**2. Higher education teaching in the Ghanaian context**

Ghana has 180 higher education institutions (HEIs) out of which there are 99 public and 81 private universities [15]. Most of the public universities operate the collegiate system. According to NCTE, about 70% of students in the universities enroll to acquire a bachelor's degree, while about 22% pursue diploma programs mostly by the distance education mode. The enrolment in graduate programs (masters' and doctoral degrees) is, however, minimal, according to the NCTE.

Recruitment of teachers in Ghana's HEIs is mainly based on the acquisition of a terminal degree (usually a Ph.D.) and a satisfactory publication record. Recruited teachers serve on a contract basis, usually 6 years with the opportunity for renewal. The promotion criteria for teachers vary from university to university. However, for promotion purposes, the universities commonly emphasize teaching, research, scholarly work (publications), and community service. After recruitment, university teachers in Ghana normally begin as Lecturers and may rise to Senior Lecturer, Associate Professor up to Professor. With regard to reporting lines, teachers and students are directly managed by Heads of Departments (HODs). The HOD's are also supervised by Deans who manage Schools or Faculties. The Deans also report Provosts of Colleges in the collegiate system or directly to Pro Vice-Chancellors who also reports to Vice-Chancellors. The Vice-Chancellors are ultimately answerable to University Councils.

### **3. Review of the literature**

#### **3.1 Theoretical framework: Roger's diffusion of innovation (DoN) theory**

Roger's [16] innovation-decision activities vividly define a framework on how people choose to accept or reject a particular technology. The four key ingredients in the framework depicted in **Figure 1** concern innovation, communication, the context of the social system, and time. The four key components interrelate to describe how a person's adoption represents diffusion. Beyond these components, Casmar [17] identified five critical characteristics of adoption decisions. These include the relative merits associated with the adoption of the technology (relative advantage), the complex nature of the technology (complexity), ability to access and try the technology (triability), the availability and visibility of the technology (observability), and compatibility [18].

#### **3.2 Digital technology tools used in higher education teaching context around the globe**

Chevers and Whyte [19], Shelton [20], and Tondeur et al. [21] argued that the most frequently applied technology in teaching and learning are projectors and laptops/computers for presentation. According to Farmery [22], most instructors integrate blogs, wikis, and podcasts in teaching and learning. Amory [23], Bagheri et al. [24], Bates and Sangra [25], and Cheung and Slavin [26] also reported that instructional technologies would modify how learners and instructors collect and gather information and collaborate.

Makewa et al.'s [27] study on instructor's competence in integrating digital technologies into teaching and learning found that majority of the study participants

**Figure 1.** *Adoption decisions. Source: [16].*

disagreed with being knowledgeable in applying online technology tools such as the podcast, wikis, and blogs. Besides, Montrieux et al.'s [28] qualitative study revealed that mobile tools such as mobile quizzes, blogs, and podcasts were famous for their integration in classroom teaching and learning. However, lecturers tended to be more confident and knowledgeable in using projectors. Other researchers such as Makewa et al. [27], Shelton [20], and Farmery [22] also found projectors and computers as the most frequently used technology tools in teaching. For their part, Alkash and Al-Dersi [29], Rumble and Harry [30], and Rashid and Elahi [31] found that technology-related resources such as the Internet, e-mobile, and computers facilitate distance learning.

In another related research, Alqurashi [32] found that there was a statistically significant relationship between familiarity and proficiency in using digital technologies and integrating them in teaching. Kumar and Daniel's [33] comparative study on the technology integration into instructional delivery at Fijian further established that 36.67% of the studied population indicated they were knowledgeable and skillful in incorporating digital technologies in teaching. In Fleischer's [34] view, integrating digital technology tools in teaching enhances students' creativity and inspires them to explore and learn new things independently. Fleischer's study found that teachers and students used laptops for academic work for long hours.

#### **3.3 Institutional challenges in the use of digital technology in teaching**

According to Bozkurt [35], the breakdown of technology devices and inadequate wireless services, limited time for integration in lessons, unreliable Internet speed, the lack of computers, and inadequate accessibility to technology tools for effective integration are some institutional factors affecting digital technology integration in teaching and learning.

Chertovskikh's [36] research also identified the following as barriers to technology integration: insufficient digital learning resources, insufficient pedagogical support, the lack of institutional policies for technology integration, insufficient technology equipment, poor connectivity, and insufficient technical support. In similar research, Adedokun-Shittu and Shittu [37] also found technical problems and constraints such as power failure, Internet interruption, and inadequate training for instructors as some of the critical challenges confronting technology integration in teaching and learning. Furthermore, Bagheri et al.'s [24] research rather found the challenges to include inadequate human resource capacity, low bandwidth for Internet connectivity, and poor penetration of technology in higher institutions.

*Improving Higher Education Instructional Delivery in the Developing World: The Role… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100546*

#### **3.4 Summarizing the literature and locating the gaps**

Thus far, the literature reviewed highlighted the fact that there was scholarly information on various digital technology tools integrated into teaching in higher education institutions. It also revealed the fact that there were challenges confronting digital leaders in using the technologies in teaching. Conspicuously missing, however, was information on which of the digital technology tools were commonly used in the developing world, and whether or not they effectively promoted academic work. This was the gap this research intended to fill.
