Preface

Human migration has occurred since time immemorial; it is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention to achieve change. People may voluntarily change location to find improved living or working conditions or to be closer to a loved one. Or, they may wish to explore a new territory to conduct research or simply out of curiosity. Alternatively, involuntary or forced migration is being forced to leave one's home country because of war or a territorial dispute. Forced migration plays an important part in the movement of people today: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees1 (2023) stated that in 2022 at least 108 million people around the world were forced to flee their homes. In comparison, in 2016, there were 65 million people around the world who had been forced to leave their home country. These figures mean increasing changes and challenges, not only for those who are forced to leave but also for those countries that accommodate them.

To make sense of any society, we need to know something about its development, members, laws, and boundaries. This book provides an overview of the changing tide of immigration and emigration. European countries that had sent people to colonize America, Africa, Asia, and Australia in the last 200–300 years today face an influx of regular and irregular immigrants (the latter being refugees or asylum seekers)<sup>2</sup> from these 'colonies'. These are people who are looking for a better life, just as the 'colonizers' had been. While categories like regular and irregular migrants previously did not exist, for developed, industrialized countries these groupings are important in relation to whether a person is allowed to cross an international order and to enter a country of which it is not a citizen. Border control plays an important role in controlling the influx, either stopping, turning back, or directing people to be 'assessed'. An important point of reference is the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the subsequent 1967 Protocol, as well as the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. This book's underlying focus is the outcome of leaving one's home country to settle in another country to establish a new life.

When this book was started, a look at human migration during the last 300 years was anticipated. While several chapters mention the colonial past, most chapters deal with the more recent history, that is, people's movement in the twentieth and twentyfirst centuries. The book is divided into five sections: 'Critical Reflections About Migration, Safety Zones for Asylum Seekers and Children', 'A Brief Look at Australia', 'Africa on the Move', 'Some Thoughts Relating to the United States of America', and 'A Glance at Europe'. All chapters are written by experts and demonstrate change, both wanted and forced. The contributions deal with government policies, describe experiences of how groups of people fit into their adoptive country, and consider successful and not-so-successful migration; there is popular entrepreneurship but there are also the failures of some groups in reaching their destined country and/or settling

<sup>1</sup> UNHCR.org/about-unhcr/who-we-are/figures-glance (2023).

<sup>2</sup> Other classifications are authorized / unauthorized, documented / undocumented migrants.

in. Overall, the chapters provide current and relevant information about immigration and emigration and how the system has changed over time.

#### **Critical Reflections about Migration, Safety Zones for Aylum Seekers, and Children**

Chapter 1 explores historical transitions and influences on mobility in Japan and Europe. It discusses the distinctions between settled and nomadic peoples, including those who move for professional or religious reasons, and those who choose to remain. The chapter also delves into mobility in the Middle Ages, such as pilgrimages for religious and leisure purposes, which later evolved into opportunities for 'diversion'. In Europe during the Industrial Revolution, notions of working hours, holidays, and vacations emerged, contributing to the popularity of travel – a trend that persists today. The chapter presents a Web-based survey of nearly 20,000 Japanese participants that examined correlations between mobility and well-being. The results showed that 'diversion' and 'adaptability to situational changes' significantly impacted mobility and well-being. However, life space and subjective happiness did not directly correlate in this study. 'Diversion' refers to shifting one's consciousness from present concerns, often employed in emotion-focused coping. 'Adaptability to situational changes' was also explored, with findings suggesting increased subjective happiness when physical health improves, ego resiliency increases, and individuals feel good due to diversions related to mobility achievements. Interestingly, while increased mobility achievements do not directly lead to improved happiness, mobility potential does influence well-being. The authors conclude that venturing to new places outside the daily life environment provides a release from rigid rules and social norms. Many people travel to experience a different life, but when travel becomes routine, it loses its transformative power, requiring the pursuit of new possibilities.

