He then concludes that,

*The happy man will have the required quality, and in fact will be happy throughout his life; because he will spend all his time, or the most time of any man, in virtuous conduct and contemplation. And he will bear his fortunes in the finest spirit and with perfect sureness of touch, as being 'good in every truth' and 'foursquare without reproach' [22].*

In this sense, Waterman hinted that Aristotelian happiness is clearly distinguished from hedonic form of happiness understood as pleasure [23]. He further explains *daimon*—'trueself' as the 'realization of personal potentials which gives greatest fulfilment [20]'. In this context, *eudaimon* is understood as man's activity in accordance with his *daimon* (true self). While hedonic form of pleasure may be lost in a few hours because it is instant gratification, that is, pleasure of the moment, so it is not with eudaimonia for it is strictly linked to virtuous life (*arête*—good moral character) of man built towards perfection over a long period of time. On this note, 'he is happy who lives in accordance with complete virtue, and who is adequately furnished with external goods, and that not for some chance of period but throughout a complete life [19]'. In this sense, Aristotelian happiness which is not gotten immediately usually requires a kind of sacrifice owing to the obvious fact that development of character that leads to virtuous act which helps to attain perfect good, needs constant efforts of the will (*conatus*) towards the ultimate result which again negates *akrasia* (weakness of the will). So, Aristotle maintains,

*The function of man is to live a certain kind of life, and this activity implies a rational principle, and the function of a good man is the good and noble performance of these, and if any action is well performed, it is performed in accord with the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, then happiness turns out to be an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue [24].*

Following these, Aristotle's happiness is always differentiated from hedonistic pleasures.

### **3.4 Hedonistic theory of happiness**

Hedonism is a Greek word for pleasure and it is the second major category of happiness in Greek philosophy as specified earlier in this work. Hedonism is one of the major forms of happiness in philosophical discourse. It identifies happiness with pleasant experiences of life. In other words, hedonistic happiness tends towards pleasures than pains. Hence, hedonistic principle is 'maximization of pleasure and minimization of pain'. Therefore, it denotes happiness based on pleasure [25]. This theory is significantly rooted in utilitarianism which in all its variants purports that pleasure should be ultimately desired, while pains should be avoided. Hence, it advances pleasure for the maximum number of people.

Hedonism teaches that pleasure as satisfaction of desires is the motivation of all human actions and it is the ultimate goal of human existence. Like Aristotle, happiness is conceived by hedonists as the ultimate good but which is characterized with pleasure and absence of pain. This form of happiness is often referred to as inauthentic when especially compared with Aristotelian eudaimonia. It naturally lacks the character of life satisfaction (enduring trait) which has to do with the quality of the individual's life built over the years, that is, a long-term period of positive emotions that depict to some extent authentic happiness. Despite the distinction made between cyrenaic and epicurean hedonism regarding the momentary pleasure, both hedonistic perspectives are considered as imbued with temporary happiness, which can equally disappear as it comes even with the lightning speed. For this obvious reason, hedonism is usually differentiated from life satisfaction perspective of happiness.

Hedonistic concept of happiness is chiefly identified with Greek philosophical schools of thought of cyrenaicism and epicureanism who upholding that pleasure generally understood as delightful experiences is the ultimate goal in life towards which all human actions tend. They distinguish themselves from those of eudaimonic theorists whose conception of happiness is more closely connected to virtue. Although the hedonists commonly submit that pleasure is the highest good, they somewhat differ in their perceptions of it and in its relationship with happiness.

The cyrenaics' hedonistic doctrine of happiness maintains that pleasure is the supreme good in life and pain is evil. The cyrenaics claim that physical (bodily) pleasure characterized by 'the moment' is more intense and therefore, it is cherished more than mental pleasure. Hence, they are referred to as sensual hedonists [26]. This very position is the major feature that distinguishes them from the epicureans who tenaciously hold that mental pleasures are preferred over that of the physical.

