**3. Results**

#### **3.1 Socioeconomic attributes**

The main occupation of the indigenous communities of the sampled villages in and around JNP is subsistence farming and collecting/harvesting NTFPs supplemented with some temporary activities like daily paid manual labor or petty business. According to our classification made on the basis of total monthly household income, there were only two income groups. Almost all the respondents, that is, 95.33%, were in the low-income group living on USD 2–10 daily, and the rest were in the mediumincome group living on 10–20 USD daily. The contribution of NTFP toward the total monthly household income varied widely in the range of 1–70% with an average of 45%. Around 60% of the respondents in the study area were literate, had spent at least two years in formal education, and had a tendency to search for an alternate occupation other than farming or collecting NTFP.

#### **3.2 NTFPs diversity/richness**

Documented NTFPs were listed as plant, fungus, and animal origin. A total of 146 NTFP species representing 126 genera and 76 families were documented, which were used by the indigenous communities of JNP (**Figure 1**; **Table 1**). Of these documented species, 95 were collected from the wild, 24 were cultivated, and 27 were either collected from the wild or cultivated (**Table 1**). Out of these documented NTFP species, 125 were plants, 14 animals, and seven fungi. Among the plants, trees dominated the list with 70 species, followed by herbs with 32 species, shrubs with 16 species, and climbers the least with seven species. Fishes with 13 species dominated the list of animals with one species of honeybee. Family *Fabaceae* among plants dominated the list with six species and six genera followed by *Euphorbiaceae* and *Malvaceae* each with five genera and five species. In animals, family *Cyprinidae* dominated with five genera and five species. In fungus, *Pleurotaceae* and *Lyophyllaceae* dominated with two species each.

Sn- scientific name; Vn- vernacular name; F- family; Lf- life form (C- climber; Fifish; Fu- fungus; H- herb; I- insect; S- shrub; T- tree); Is- IUCN status (DD-Data deficient; NA-Not yet assessed; LC-Least concern); Toc- time of collection (Whole year- Wy); Pu- part used (B- bark; Br- branch; Ds- dry seed; Fl-flower; Fr-fruit;

**Figure 1.** *NTFP diversity/richness used by fringe communities of JNP.*


**Sl. No. Sn/Vn/F/Lf Is Toc/Pu Mou RFC** 13 *Rita rita* (Ham.) *Rita*; Bagridae LC Wy Cooked and consumed 0.93 Animal origin- insect 14 *Trigona Sp. Putka*; Apidae — Sep-Jan/ Ho Cooked and consumed as medicine. 0.92 Plant origin- climber 15 *Coccinia grandis* (L.) Voigt *Telakucha*; Cucurbitaceae NA May-Aug/ L, Fr Cooked as vegetable 0.82 16 *Cissusrepanda* Vahl. *Panilahara*; Vitaceae NA Wy/Tw Whole plant is used to make rope and as fodder. 0.88 17 *Dioscorea bulbifera* L. *Githa*; Dioscoreaceae NA Wy/B, L Dried powder of tuber is applied to cure ulcer and cooked as vegetable. 0.73 18 *Dioscorea pentaphylla* L. *Bhegur*; Dioscoreaceae NA Jun-Jan/ Rh Extract is applied on infected portion to cure boil and cooked as vegetable. 0.73 19 *Momordicadioica* Roxb. Ex willd. *Ban karela*; Cucurbitaceae NA May-Jul/ Fr, R Fruits cooked as vegetable and also consumed to cure stomach disorder. Leaf extract administered orally (250 ml) twice a day for two days during fever. 0.72 20 *Piper thomsonii* Linn. *Pipla*; Piperaceae NA Nov-Mar/ Fr Fruits are boiled in water with salt. This mixture is consumed to cure cough & cold. 0.96 21 *Plumbagozeylanica* L. *Chita*; Plumbaginaceae NA Wy/L, R, B Leaf extracts are mixed with rice for making rice beer. Rhizomes are crushed and boiled and consumed empty stomach during early morning to treat fever. 0.71 Plant origin- herb 22 *Achyranthusarpera* L. *Apang*; Amaranthaceae NA Jan-Dec/R, Sd Root powder mixed with black salt or root and seed crushed together and consumed with water to get relief from indigestion and dysentery. 0.44 23 *Ageratum conyzoides* L. *Bhusuri*; Asteraceae NA Wy/L Fresh leaf extracts are applied on cut and wound and bandaged to stop bleeding and for healing. 0.82 24 *Artemisia vulgaris* L. *Titepate*; Asteraceae NA Wy/L, Fl, R Leaves, flowers, and roots are crushed together with fresh water and consumed to control dysentery. 0.20 25 *Asparagus racemosus* Willd. *Satamuli*; Asparagaceae NA Jan-Dec/Fl, R Dried root powder is consumed to get relief from diabetes and dysentery. Leaves are eaten to get relief from fever. 0.60 26 *Bambusa bamboos* (L.) Voss *Bans*; Poaceae NA Wy/Wp Used for fencing and making small bridge and ladder. 0.83 27 *Bambusa vulgaris* Schrad ex J.C Wendl. *Baans*; Poaceae NA Wy/Ys, L, St Young and tender shoots are cooked as vegetable and processed as pickle. Leaves are used as fodder and clumps as fencing. 0.09 28 *Basella alba* L. *Pui sag*; Basellaceae NA May-Jul/L Decoction of root relieves vomiting. Tender twigs are used as vegetables. 0.22

