absence of good roads make it very rare to approach the study area by the traders/vendors from outside for trading NTFPs. Several other studies though had also reported a wider range (10–60%) in the contribution of NTFPs to the total household income but ascertained that NTFPs do ensure a permanent source of income year-round [3, 62]. Distribution, collection, and contribution in household economy of these NTFPs vary from region to region and forest to forest due to change in locality factors including sociocultural domains [1]. Studies have also indicated that due to poorly developed market network, transportation absence of quality assurance, price-fixing mechanism and processing, most of the NTFPs are

consumed in household to satisfy daily needs [63]. It is reported that the more isolated and remotely located the area is, the higher is the contribution of NTFPs to noncash income [5]. The economic, livelihood, and ecological benefits of NTFPs can only be realized when their collectors are benefitted fully [5, 12, 13, 17].

#### **4.2 Relative frequency of citation (RFC)**

The relative frequency of citation (RFC) indicates that most cited species were collected abundantly in their respective season for the household consumption or marketing. Several studies suggested that a marketing of NTFPs leads to their competitive exploitation, followed by biological degradation [3, 64, 65]. Therefore, to study the diversity of NTFPs, the time of collection, utilization, and marketing channel are pivotal for the sustainability.

#### **4.3 NTFP diversity**

Documentation of 146 NTFP species indicates that the JNP is a rich reservoir of NTFP species of immense potential for human well-being. This documentation of NTFP species from JNP may play a pivotal role in the utilization and conservation of this natural wealth. Further studies on phytochemical principles including extraction of different active constituents on a scientific scale will lead to the recognition and preservation of the NTFP species unknown to the outer world. Among the enlisted 146 NTFP species, 116 were not assessed or not evaluated, 26 species falls under least concern and two species were under data deficit category in the IUCN priority list of species, [66]. Enlisting the species compared with the IUCN priority list indicates the status of the population of a particular species in an area. Such documentation will ensure future conservation of these species in the wild through their sustainable utilization and promote their domestication. The IUCN status of the JNP NTFP species warrants more vigorous and systematic research to gather accurate and complete information on the population status of the species in the area for their sustainable management and conservation for their continuous exploitation.

The ethnobotanical plant species that were documented as cultivated (24 species) or both cultivated and wild (27 species) were actually been planted by the respondents in their home garden, and it was found during the survey that almost all the respondents were maintaining a home garden contributing to the conservation of the species they were using. Indigenous people of JNP domesticating/cultivating ethnobotanical plants in their home gardens clearly indicate the community consciousness on the conservation values of these ethnobotanical species. This means that the inhabitants of JNP have switched to sustainable harnessing their valuable natural resource through domestication of some valuable wild species and leaving these species intact in the wild. There is a need to plant and domesticate the NTFP species of JNP through formulating local missions supporting indigenous strategies of food security. Similar report on home gardens maintaining rich biodiversity of ethnobotanical plants was also reported in earlier studies [11, 67]. There is relevance of man-made environments as a prominent source of ethnobotanical plants for both indigenous and non-indigenous agricultural societies for their conservation [68]. Home gardens serve as refuge for legacy species, with forces of family tradition and bonds that promote knowledge transmission and conservation [67, 69].

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

#### **4.4 Plant part use/harvesting time**

Most of the species were harvested year-round, while those used as fruits, vegetables, and fodder were harvested during the rainy season. Destructive harvesting was done in case of whole plants, roots, tubers, and rhizomes. Harvesting bark and seeds was also destructive as this can affect the survival of the plants. Harvesting patterns of leaves or foliage, root, rhizomes, and tubers indicate their possibility of vulnerability for becoming endangered and ultimately extinction [11]. Earlier studies also documented similar time of harvest or collection of NTFPs [4, 13]. The uses of various plant parts of these documented NTFP species in traditional uses were similarly reported by many workers [29, 70]. Genetic biodiversity of NTFP species gets threatened or vulnerable because of destructive harvesting techniques mainly done for commercial exploitation along with other causes like grazing, loss of habitat, and unmonitored trade [71]. NTFPs are freely harvested by users either for their own use or for trade [72]. The harvesting of these multiple-use species can put them under threat [73] but can also lead to better chances for their conservation [74], especially through home gardens.

#### **4.5 Utilization**

The acquaintance of forest flora and fauna and their importance are rich among the indigenous communities as they are traditionally integrated in the traditional lifestyle of these people, and this traditional knowledge system was accumulated and passed on from one generation to the other orally [4]. NTFPs collected were of multipurpose nature and were mostly used to supplement daily food and nutritional and health requirements of the households and domestic animals as well [1, 13, 24, 28–30, 50, 75–77 27]. There is much documentation of use ethnobotanical plants other than medicines and food [70, 71, 78].

Generally, NTFPs collected were consumed fresh either as food or for treating ailments traditionally [79] except for underground parts, which when used for medicinal purposes were dried [80]. Rarely the collected NTFPs were value added with exceptions for domestic consumptions that too very crudely [4, 81, 82]. Using roots and rhizomes to prepare traditional medicinal formulations has an advantage that these underground organs generally contain high concentrations of bioactive compounds [83]. Many studies also have made such observations [5, 12]. Proper selection of species, parts, as well as preparation and administration methods was very important in traditional healthcare systems [29, 30, 77].

Identification, documentation, collection/extraction, and conservation of indigenous traditional knowledge about the plants are very essential to be used in the near future for the ever-increasing population to ensure food and nutritional security [84]. No new food, particularly the wild food, will be accepted by the urban population without proper testimony from specialists. It will be no wonder if some plants used by the indigenous community as food may on analysis prove rich in nutrition. Others however may come out to poorer or even nutritionally almost useless. But that too would not minimize the utility of recording whatever information can be gathered on the botanical folklore of these fast-disappearing cultures [5].

Information generated from this study will be helpful to understand the human– forest relationship in terms of livelihood options and scheduling sustainable harvest procedures for the indigenous communities and thereby increasing their participation in the conservation and sustainable management of these natural resources [14, 84]. Such documentation will also aid in the preservation of traditional

conservation practices and framing management strategies, whereas utilization pattern can be helpful in transferring the traditional knowledge to younger generations and appreciating its value for human welfare and thus conservation of these ethnobotanical plant species. However, for the development of indigenous people and to conserve their knowledge under intellectual property right, a vast effort is needed [85].

Revitalizing the principles of traditional and religious practices where modern conservation programs could integrate traditional knowledge systems of indigenous communities into their conservation and management activities of natural resources is needed [86]. Ethnobotanical studies have reported resource management by the local people utilizing the principles of traditional knowledge in light of today's modern conservation principles [25–27, 87]. Institutional intervention was recommended to protect the rights and empower the JNP fringe community to access information on policy, market, and value addition of their products with capacity-building, financial, and infrastructural support [3]. Additionally, such missions will rejuvenate the sociocultural heritage and traditional food market circuits of JNP, which will conserve and replenish the NTFP resource to uplift the socioeconomic status and livelihood of indigenous communities at JNP [87–91].