The epicureans on the other hand relate that man should attain the greatest necessary and possible degree of pleasures, while avoiding pains. But unlike the Cyrenaics, they buttress mental pleasure which is experienced in the past, present and future against physical pleasure experienced mainly momentarily [27]. As such, they counselled that enjoyment of pleasure should be done with caution so as to circumvent over-indulgence that may be inherent in it. So, they state, 'wise person should be in control of pleasures and not be enslaved to them, otherwise, pain will result [28]'. Based on this proposition, avoidance of pain and sorrow which also involves evading unnecessary pleasure becomes the major goal in life and central concern of the epicureans as not every pleasure is worth pursuing. According to them, 'man should avoid pain as much as possible as commanded by nature and try to heed to only natural and

### *Socio-Cultural Basis of Happiness: African Existential Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107874*

necessary pleasures [29]'. In their understanding, the greatest pleasure to the attained is total elimination of physical pain (a state of *aponia*) and mental fear (a state of *ataraxia*) through control of desires which they perceive to produce pains due to not always being satisfied. To this end, external goods such as wealth, fame are unnatural, vain and empty desires that could lead to discomfort *vis-à-vis* pain and mar happiness [30]. Both epicureans and cyrenaics underplay virtuous acts as necessary means towards a happy life as compared to the eudaimonists.

The study of happiness which was originally championed by philosophers from two major general theoretical perspectives, namely; hedonistic and eudaimonic approaches eventually developed into various theories.

### **3.5 Theory of Model of Psychological Well-Being**

The theory of Model of Psychological Well-Being that was developed by Bradburn in 1969 concerns itself with man's happiness which brought a paradigm shift from studies on symptoms of mental illness to a focus on positive functioning and interplay of daily experiences of the individual. Interestingly, this theory bears heavily on Aristotelian eudaimonia. Bradburn established that social and economic changes affect individual's happiness and that positive and negative emotions influence psychological health [5].

### **3.6 Theory of Tripartite Model of Subjective Well-being**

In 1994, Diener who was Bradburn's colleague also propounded a theory of happiness known as Tripartite Model of Subjective well-being. His theory focuses mainly on individual's well-being. He postulates that how an individual perceives himself in relation to his environment affects his happiness. Therefore, the theory was employed to explain how an individual appraises his feelings within the environment in given situations as positive and desirable or as negative and undesirable. Hence, Diener argues that the degree of individual's happiness depends on his emotions (affect) and judgement of satisfaction (cognitive factor) in particular and general situations of his life (environment). As such, he accentuates that those affective, cognitive and contextual factors are intertwined in determining the individual's experiences of the quality of his life vis-à-vis his happiness. He also hints that personality traits, though not well emphasized, also add to the dispositions of the individual triune factor as mentioned above in judgement of his environment and consequently in regulating his happiness. Diener also demonstrates that pursuit of goals and commitment to them lead to life satisfaction and happiness [31]. Recognizing the possibility of complex interplay between culture, environment and emotions in an individual's life and happiness, he notes that positive emotional responses to the environment improve individual's happiness.

### **3.7 Five-Factor Theory of Well-Being**

Based principally on Aristotelian eudaimonia and on positive perspectives of humanistic philosophy, Seligman developed a Five-Factor Theory of Well-Being in 1998 to investigate the conditions that foster psychological health and optimal functioning of the individual through effective exercise of skills and abilities. It integrated five dimensions of **P**ositive emotion, **E**ngagement, **R**elationships, **M**eaning in life and **A**ccomplishment (PERMA) that enhance individual's happiness [32].

Hence, a five-factor theory can also be referred to as PERMA theory. With this theory, Seligman was accredited as the founder of positive psychology. This new domain of psychological well-being now enables robust studies on good human life including individuals' happiness other than just examinations of symptoms of mental illness. In other words, there was a paradigm shift from the emphasis on mental health and maladaptive behaviours to a more positive functioning of the individual that also helps to avert the mental symptoms. Hence, positive psychology emphasizes the beneficial effects of positive experiences on human health. Therefore, with PERMA model, Seligman accentuates aspects of human experiences, individual and social dimensions that promote happiness and well-being.