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*



*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*



*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*



*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*



*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

**Table 1.**

*Utilization pattern of NTFP species in JNP.*

Ho- honey; Hw-Hardwood; L-leaf; Lt-latex; Mu- mushroom; P- pod; R- root; Rh- rhizome; Rs- resin; Sd- seed; Sh-shoot; St-stem; Tu-Tuber; Tw-twigs; Wp- whole plant; Ys- young shoot); Mou- mode of utilization; RFC- Relative Frequency citation.

### **3.3 Relative frequency citation**

The RFC value ranged from 0.2 to 0.96 for all categories of NTFPs with an average of 0.78. In overall categories, the NTFP species collected most were *Piper thomsonii*, *Diplazium esculatum*, and *Ziziphus mauritiana*. All most all of the respondents (96%) cited these species. This is because these plant species have higher sale value in the local market. Among the 13 fish species, the RFC value ranged from 0.73 to 0.94 and the most collected fish species were *Heterepneutesfossiles, Penaeus monodon,* and *Labeorohita*and *Catla- catla* (0.94) and the least collected species was *Channa strictus* (0.73). Among fungus, the value ranged from 0.64 to 0.94 and the most collected species was *Pleurotusostreatus* and and the least was *Termitomycesclypeatus*, while the RFC value for single species of Bee *Trigona Sp.* was 0.92 (**Figure 2**).

**Figure 3.** *Plant parts used.*

### **3.4 Parts used, harvesting pattern, and time**

Plant parts of NTFPs used by the indigenous communities of JNP and their mode of harvesting and utilization pattern are presented in **Table 1** and **Figure 3**. It was recorded that leaves/foliage were the most used plant part harvested/collected from 70 species, followed by fruits of 36 species, branches of 30 species, barks of 23 species, roots and rhizomes of 21 species, flowers of 17 species, seeds of 16 species, and shoots, twigs, and tender stem of 10 species. Latex and resin were extracted from three plant species. More than 60% of the documented NTFP species were collected or harvested throughout the year, and prominent among these is fuel wood. About 25% species

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

were collected or harvested during the rainy season, which include fodder, wild vegetable, medicinal plants, mushroom, honey, and fish. Fourteen species were collected or harvested during winter season, and the rest of the species were collected or harvested during the summer season. Generally, leaves were harvested during the profuse growth period of plant, that is, rainy season, which included fodder and leafy vegetable.

#### **3.5 Utilization**

The various uses of the NTFP species are for medicine, food, fruit, vegetables, spice, fodder, fuel wood, decoration/craft, fencing, and religious purposes as well as for construction, agriculture implements, soap/shampoo, rope, furniture, plate, and mosquito repellent (**Table 1** and **Figure 4**). The maximum number of species were documented with single use (75 species), and *Mangifera indica* is used for six purposes.

#### **3.6 Medicine**

Of the total documented NTFPs, 73 species were used for ethnomedicinal purposes, and among these species, 28 species were solely used for medicinal purpose (**Table 1**). The important species used as medicine are *Acacia catechu, Azadirachta indica, Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus lakoocha, Bauhinia malabarica, Bauhinia purpurea, Bombax ceiba, Castanopsis indica, Oroxylum indicum, Syzygium cuminii,Terminalia chebula,Terminalia bellerica,Trewianudiflora*, *and Ziziphus mauritiana*, which are usually administered against bleeding, urine infection, indigestion/stomach disorder, diarrhea/dysentery, diabetes, ulcer, gastroenteritis, rheumatism, fever, control body temperature, skin disease, allergy, stomach pain, jaundice, cuts/wound, could, cough, vomiting, nausea, and blood pressure. *Azadirachta indica*was is used round the year for treating various diseases like eye infection, allergy, and skin infection and also used as tooth stick. *Oroxylum indicum* is also used round the year to control jaundice and blood pressure.