Chapter 2 looks critically at safety zones for asylum seekers. This research uses a qualitative framework, surveys as well as interviews, and ethnography and anthropology as the underlying methodologies. Safety zones are geographically designated areas intended to protect civilians during wartime. Mostly they are a temporary camp in a special geographical area within the borders of the refugee-producing state, enforced by a third state or by an international organization. The constant decline of political enthusiasm to receive refugees, restrain influx, and exclude applicants from protection provides strong criticism of safety zones. Safety zones legitimize repatriation programs. To assess whether safety zones represent a pragmatic complementary policy to international protection or are a threat to the institution of asylum, the author assessed three safety zones: Iraq (1991), Bosnia/Screbrenica (1995), and Syria (2020). Arguments in favour of in-country protection found inadequate reception conditions for asylum seekers, not meeting the standards spelled out in human rights law. Those who are awarded refugee status receive very little state assistance, while those who await status determination are frequently placed in detention centers, inhibiting their right to freedom of movement. The three studies presented in the chapter demonstrated that while the Iraqi safety zones departed from the recommended model of a safety zone, the zone was accessible, free from original risk of persecution and persecution without a Convention nexus. However, this success could not be demonstrated in the cases of Bosnia/Screbrenica and Syria. Both these studies failed to satisfy the three baseline conditions of a legal International Protective Alternative (IPA). The chapter concludes that safety zones should be used as a complementary strategy to the institution of asylum and not as its alternative,

and that safety zones must (a) be clearly established, (b) be in towns with livelihood opportunities, and (c) not be in contested territory, and (d) laws must address the problem of unclear accountability for human rights violations.

Chapter 3 asks a fundamental question: what happened to the children? It looks at the importance of protection and prevention of harm to migrating children. It explores the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, demonstrating gaps and non-compliance with the ratified treaty during the last three decades.3 It came into force in September 1990, and as of 5 September 2022, 196 countries were State Parties. The chapter also considers international migration in countries of origin, transit, destination, and return, including the lifetime impact on children's health. The authors cite the *International Organization for Migration's Report* and discuss how during the last two decades 60,000 migrants lost their lives. They also take note of the *Fatal Journey's* report, which specifies that of the 32,000 deceased migrants between 2014 and 2018, 1,600 were children younger than the age of 18. The chapter explores the consequences of irregular migration on the health of children in relation to vaccination, education, oral health, and mental health, as well as funding and policies. Empirical evidence in relation to migration and child health is insufficient in most Western countries, but children from less developed countries may face incomplete immunization and poor nutrition, and there is an increased possibility of infectious disease outbreaks because of transmission of vaccine-preventable diseases. Contradictory findings are also discussed. Some research indicates that migrants and refugees experience higher rates of vaccine-preventable hospitalizations, morbidity, and mortality compared to the host society, while other epidemiological studies show that most infectious diseases affect migrants after entry into the host country, as most refugees are young and were previously healthy. Between 2015 and 2017, an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 children were seeking asylum each year in EU/EEA countries. It is not quite clear how many made it, but the authors argue that changes are urgently needed and that Western countries should implement strict policies, preventives, and treatment strategies to protect children.

#### **A Brief Look at Australia**

Chapter 4 considers differences in individual responses to migration-related challenges, that is, migration, settlement, and resilience of Iranian immigrants and refugees in Australia. This is a mixed-method study, consisting of an online questionnaire and twelve semi-structured interviews. Data was collected from 182 Iranian immigrants and refugees living in Australia, who were older than 18 years and able to communicate in English or Farsi. The open-ended, semi-structured interview questions were informed by the findings of the questionnaires, allowing participants to talk freely about their experiences. SPSS-22 was used for the analysis of the survey data, and Pearson's correlations, independent-samples t-test, one-way ANOVAs, and Post Hoc analyses were used to test the bivariate associations between resilience and each migration and socio-demographic variables. The mixed-method design provided insight into the processes that influence resilience in relation to migration. The results demonstrated protective and risk factors. The findings also highlighted the connection between socio-demographic and migration variables and resilience. Resilience was higher among immigrants than refugees; supportive relationships are essential