### **3.8 Six-Factor Theory of Psychological Health**

The Six-Factor Theory of Psychological Health which assumed that well-being of individuals depends mainly on both the individual and the environment was developed by Ryff in 1989. It considered social milieu as one of the most significant contexts for individual's happiness. Re-conceptualizing the notion of eudaimonia through re-visitation of its philosophical root was Ryff 's fundamental aim, in order to demonstrate its central idea that happiness is the goal of human life that has gross health benefits [33]. With the postulation that the individual's psychological health depends on his positive functional abilities in key areas of life, he integrated various perspectives that create a multi-dimensional model of psychological wellbeing that challenges hedonic pleasure which lacks the essence of eudaimonia (the strive towards excellence). As such, he identified purpose in life, personal growth, environmental mastery, self-acceptance, interpersonal relationship and autonomy as key basic dimensions to well and fully functioning individuals for their promotion of health and happiness. This portrays his view that there is a close relationship between the environment (social context) and individual's well-being [34]. He acknowledges that the environment poses certain stress on the individual, which necessitates effective coping. Therefore, his ability to manage his context and daily activities effectively (environmental mastery), establish and maintain trustworthy and meaningful bonds with others (positive interpersonal relationship) and yet be independent enhances good psychological health. Ryff 's notion of environmental mastery is a core feature of psychological health, which leans heavily on Frankl's logotherapeutic view of 'will to meaning'—the individual's quest to choose and create suitable and meaningful environment for purposeful existence. It also involves the manipulation and control of complex environmental issues through mental and physical activities such that active participation becomes a positive psychological functioning that enhances psychological health of the individual. Psychologically healthy individual also possesses the ability to regulate his feelings, thoughts and actions, while he sticks to his own convictions (autonomy) despite the social pressures as he continuously grows through trajectory processes of development, actualize his potentials and improve on them through openness to new experiences (personal development).

Ryff's concept of personal growth closely relates to Aristotle's view of eudaimonia and reflects also Frankl's existential 'will to meaning' and even Maslow's dynamic growth and actualization of potentials. His re-conceptualization of eudaimonian concept highlights that happiness is the activity of the highest virtue to be realized through the development of self and actualization of personal potentials. Hence, the ultimate goal in life is to strive for realization of one's full potential.

From the reviews above, it becomes obvious that most theories of psychological well-being lean so much on Aristotle's theory of happiness. Again, it can as well be delineated that social context and cultural values are very significant variables in determining man's happiness. It becomes necessary then to investigate into sociocultural factors in relation to happiness.

## **4. Happiness and socio-cultural values**

Happiness seems to be positively associated with social and cultural values. Studies on happiness especially in the areas of socio-cultural anthropology demonstrate that culture matters significantly in influencing people's happiness. Studies by Triandis [35] show that there is a significant correlation between culture and happiness and that life satisfaction highly relates to communal activities especially with close relationships among families. Biswas-Diener and Diener [36] reveal that culture can positively or negatively impact on individuals' happiness.

Culture is defined as 'a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society [37]'. It has to do with shared lives, norms and activities that guide the thoughts, feelings and actions of a given people which develop through social interactions. Simply put, culture is people's way of life which gives them identity and values. It helps to form their attitudes (belief, thought and actions). In fact, it is the total sum people's life; belief, art, norm, clothing, food, religion, educational and health systems, language of communication, sense of hospitality, family relationships, etc. As a matter of fact, culture is a philosophy of first order. It shapes the life of the people especially how they perceive reality (world-view) and suggests 'how people develop a sense that their lives are good [38]'.

Every culture is unique and has specific manner of operation and values attached to it, shared by a given people including what accounts for their well-being *vis-à-vis* their happiness. Some of these cultural values are embedded in symbols pregnant with meanings and interpretations. Such values in African culture include close family ties and communal living, sense of hospitality, respect for elders, religiousness, being humorous, use of proverbs, social activities, oral tradition of events from one generation down to the next which involve speaking and listening skills. They offer the people necessary conditions for authentic existence and realization of their goals in life. They are raw materials that shape the personality and character of given people at given periods and determine how they perceive the world in general and their immediate environment in particular as well as how they express their feelings in reactions to them.

