**7. Theoretical framework: social media as a digital public sphere**

This study and chapter is underpinned by the digital public sphere theory. It is important to note from the onset that the public sphere refers to an imagined space that exists between the state and civil society. This space normally provides a platform for rational and diverse debates among citizens on issues that are of common interest to them [19]. The public sphere therefore serves provides opportunities for discursive interaction, which could at times be very critical of the state or any critical occurrence in the society, such as the advent and spread of COVID-19 as in the context of this chapter. Fraser [41], while critiquing Habermans' bourgeois public sphere theory, notes that various competing and intertwined forces exist within the public sphere. The view here is that while some factions such as the elites support the views of the state on social welfare democracy, other factions such as the peasants, women and working class are of the view that the public sphere does not portray the views of general public opinion. The understanding here is that public sphere represents more of the interests of the influential and some private individuals. The views and arguments of these competing groups or factions therefore give rise to counter-public sphere(s), with their activities and opinions prominent on internet-driven social media, and which counters the public sphere generated by the mass media [19].

Over the years, and especially with the advent of COVID-19, social media has proven to be an ideal place to assess various forms of public opinion, with numerous topics and discourses being engaged with on different social media platforms. It must be noted that social media has been a good platform for political discourses and also for bringing citizens together to fight against repressive rules and also for mobilising citizens to vote during an election. It was therefore not a surprise that social media has been at the forefront of health communication and mobilisation. Social media should therefore not just be seen as mere technology or platform but be looked at considering its unique forms and shapes that the society takes when social media is used, which in turn makes the society to be technologized [19]. According to Papacharissi [42] and Mutanga et al. [19], the internet invigorates the public sphere as it brings to life a virtual sphere that does not manifest physically but at the same time bring people together to deliberate, be informed and also achieve their goals. Papacharissi [42] further notes that in light of this, the internet and the emergent online media in a way creates a public space for all these engagements and not necessarily a public sphere [19].

In the context of this chapter, it is therefore important to note the ability of the online media and the platform that it provides for private individuals and groups to challenge the public agenda and have discourses around the emergence of COVID-19, its rapid spread and possibilities of a cure and possible treatments. It is also more about having a platform to look at and challenge official statistics of COVID-19 mortality and illnesses, debate the challenges around the various levels of lockdowns and self-isolation measures introduced by most governments worldwide [18, 19, 24]. It must however be noted that social media allows for anonymity, as the identity of content producers or online contributors are sometimes hidden or fake identity used. This therefore gives room for uninhibited public opinions and the liberty to post or upload fake news and messages on COVID-19. Citizens are however then exposed to different forms of information, both fake and true in the public/virtual sphere as they engage with government communication as well as various contents produced and circulated by individuals who have access to upload contents online. Social media is therefore an ideal space to gauge public opinions and sentiments in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic [19].

## **8. Research question**

What are people's perspectives on COVID-19, Fake news and the vaccination drive in South Africa.