<sup>3</sup> Ratified by all states except the United States.

to reinforce positive concepts. The findings also demonstrated a connection between resilience and employment; resilient people are more eager to find employment and not give up seeking a job. Higher education assists immigrants and refugees in self-confidence and flexibility; however, unmet expectations in relation to expected employment opportunities are a source of stress. The qualitative component revealed how Australia's social and cultural flexibility serves Iranian immigrants and refugees well in the process of adapting to life in Australia; however, the survey and the interviews demonstrated that almost all participants experienced discrimination and prejudices, particularly in relation to their religion and nationality. Suggested activities to combat these misfortunes are spending time with friends, listening to music, seeking family support, and pursuing social support.

#### **Africa on the Move**

Chapter 5 is another chapter looking at Australia as a receiving country. The Australian 2020 Census indicated that more than 400,000 people living in Australia recorded African origin. This represents 1.6% of the Australian population and 5.1% of Australia's overseas-born population. Most (58%) are white South Africans, but 42% are Black Africans from Sub-Saharan countries. Some people within these African populations have not adjusted effectively because of Australia's predominantly Anglo-Saxon culture. African people began to migrate to Australia after 1976 when the White Australia Policy was abolished. This allowed the influx of colored immigrants and refugees, but it also created responsibility for the Australian government to engage new migrants in the workforce; it should have provided sport as a pathway to help them integrate into mainstream Australian society. The chapter focuses on experiences of being refugees in their home country and in refugee camps, and why people left. It also explores Australian policies of protection and settlement of refugees. There has been discussion in recent years that young people from African communities (e.g., the South Sudanese community) have not settled well in schools because of bullying and discrimination. The author looks at integration and at a missing sense of belonging in people of African background. Some individuals and families have found settlement difficult; there were challenges to finding employment as well as a lack of workforce skills, but there was also racism, discrimination, and language barriers. Discrimination is related to some politicians' resentment towards African groups, who have called these groups 'failed community groups' and 'African gangs'. The chapter mentions the three pillars of multiculturalism: cultural identity, social justice, and economic efficiency. The author points out that 'with the multicultural society in mind, refugee community groups are disadvantaged and deserve special consideration in relation to inclusion'. Since Australia is a signatory to the United Nations 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and to the subsequent 1967 Protocol, the country's care of refugees needs to be improved and more possibilities to integrate African people need to be provided.

Chapter 6 examines global processes of African migration, beginning with a historical background. Between 1990 and 2020, an estimated 40 million people moved, but almost 70% moved to another African nation state, 15% settled in Europe, and others settled in the United States and in countries of the Persian Gulf. Migration to Europe has increased during the discussed period. The chapter examines the different routes to Europe and the risks of moving as an irregular or unauthorized migrant. It also considers the dilemma of African people settled in France. Gender, age, faith,

and settlement location are important. There is an increase of young African women migrating to France; most of them maintain the religion of their home country (Muslim). Immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are mainly centered around Paris. Their standard of living is generally low, they have more children than other immigrant populations, and there are high instances of single-parent households. Sub-Saharan Africans are mostly employed as non-qualified workers, as service personnel. Their education and employment status are below that of the average French workers, and unemployment rates are about 20%. Participation in professional occupations is slightly below the average ratio, but in the intermediate professions, participation is of average proportion. Almost 40,000 asylum seekers are in France, but only about 2,500 enjoy humanitarian protection. Since the 1990s, only a few have obtained the official status of refugee, but many could legalize their situation and avoid being expelled. Today a new generation is taking root, and it is anticipated that they will be well integrated into French society, not claiming 'black identity' but fighting discrimination and racism without becoming a specific group like Afro-Americans. The author anticipates that the emigration of Sub-Saharan Africans will continue to grow, that the personal costs to them will remain high, and that those who will make it to and in France will be people economically well off and better educated than the immigrants of the preceding decades.