## **5. Socio-cultural basis of happiness: african existential perspective**

Africa is one of the largest continents of the world. She is well known for her rich and dynamic cultures that promote the life of the people. Though faced with enormous life challenges that threaten human life and existence ranging from heightened corruption to political instability, religious unrest, mismanaged economy, poverty, violent of all sorts and at varied degrees, etc., that are responsible for the continental underdevelopment, yet Africans generally have positive dispositions towards life. They still appear happy and most African nations rank top among the

happiest countries in the world. No wonder, they are tagged with the famous aphorism 'suffering and smiling' that characterize the life of the common masses, which clearly explains that though they are besieged with sufferings and sometimes with unimaginable adversities, yet they find authentic reasons to be happy and are globally acknowledged as happy people. The most recent world happiness report of 2022 from Gallup World poll which considered three main indicators of happiness as life evaluations, positive and negative effects ranked 21 African countries among the first 119 happy nations of the World out of 146 participating countries [39].

Nigeria, which is considered the giant and queen of Africa, is a typical example of an African nation whose citizens remain so happy despite the harsh situations of life that challenge their existence. One then wonders—what gives them happiness? It seems illogical, for example that a hungry man even without being sure of the next meal or a homeless man whose house was destroyed by the fierce wind and rain, etc., still feels happy. This goes a long way to explain that the feeling of happiness is more than just mere acquisition of material goods. A good number of other variables are responsible for people's happiness.

This chapter educates that such factors that relate to feeling of happiness include cultural and social features. It establishes that cultural differences account for life evaluations with regard to subjective well-being and people's happiness. Social relations are cultural ties that keep the people together in mind and body. Socio-cultural factors are strong indicators of happiness in Nigeria and Africa in general.

We have earlier discussed culture as shared lives, norms, practices, social, moral, religious, aesthetic, economic values, etc., that guide the thoughts, feelings and actions of a given people. African culture in particular can further be understood as 'the sum total of shared attitudinal inclinations and capabilities, arts, beliefs, moral codes and practices that characterize Africans [40]'. Myths, folklores, proverbs, language, social and religious activities, common life, marital rites, funeral rites, legal practices, inheritance rights and rites, initiation rites of developmental stages of life and into various age grades, groups, etc., traditions, political activities, historical contexts, educational and health systems, cultural dynamism, festive events, food, drink, eating habits, symbols, countenances, expressions, sage, popular wisdom, sense of hospitality, family ties, daily lived experiences, all give Africans their cultural identity and values that single them out as unique people comparable to others. These cultural features provide the framework for interpretations, feelings and actions collectively referred to as attitude of the people. It is an existential issue.

No doubt, Africans are confronted with myriad of existential challenges that are expected to mar their happiness significantly. But research constantly report high level of happiness among Africans even more than many well-developed countries with well-established economic conditions that promote health and longevity. This situation elicits obvious existential questions such as whether happiness can be experienced in the absence of expected factors that cause happiness, for example high and stable economic status, good development. A case at hand is that of Africa and Nigeria in particular. Responding to this question, Agbo, Nzeadibe and Ajaero hinted that, 'happiness as reported by Nigerians pose a paradox when examined in the light of many factors shown in the literature to enhance happiness, especially concerning the economy [41]'.

Arguing further, they asserted that 'because of harsh socio-economic conditions in which many Nigerians live, they may compensate with consolatory feelings of happiness in order to counteract the lingering negative effect of those conditions'. According to them, 'happiness as reported by Nigerians does not connote actual

### *Socio-Cultural Basis of Happiness: African Existential Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107874*

satisfaction with life but a psychological therapeutic intervention against negative feelings which they encounter every day. This view is supported by the fact that health outcomes in Nigeria do not reflect such high reports of happiness [41]'. They suggest then that religion may have aided this adaptive phenomenon.

With this position, Agbo et al. consider happiness expressed by many Nigerians as an adaptive mechanism that helps them to pull through their existential challenges and conditions of life. So they endorsed, 'the feeling of happiness they report does not mean that they are truly happy with the situation but that reporting otherwise could only aggravate the matter. Thus, reporting of happiness is not only therapeutic, but also serves as a strategy developed to the situation [42]'. This again justifies the position of evolutionary psychologists who conceive emotions as adaptive mechanism that evolve as individuals experience their environments [43, 44].

