**2. Psychometrics**

### **2.1 Reliability**

Reliability has been extensively examined. Internal consistencies generally range from 0.70 to 0.95 [7–10]. Translations of the SWBS into other languages have found similar internal consistencies despite the challenges involved with language, cultural, and religious differences [9]. Test-retest reliabilities for intervals from 1 to 10 were 73 and above [3, 8, 10], so SWB is fairly stable though we view it as more a state than a trait. Together these data suggest that the SWBS has adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability.

### **2.2 Validity**

The SWBS items were constructed with content matching the horizontal and vertical dimensions proposed by Moberg [6]. After initial testing and revision, the current 20 items were selected. Expected group differences have been demonstrated e.g., [7, 8] and correlational results confirm that EWB and RWB are distinct but related e.g., [9, 11]. Scores on the SWBS are significantly related in expected directions to a number of indicators of physical, psychological, social, and religious/spiritual (R/S) functioning [7–9, 11–15].

Factor analytic studies have commonly found two factors e.g. [3, 12] but three factors are also reported in some samples [13]. Factor results are characteristics of samples, so this variability can be expected [10].

### **2.3 Norms**

Bufford et al. [8] reported descriptive data on several samples, including college students, persons with mental disorders, and imprisoned convicts. Scores for these samples provide norms for interpreting SWBS scores. Negative skew and ceiling effects are reported for conservative Christian groups [8, 12, 15]. However, the scale has adequate ceiling for most purposes and sufficient range to readily identify low spiritual well-being.

### **2.4 Practical utility**

The SWB scale has demonstrated good utility as a measure of general wellbeing, sometimes referred to as the "shalom principle" [16]; in general, RWB, EWB, and SWB *The Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS) as an Indicator of General Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106776*

correlate positively with indicators of physical, psychological, and spiritual health, and negatively with indicators of pathology. In addition to validation studies, the SWBS has been used as an independent/predictor variable and a dependent/criterion variable. The SWBS has been found to be a sensitive barometer of psychological distress [17]. It has also been used successfully as an indicator of change in several outcome studies [17–20]. The primary limitation with the SWB at this time is the inability to distinguish among highly functioning individuals with strong R/S commitments [7, 9]. However, Uhder et al. [21] reported that ceiling effects are common among R/S scales.

### **2.5 SWBS and Shalom**

In modern Hebrew, *shalom* is a greeting and blessing that conveys the wish that the hearer would be well in every way: physical, social, spiritual, psychological, and financial. The SWBS seeks to capture this holistic wellness. While only an indicator, higher scores on the SWBS predict better biopsychosocial and spiritual functioning. In the material that follows we will explore examples of recent findings regarding the relationship of scores on the SWBS to biopsychosocial and religious/spiritual (R/S) functioning.