Chapter 7 takes a close look at emigration and immigration in Ethiopia. A great deal of statistical data is provided, as are reasons for leaving Ethiopia and/or seeking refuge in Ethiopia. The overthrow of the monarch in 1974 by a socialist military junta led to hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians leaving the country in the late 1970s and 1980s, mainly settling in neighbouring countries. Leaving the socialist regime was dominated by economic emigrants, a rise in the labour force, and declining opportunities. The author argues that the recent shift from refugee-led to economic emigration opened new destinations in Africa, such as South Africa, Sudan, Kenya, and in countries of the Middle East. After the downfall of the socialist military regime in 1991, 970,000 Ethiopians returned from the neighbouring countries. The author also finds that international emigration from Ethiopia is dominated by women. Overall, Ethiopia is not only a country that people leave but also a country that accommodates large numbers of refugees from neighbouring countries; it is the second largest refugee-hosting country in Africa. Main destinations of Ethiopians leaving their home country are the United States and Canada, but also Sweden, Germany, Italy, Israel, and Saudi Arabia.

Chapter 8 considers the reasons people leave their home country Nigeria, the irregular Mediterranean migration route, and consequences of drug use and drug trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2017 the unemployment rate in Nigeria was almost 19%. Of concern is the connection between high unemployment rates of Nigerians aged between 18 and 30 years, and high rates of poverty and social discontent. The authors find that young men and women are misinformed about job opportunities in foreign countries. Europe has become one of the major continents with high rates of irregular migrants from Nigeria. This is a mixed-method study, including statistical data, a survey, as well as personal interviews and group discussions with returned migrants (from Libyan detention centres). The overall number of participants is 382, including 10 anonymous interviews of persons who use or used drugs or are or were drug traffickers, providing some revealing stories. The study population is made up of 60% males and 40% females aged between 25 and 30 years and with various levels of

education. The different routes of migration are described, as are anticipated countries of transit and destination. It seems that none of the returned migrants had legal travel documents but were smuggled and/or trafficked into different countries. Those smuggled were migrants for whom their network recruiter illegally facilitated their entry into another country, while those trafficked were exploited by traffickers for the purpose of forced labour or commercial exploitation. Most of the returned migrants are of the opinion that drug use/abuse is the consequence of irregular migration and that irregular migrants are at high risk of drug use/abuse; but there was also a small proportion of the returned migrants who had used drugs before leaving their home country Nigeria. Criminal activities performed by Nigerians to get to their destination in Libya included illicit drug dealing, prostitution, and kidnapping in cooperation with Libyans and negotiating a ransom. The study recommends urgent attention to the issue of drug trafficking and related issues among irregular migrants.

Chapter 9, as previous chapters, also concentrates on the reasons for leaving one's home country. It argues that the motives have not changed during the last 200 years. Today, Africans emigrate because of political persecution, violence, political instability, and economic opportunities, which are similar to the reasons Europeans left their home country in the nineteenth century. The chapter starts with conceptualizing and theorizing migration, using Wallerstein's world systems theory and Piore's segmented labour market theory. The chapter includes the current emigration trends from Africa to other parts of the world. Importantly, it explores the migration myths that influence EU policies in relation to African migrants: regular versus irregular migration, African migrants as pests, migration as a zero-sum game, economic status in Africa, and European response. There is a reflection on the facts of African migration (moral exclusion, epistemic exclusion, deterrence). Important points are that the population in European countries is ageing and that African immigrants provide valuable services in the health- and age-care industries. Migration is linked to economic and social transformation in the sending as well as in the receiving countries. The author challenges European and other receiving countries, if their myths persist that African people emigrate mainly because of in-country instability and poverty, then the only way to halt the mass movement is to help African governments to reduce poverty. The conclusion is that African immigration to Europe will remain emotive in the foreseeable future, but the reasons that drove millions of people out of Europe in the nineteenth century are experienced by African people today; the present response of European countries may stop the influx of African people in the short run, but it will not stop people's movements in the long run.