This chapter contends the view of Agbo et al. Although, it partly agrees that Africans *vis-à-vis* Nigerians express happiness in order not to feel the weight of their sufferings, it disputes that their happiness is not totally a defence mechanism as they stated. Otherwise, that would make it seem as if the nature of their happiness is somewhat mechanical. Far from that! This chapter observed that Nigerians are mostly happy because they really feel so. Their state of joys expressed in 'belly laughter' is a typical example of a true state of happiness. The argument that health outcomes in Nigeria do not demonstrate, so to say, real happiness does not simply explain it because health care programme in Nigeria is not well advanced to take care of all health problems. Besides, the issue of health is a complex one that does not depend on one's degree of happiness alone. In fact, there are other major factors in relation to that. From personal experiences and from very short oral random interviews that I conducted with my colleagues from South-East (Igbo part) of Anambra state in Nigeria during the course of writing this chapter, I realized that Nigerians and by extension Africans are really happy people predisposed already from their cultural and existential experiences of their social relationships which they cherish a lot. To the question posed to them, the responses gathered are almost similar. Thus:

Why do you feel happy despite the ugly situation of the nation especially in this recent time?

'I feel happy whenever I remember my loved ones; family, relatives, friends, etc. especially when things are going well for them. I feel happy being with my loved ones and sharing experiences including childhood memories. I feel happy whenever I receive my salary despite the amount. I feel happy each time I think of my children and other family members. I feel happy whenever I go out with friends to eat and drink and tell stories. I feel happy because I know that future is brighter and there is much hope that things will turn out better. I try to be happy because it is better to accept whatever I cannot change in order to have peace. I am happy because life goes on despite all. I feel happy because every struggle ends in this world. I try to be happy so to avoid health problems. I am happy because we cannot question God. I am happy because being sad will worsen the situation. I feel happy because we always console one another and show solidarity' and likely responses.

I was particularly moved by the response of a student whom I know too well that she is facing a lot of family challenges that affected her academically and deprived her from writing her semester examinations. She always put smiling face even in the midst of such troubles. On a certain day, when she ran close to greet me, I curiously asked her: tell me, why are you always happy even now that you are not able to join your mates for the examinations? She swiftly replied, 'I have no choice than to accept my fate. I don't want to brood over my life. Future is brighter'. When I insisted to

know more about the source of her happiness at least at that material time because her face was radiating with smiles. She quickly uttered that the final year students (her senior colleagues) just finished their final examinations and they are rejoicing. So, she is happy for them. This is a very clear indication that Africans rejoice and mourn with one another when need be. It is a spirit of solidarity and communitarianism. 'African communitarianism is such that was founded on extended family-hood and brotherhood with the guiding principle of solidarity. Based on this cultural background, many African philosophers argue that man is a communitarian being. The Igbo-African man for example, maintains a triangular relationship of we-existence (the individual, the community and the creator [45]'. African spirit of solidarity creates an avenue for rallying to celebrate and to mourn together, even to support one another in various ways. Mbiti's assertion on African spirit of brotherhood can quickly be represented here—'I am because we are and since we are, therefore I am [46]'.

However, the above responses suggest strongly that the social life of Igbo-Nigerians is well embedded in their culture and it is a very significant variable in promoting their happiness more than even economic status. The Igbo-African proverbs which say that *mmekita aru bu uto nwanne* (human warmth is the joy of brotherhood) and *uwa achoghi ntukwuba onu* (there is no need looking gloomy) explain it all; why Africans try to transcend their difficulties and be happy in all conditions. In all these responses too, one could hear the words of Balogun echoing, 'Africans have such systems, embedded in their culture with which they have been able to strike a balance between the chaotic and unfriendly world and their own need for survival and continued existence [47]'. They alleviate worry, filter in positive feelings that boost happiness individually and collectively. Nigerians in particular are creative and humorous people who also engage themselves a lot in jokes with almost every facet of their lives. These socio-cultural features aid them to overcome the day's difficulties and lessen the weight of negative feelings, while being enriched with pleasant emotions.

At this juncture, one must admit that infiltration of other cultures gradually affects African culture. But naturally, they have and to a great extent maintain their positive perception about life with such an indomitable spirit to continue to strive despite the obstacles on life's way. That is why, any typical Nigerian especially from the Igbo tribe can survive in any given place, in any given condition and at any given time. Through their attitude of 'suffering and smiling', they generally exhibit optimistic tendencies even when the situation is at its worst, including dying and death. Consequently, pessimism has a very minor position in their lives.