**Figure 4.** *Relative frequency citation (RFC) value.*

The indigenous communities of JNP were rich in ethnopharmacological knowledge to properly use NTFPs. A total of 49 diseases/ailments were cured with the help of locally available plant resources. Fever, cough, and cold were documented as the most common disease suffered by the community. For remedy, the community used 12 different plant species. Another common disease was dysentery, and 10 plant species were used for its treatment. Skin and stomach problems were treated with eight and seven species, respectively. Diabetes, vomiting, and diarrhea were treated with five species each, while four species each were used for treating indigestion, mouth ulcer, rheumatism, and blood pressure. Similarly, three species each were used to treat asthma and allergy, while two species each were used as remedy for urine infection, jaundice, kidney problem, heart problem, eye problem, and burns. Treatment of cut and wound, snake bite, fracture, swelling/pain, body pain, arthritis, pneumonia, loss of appetite, liver aliments, stomach worm, cholera, gastroenteritis, ring worm, boil, sexual disorder, hypertension, conjunctivitis, tooth pain, small pox, reducing weight, leprosy, bleeding control, cystitis, hiccup, and nerve disorder was done by using only one plant species. Young twigs of *Azadirachta indica* and *Pongamia pinnata* are used for dental care. Honey secreted by *Trigona* spp. is mixed with black pepper powder and consumed for relief against cold and cough. Even mouth disease of domestic animals was documented to be treated, and *Ficus racemosa* was used for it.

Proper selection of species, parts, as well as preparation and administration methods was very important in traditional healthcare systems. Generally, fresh part of the plant is used for the preparation of medicine except for the underground parts, which were used in dried form. Ethnomedicinal formulations were administered both externally (skin, nasal, eye, and dental) and internally as oral doses. Most of the preparations were a mixture of different plant species, and in a few cases, only one plant species was used. Different parts of a single species were also used to cure different diseases. Almost all plant parts were used to prepare different medicinal formulations: roots, rhizomes, tubers, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, young shoots, whole plants, and gum and latex. Doses of these preparations were not standardized but administered on the basis of age, physical appearance, and intensity of the illness. Children were usually administered with smaller doses than adults. The course of frequency of treatment is decided by the type of disease and its severity. The majority of formulations were prepared as juice followed by paste and decoction. The mode of preparation included juice, paste, decoction, powder, infusion, and chewing raw plant parts. The administration of the therapy is done as a raw, dried form in small pieces or powder, solution, or mixed with water/milk/honey and paste/lotion. Roots and rhizomes were preferred to prepare traditional remedies.

#### **3.7 Food and nutrition**

Many plant-, animal- and fungus-based NTFPs were collected by the indigenous communities from JNP for food and nutrition (**Table 1**). Plant-based resources used for food and nutrition was represented by 42 species. Animal-based resources used for food were represented by fish with 13 species and a honey bee species. Fruiting bodies of seven species of fungus were also used as food. Among the plant resources, more than 50% of the species were used as vegetable and fruits. Honey and fungus collected were mostly used for food and medicine purposes. All the mushrooms were used for culinary purposes and sometimes as snacks and added value to pickle as well. Fish supplements protein in the diets of the collectors. Leaves/foliage, root, rhizome, tuber, fruit, and flower/inflorescence of the plants were collected from the forest and either

### *Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

cooked or consumed fresh. The communities were collecting these plant resources round the year or when available. Fruits are also consumed ripe as dessert or as vegetable and also processed as pickle or chutney. Herbs are generally consumed as leafy vegetables. Some tubers, rhizomes, pods, and fruits are also consumed as vegetable. Edible plants are generally important for both humans and domestic animals during the time of scarcity.

The indigenous communities of JNP were collecting different type of wild edible and cultivated fruits from the forest for both self-consumption and sale for cash income. The community collects fruits of 17 species for food, vegetable, and spice and also add value to products like pickles (**Table 1**). The maximum amount of fruits collected were consumed directly either raw or ripe. Fruits of *Artocarpus hetrophyllus* were either used as vegetable and pickle or consumed ripe. Fruits of *Mangifera indica* were also consumed as both ripe and raw after preparation of chutney. Fruits of *Syzygium cuminii*, *Baccaureasapida, Aegle* marmelos, and *Artocarpus lakoocha* were consumed as ripe only, whereas *Ziziphus mauritiana* and *Dillenia indica* were used for the preparation of pickle or "*chutney*".

Wild vegetables were collected for self-consumption and also sold in the local market to earn cash income. A total of 26 NTFP species were used as vegetable (**Table 1**). Among these, 19 were plants and seven mushrooms. NTFPs for vegetable purpose were daily collected for household needs. Leafy parts of the species were mostly preferred by the communities as vegetable and collected round the year from the forest. Some of the common species used as vegetable for both home consumption and sale were *Diplazium esculentum*, *Basella alba*, *Mussaendatreutleri*, and *Colocasia esculenta*. Rhizome and tender shoots of the *Colocasia* and *Basella* were collected during the rainy season for self-consumption, and a bulk of the amount was sold at the local market. Flower of *Mussaendatreutleri* is used for culinary purposes and consumed with rice. This cuisine is locally known as "*Mocha*" and consumed for supplementing the iron deficiency. Tender upper leafy part of *Chenopodium album* is cooked as vegetable and consumed with "*chapatti*" during winter season. Young shoots of *Bambusa vulgaris* were either consumed as vegetable or processed as pickle.