#### **Some Thoughts Relating to the United States of America**

Chapter 10 considers the US settlement of people from Slovenia and starts with a clarification of an ethnic settlement. The authors argue that since the Mayflower Pilgrims, ethnic communities were inappropriately called colonies, but the immigrants were not conquerors of territory on behalf of some power; an ethnic community wanted to survive socially and economically and preserve the characteristics of their original community. The authors conclude that overall, Slovenian communities have been preserved, not only in the form of inscriptions in churches and cemeteries but also by maintaining community languages and customs. There are 800 cities, towns, and villages where Slovene settlements were established more than 170 years ago. It is estimated that in 2010 around 500,000 Slovenians or people of Slovenian

descent lived in the United States. Fraternal benefit societies represented the basic form of organization of Slovenians in the United States. Insurance companies were created in a period when the US did not know 'Obamacare'. The profits of these organizations supported the cultural and publishing activities of Slovene Americans. The chapter explores different organizations, the benefits they provided, difficulties they encountered, as well as religious organizations and their influence on the community. Parish schools were created, teaching first in Slovene but then in Slovene and in English to maintain the consciousness of ancestors but also the sense of belonging to the United States. During the early twentieth century, so-called Slovene national homes4 emerged, fulfilling the need for cultural, social, and political events for Slovene Americans. Sixty-nine of these institutions still operate today. In relation to newspapers or newsletters in Slovenian language, it is pointed out that these represented one of the most important expressions of the life of an ethnic community. Today, online forms of newspapers have begun to emerge. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the acculturation of Slovene people into American society; the first and following generations have established themselves successfully in all sorts of trades and professions as well as in the political sphere.

Chapter 11 investigates a collaborative approach to develop a youth violence preventive/intervention programme. The authors link the serious problems of youth violence in the United States to a larger epidemic of youth violence in Latin and Central America. They argue that the violence has its roots (a) in a century of US resource extraction and intervention, and (b) in internal economic and political strain. They determined that US youth violence and migration require multi-systematic prevention programmes and developed a programme entitled Miles de Manos (MdM; 'Thousands of Hands'). This programme addresses families, schools, and communities from Central America in the United States. It is a multi-modal, culturally specific, and community-based violence prevention programme for elementary-school-aged children, their families, teachers, and school staff. Across a five-year period, the US-based research team worked with partners in Central America and Germany to develop MdM. It was designed for Latin American origin communities and school staff and is informed by the process and content of programmes identified as 'effective' by the National Institute of Justice; linking the Interests of families and teachers to achieve positive behavioural interventions. The authors point out that this programme is routinely cited as one of the few empirically supported, efficacious preventive interventions for US Latin adolescents' behaviours. The development, testing, and refinement of MdM is informed by five feasibility trials conducted between 2012 and 2016. Outcomes of the MdM for youth, parents, caregivers, and teachers are presently examined in a randomized controlled trial in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. Results of a pilot study demonstrated positive results; teachers' and parents' conduct encouraged prosocial behaviour and reduced problem behaviours in young people.

#### **A Glance at Europe**

Chapter 12 studies forced migration and identity in Polish-German borderlands. It looks at routes of migration during and after World War II and resettlement processes.

<sup>4</sup> Compatible with 'clubs', i.e., Australia has a great number of 'German Clubs'. These institutions provided a buffer zone for new settlers but have lately lost their importance because the Germans are well acculturated into Australian society.