Frankl's submission on meaning in life also appears to align with this African existential perspective which seems to refute the suggestion of Agbo et al. on paradox of happiness among Nigerians. In Franklian understanding, 'man is a being who can get used to anything [48]' including any condition in life and the *how* depends on the individual. 'It is the peculiarity of man to live by looking to the future [49]'.

Based on his experience in Nazi concentration camp, where he eventually found himself in prison life, he revealed that 'a man who could not see the end of his "provisional existence" was not able to aim at an ultimate goal in life. He ceased living for the future [50]'. With Sartre, he declared that in freedom, 'man invents himself, he designs his own "essence"; what he essentially is, including what he should be, or ought to become [51]'. As a medical doctor and as a psychotherapist and through his own existential experience in the camp, he illustrates that despite all extreme conditions of life, it is still worth living. He was stripped to naked existence and exposed to unimaginable harsh conditions of life; he lost every possession including all members of his family except her sister, hunger, chronic lack of food, humiliation, forms of

### *Socio-Cultural Basis of Happiness: African Existential Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107874*

extreme brutality, physical and emotional abuses, mental agony, constant anxiety of waiting for extermination, etc. In all these, he concluded, that 'human being is not one thing among others; things determine each other, but *man* is ultimately selfdetermining. What he becomes – within the limits of endowment and environmenthe has made out of himself [52]'.

On this note, the African existential perspective of socio-cultural basis of happiness brings to limelight the principle of existentialism that existence precedes essence. In other words, man first came into existence through no choice of his but then shapes his life through the daily dainty free choices he makes including transcending his predicaments and limiting existential conditions of human life. For this reason, 'man is able to live and even to die for the sake of his ideals and values… Values do not drive a man; they do not push him, but rather to find the right answers pull him [53]'. Frankl's philosophy of logotherapy reveals that 'if there is purpose in life at all, there must be a purpose in suffering and in dying. But no man can tell another what this purpose is. Each must find out for himself and must accept the responsibility that his answer prescribes [54]'. It further enlightens that 'suffering ceases to be suffering as soon as we form a clear and precise picture of it [55]'. For 'life ultimately means taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfil the tasks which it constantly sets for each individual…Sometimes, man may be required simply to accept fate, to bear his cross… When a man finds that it is his destiny to suffer, he will have to accept his sufferings as his task…his unique opportunity lies in the way in which he bears his burden [56]'.

The Frankl's logotherapeutic motto which is built on Nietzschean dictum that, 'he who has a *why* to live, can bear with almost any *how* [57]' permeates African lifestyle. That is to say, whoever is alive should live hopefully and happily for 'that which does not kill, make us stronger [58]'. This explains the fact that living is an art embedded in people's culture. African existence connects both culture and belief where concepts of God, man and the world intermingle. Perhaps their belief in and continuous feel of the presence of God too make them transcend their existential limitations. African writers generally conceive that Africans show profound faith in God which pervade all they do. In dealing with African beliefs, cultures and traditions, the African philosophical doyen Mbiti declares that naturally 'Africans are notoriously religious [59]'.

Corroborating Mbiti's position, Mbaya and Cezula write 'Mbiti demonstrated that indeed Africans had not only possessed an organized religion but also had a notion of the Supreme Being [60]'. Illustrating Mbiti's stance further, Nieder-Heitmann pointed out that 'Religion is to the Africans an ontological phenomenon which pertains to the question of existence or being…Africans have a religious ontology [61]'. Agbo et al. acknowledge that 'Although the influence of religion on happiness has been demonstrated across several nations, we suggest that the degree to which it influences reporting of happiness varies across nations and we argue that the degree to which it influences happiness among Nigerians may be greater than other indices, such as economy, freedom and development [41]'. The influence of religion on happiness among Nigerians proves so clear in their daily life. This is evidenced in the high increase of religious activities which permeates all aspects of the life of Nigerians from sunrise till sunset; as they wake up till they go to bed. Many African authors acknowledge the central role that religion plays in the life of Nigerians and its inseparability from their daily events [62, 63]. Religion is not simply one's concern with one's belief in God, it is a strong cultural and even a social phenomenon in Africa that contributes significantly to African life and existence. In fact, it is a major existential factor to peaceful and happy dispositions of Africans.