Products from six species of plants were used as spices or aroma for the preparation of locally made pickles for either self-consumption or sale (**Table 1**). These species are *Capsicum annum*, *Cinchona officinalis*, *Cinnamomum camphora*, *Cinnamomum tamala*, *Flumaria indica*, *and Murrayakoenigii*. Leaves of *C. tamala* and bark of *C. camphora* are used for making black tea and also used with rice. Leaves of *M. koenigii* were used for aroma and as condiment. Fish and mushroom were collected for both self-consumption and sale. Fishes like *Cirrhinamrigala*, *Labeorohita*, *Mystusvittatus*, and *Puntius ticto* were caught from the river, ponds, and other perennial water sources round the year except *Catlacatla*, which is caught during the rainy season only. The species is costly and used generally during ceremonial occasions. The fringe communities are highly dependent on these fishes for nutrition and energy along with cash income from sale in the local market. Seven types of mushrooms were also collected from the forest during the rainy season to prepare different culinary items for consumption with rice.

### **3.8 Animal feed**

Plant leaves/foliage, fern, herb, and leaves of shrubs are collected from the forest as a supplement to the conventional fodder for domestic animals, and for this

purpose, 36 plant species were used (**Table 1**). Some of the preferred species as fodder were *Artocarpus*, *Ficus*, and *Dillenia sp*. as these species are available almost round the year. Leaves of *Ziziphus mauritiana* and *Syzygium cuminii* were also used as fodder, especially for goat. Leaves and foliage were mainly collected as fodder during summer and winter seasons when there is acute shortage of normal fodder. Fruits of *Dillenia indica* were also collected as feed for animals.

#### **3.9 Other uses**

The inhabitants of JNP largely depend for their domestic energy consumption on fuel wood collection from the forest, and they mainly use dead and dried wood of 26 species collected from the forest (**Table 1**). Apart from using it as domestic energy, firewood is sold in the local market and is a major contributor in the household income. The maximum consumption of firewood was documented during winter and rainy seasons as compared to during summer season. The area experiences cold temperature during the winter season, which necessitates firewood burning for heat. The firewood species preferred were *Albizia lebbeck*, *Anthocephalus cadamba*, *Pongamia pinnata*, *Schima wallichii*, *Lagerstroemia parviflora*, and *Mangifera indica* as compared to other documented species. Dried leaves of *Tectona grandis* are also collected during summer and used as fuel.

The fringe communities also make different types of craft and decorative items from the plant resources for decorating houses during festival, marriages, and other traditional rituals. Eighteen plant species were listed that were in use for this purpose (**Table 1**). The decorative or craft items were also sold in the local market for earning money. Some of the common species for this purpose are *Cassia fistula*, *Delonix regia*, *Oroxylum indicum*, and *Sterculia villosa*. Leaves, foliage, flowers, fruits, and twigs of six plant species were used for religious purposes (**Table 1**). Leaves of *Aegle Marmelos* and *Mangifera indica* were sacred and used as offering to God during rituals. Fruits of *Datura metal*, *Saussurealappa* flower, and seeds of *Elaeocarpus sphaericus* were also used while performing a religious ritual. *Ficus religiosa* is considered sacred by the fringe community. Three plant species were used to fence the homestead for protection against stray animals (**Table 1**). *Bambusa vulgaris* and *Bambusa bamboos* and *Lantana camara* were used for fencing around the animal shed and in crop fields. Bamboo thatching is also commonly used for fencing the house and animal shed.

NTFPs were also used for other purposes like agricultural implements, construction work (bridge, house, and animal shed), furniture, flosses, gum, honey, katha, ladder, pole, mosquito repellent, plate, rope, soap, and shampoo (**Table 1**). The branches of *Tetramelesnudiflora* and *Anthocephalus kadamba* were used for making small agricultural implements (handle of spade, plow). *Shorea robusta* is used for furniture and house construction, while its dried leaves are burned as mosquito repellent. Its leaves are also used for making plates. Small root pieces of *C. camphora* are also burned along with firewood as mosquito repellent. B*ambusa bamboos* and *Dendrocalamus strictus* are used for making ladder and construction of small temporary bridge. Twigs of *Cissus repanda* are used for making rope, heart wood of *Acacia catechu* for katha, and leaves of *Dilleniapentagyna* for plate, *Ficus elastica* for gum, *Bombax ceiba* for floss (floss of *Bombax* is locally known as "*Tula"*), and *Sapindus rarak* for soap and shampoo.

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*