The authors find that the 1945 Yalta and Potsdam agreements created many changes in European borders: the Soviet Union took over the Baltic states, western Ukraine and western Belarus including large areas that before the war belonged to Poland. Germany lost its eastern provinces, which the new communist-dominated Polish state obtained as compensation for the lands lost in the East. Because of the border changes, the entire German population, which lived in the pre-war eastern regions of Germany and in the Sudenten Mountains of Czechoslovakia, was forced to move to Germany. In Poland, expulsion took place. At the same time, Poles, who before the war lived in the east of their country (areas which were to be appropriated by the Soviet Union), were allowed to emigrate, they were not forced. The right to leave was granted to Poles and Jews who in 1939 had lived within the Polish borders. They were allowed to take their possessions, including livestock and equipment, as well as two tons of luggage per family. Legally they could stay and become Soviet citizens, but only a small proportion remained. The authors discuss the ethnic composition of people pre– and post–World War II and the challenges Polish settlers experienced during the process of establishing a new life in the 'western lands', in Lower Silesia. Their culture was different from that of the local German/Silesian one, the architecture, the farming, and inscriptions in churches, on houses, at cemeteries and statues. The German material culture was also alien to them. All of this made the settlement process difficult for that generation of Poles. Communist ideology supported non-material ideas, and communication with Germany on the other side of the border was restricted by the political regime. There was not much attitudinal change in the second generation, but the 1990s brought a strong sense of entrepreneurship to the 'western lands'. Today there is the Europeanization of identity. As the third generation emerges, the space is redefined as a place of belonging; new stories are being told, integrating different pasts and identities. The authors conclude that the past still plays an important role in the 'western lands', shaping the dynamics of the identity of the territories.

Chapter 13 examines how the Yugoslav–Soviet conflict of 1948 influenced organized Jewish emigration from Yugoslavia to Israel. The Yugoslav state and the Federation of Jewish religious communities organized Jewish migration to Israel, a conflict entrenched in the decision of individual members of the Jewish community to leave Yugoslavia for Israel.5 The chapter discusses the different stages of Jewish people leaving their home country and/or transiting through Yugoslavia. Yugoslav authorities cooperated with international Jewish organizations and the first transports for Palestine left in 1946. Some restrictions by the British government were in place, but after Israel was proclaimed an independent state in 1948, all existing limitations became void. The author claims that 7,739 Jewish inhabitants of Yugoslavia made Israel their home, being part of five waves of organized emigration that had left the country between 1948 and 1952. The chapter explores details about the cooperation between Yugoslavia and international Jewish organizations. Firstly, there were the perspectives and actions of the Yugoslav state: organized migration to Israel is considered an important push factor that has a greater impact than a traditional approach to

<sup>5</sup> Some thoughts on the background are important. The Yugoslav–Soviet Split was the result of the conflict between political leaderships; Yugoslavia was led by Josip Broz Tito and the Soviet Union by Joseph Stalin. Both sides presented it as an ideological dispute; however, the conflict was as much the product of a geopolitical struggle in the Balkans that also involved Albania, Bulgaria, and the communist insurgency in Greece, which Tito's Yugoslavia supported and the Soviet Union secretly opposed (Banac, I. (1988) *With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism*. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press)..

or support of people when leaving a country. All participating parties viewed this as something positive. Secondly, there were the perspectives of the Federation of Jewish religious communities: the overall conflict motivated the organizations to develop ways to participate in the process. Although policies were generally applied to emigration, Yugoslav Jews settling in Israel was a perfect opportunity for placement and crucial to the Yugoslav political reality post-1948. Thirdly, there was the desire of the individual migrant to leave Yugoslavia; individuals approached the conflict in a very pragmatic way (i.e., escaping potentially harmful situations).

Whatever the reasons for people to leave their home country, by choice or by force, an important aspect is a sense of hope. So, this preface will conclude with a poem entitled 'Hope', written by a Polish immigrant to Australia, a sociology lecturer, and a mentor of mine at Flinders University, Adam Jamrozik. Adam never talked about his experiences of fitting into Australian society – I wish I had asked him some questions.

