**3. Traditional happiness**

There are quite distinct differences in both the presentations and methodologies for achieving happiness across the major religious traditions. Whilst all acknowledge the possibility of individuals being able to realise perfection, the authorship for the cause of the experience is divided between an act of grace and human effort. For example, in the Jewish tradition [53], of the varieties of Jewish mysticism, the 12th century Kabbalah is the most well-known [54], and sees itself as revealing the mystical tradition of the written and oral Torah. Of its three schools, the lesser known and approved "practical" school explores the mystical practices and the possibilities of perfected union with the divine [55]. For only those completely pure of intent, practical Kabbalah involved using practical methods that strove to achieve a mystical union with God.

In the Christian scriptures, whilst we are most cognisant of the documentation of Jesus' level of mastery and example of perfection, he also says that this is possible for others: "I tell you the solemn truth, the person who believes in me will perform the miraculous deeds that I am doing and will perform greater deeds than these" (John 14:12, New English Translation, [56]). In subsequent Christology (theology concerned with the relationship between Jesus' human and divine nature), hypostatic union (the union of humanity and divinity in one individual) are seen as indivisible in Jesus [57], and the invitation to some sharing of this union or perfection is indicated by texts such as "For behold, the Kingdom of God is within you" (Luke 17:12, 21st Century King James Version [58]). However, it also proposes a dissolution of the self for this to occur: "I have been crucified with Christ, and it is no longer I who live, but Christ lives in me." (Galatians, 2:20, New English Translation, [56]).

In the Buddhist tradition the Buddha achieved, through meditative effort, the state of enlightenment, hence the distinction of human and divine is not made. In this context there is access to complete mastery of the human condition, with the Buddha reportedly telling off an accomplished practitioner for unnecessarily levitating to retrieve a bowl [59]. In the Tibetan Buddhist esoteric school of Zchogchen, the first step of training is "Treckcho" or the perception of the view of "rigpa" or emptiness of all phenomena including the existence of an independently existing self [60]. However, if the master has determined that the student has achieved a sufficient state of ego-lessness then they are able to proceed to the advanced practice of "Togal" or skilful means where they train in mastery over matter.

In Islam the prophet Muhammad is presented as perfected, and the text of the Koran itself is believed to be a miraculous act of Allah, based on its unique structure and scientific predictions [61]. In the Islamic sect of Sufism there is a proliferation of mystics credited with a high level of mastery, along with a methodology for their attainment, (Zikr or "Divine remembrance") that can be followed to achieve their outcomes [62]. In Sufism "Fanaa" is seen as the annihilation of the ego or "to die before one dies", and is seen as a recognition of the unity of God and the individual self.

The great Hindu text, the Yoga Sutras by Patanjali, devotes one of his four chapters to mastery of the physical realm, and his eight limbs of yoga culminate in samadhi, absorption or union. In the Hindu tradition such mastery is viewed as natural milestone on the path of a yogi with spiritual development seen as parallel with increasing control over the material and spiritual worlds [63]. However, the ultimate goal is the achievement of enlightenment or "moksha", the reuniting with Brahman, which is the unchanging, infinite divine consciousness that permeates everything. Again, generated through dissolution of clinging to the sense of self, it proposes to deliver an absence of suffering, and the state of "paripurna-brahmanubhava" or self-knowledge, peace, and bliss (paripurna is the Sanskrit word for complete, perfect or whole).

A common feature across all the traditions is that such mastery ultimately turns its efforts for the benefit of others – a type of self-less enlightenment or union with everything. This is distinct from the common notion of happiness that seems to refer to one's own psychological state, and instead leans more towards altruism or heroism [64]. This, one could argue is reminiscent of philanthropy where, once one is not struggling, attention moves on to others. In this next section, as we are looking at the psychological correlates of happiness, we will confine ourselves to two traditions that are well known for their systematic methods – the meditation tradition of Buddhism and the yoga tradition of Hinduism.