> Hope 26 October 1963 Adam Jamrozik

There is always tomorrow, there is always another day; another hour to redeem errors of today.

There is always another strike; another green light to cross the road to new dimensions; to new delight.

There is always another sound, there is always another life; another world where tomorrow and today are one together bound.

(Because the good earth will keep turning around)

> **Ingrid Muenstermann** College of Nursing and Health Sciences Flinders University of South Australia Adelaide, South Australia

The authors find that the 1945 Yalta and Potsdam agreements created many changes in European borders: the Soviet Union took over the Baltic states, western Ukraine and western Belarus including large areas that before the war belonged to Poland. Germany lost its eastern provinces, which the new communist-dominated Polish state obtained as compensation for the lands lost in the East. Because of the border changes, the entire German population, which lived in the pre-war eastern regions of Germany and in the Sudenten Mountains of Czechoslovakia, was forced to move to Germany. In Poland, expulsion took place. At the same time, Poles, who before the war lived in the east of their country (areas which were to be appropriated by the Soviet Union), were allowed to emigrate, they were not forced. The right to leave was granted to Poles and Jews who in 1939 had lived within the Polish borders. They were allowed to take their possessions, including livestock and equipment, as well as two tons of luggage per family. Legally they could stay and become Soviet citizens, but only a small proportion remained. The authors discuss the ethnic composition of people pre– and post–World War II and the challenges Polish settlers experienced during the process of establishing a new life in the 'western lands', in Lower Silesia. Their culture was different from that of the local German/Silesian one, the architecture, the farming, and inscriptions in churches, on houses, at cemeteries and statues. The German material culture was also alien to them. All of this made the settlement process difficult for that generation of Poles. Communist ideology supported non-material ideas, and communication with Germany on the other side of the border was restricted by the political regime. There was not much attitudinal change in the second generation, but the 1990s brought a strong sense of entrepreneurship to the 'western lands'. Today there is the Europeanization of identity. As the third generation emerges, the space is redefined as a place of belonging; new stories are being told, integrating different pasts and identities. The authors conclude that the past still plays an important role in

the 'western lands', shaping the dynamics of the identity of the territories.

Yugoslavia for Israel.5

**X**

Chapter 13 examines how the Yugoslav–Soviet conflict of 1948 influenced organized Jewish emigration from Yugoslavia to Israel. The Yugoslav state and the Federation of Jewish religious communities organized Jewish migration to Israel, a conflict entrenched in the decision of individual members of the Jewish community to leave

leaving their home country and/or transiting through Yugoslavia. Yugoslav authorities cooperated with international Jewish organizations and the first transports for Palestine left in 1946. Some restrictions by the British government were in place, but after Israel was proclaimed an independent state in 1948, all existing limitations became void. The author claims that 7,739 Jewish inhabitants of Yugoslavia made Israel their home, being part of five waves of organized emigration that had left the country between 1948 and 1952. The chapter explores details about the cooperation between Yugoslavia and international Jewish organizations. Firstly, there were the perspectives and actions of the Yugoslav state: organized migration to Israel is considered an important push factor that has a greater impact than a traditional approach to

<sup>5</sup> Some thoughts on the background are important. The Yugoslav–Soviet Split was the result of the conflict between political leaderships; Yugoslavia was led by Josip Broz Tito and the Soviet Union by Joseph Stalin. Both sides presented it as an ideological dispute; however, the conflict was as much the product of a geopolitical struggle in the Balkans that also involved Albania, Bulgaria, and the communist insurgency in Greece, which Tito's Yugoslavia supported and the Soviet Union secretly opposed (Banac, I. (1988) *With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism*. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press)..

The chapter discusses the different stages of Jewish people

**1**

Section 1

Critical Reflections

about Migration, Safety

Zones for Aylum Seekers,

and Children

## Section 1
