Control Mechanism of Breast Milk

### **Chapter 6**

## Compare the Effects of Ultrasound versus Taping in Lactating Mothers with Breast Engorgement

*Dasarapu Indrani, Jagatheesan Alagesan, Prathap Suganthirababu, M.V. Sowmya and Dubba NagaRaju*

### **Abstract**

Human milk has hundreds of milk proteins, which provides many benefits on breastfeeding. Breastfeeding is a mother's gift to herself, her baby, and the earth, there is no substitute for mother's milk. Milk protein is most important for baby's growth, development and protects the baby from different illness. Colostrum is produced during early days immediately after child birth, which contains important nutrients and antibodies. Breast engorgement is a problem that is commonly encountered in breastfeeding mothers, which is to be addressed and treated to provide good milk proteins to baby, by relieving discomforts of lactating mothers. A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 30 subjects based on inclusion and exclusion criteria where the subjects are divided into two groups, which contain 15 lactating mothers in each group. The control group that is group-A was treated with ultrasound, and the experimental group that is group-B was treated with ultrasound and Taping Technique. The result of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the preand posttest intervention, and we conclude that the ultrasound therapy and Kinesio taping was effective in treating lactating mothers with breast engorgement.

**Keywords:** milk protein, Lactating mothers, engorgement, VAS, SPES, ultrasound, taping, breastfeeding

### **1. Introduction**

Milk protein is most important for baby's growth, development and protects the baby from different illness. Whey proteins and Casein proteins are two types of proteins in breast milk; whey proteins contain antibodies, lactoferrin and lysozyme, which protect baby from infection and are easy to digest. Casein proteins are harder to digest with more complex molecules. Colostrum is produced during early days immediately after child birth, which contains important nutrients and antibodies [1]. During early stages, lactating mothers may produce small quantity of colostrum; later milk production will be increased to the maximum, which makes the breast fuller and firmer causing increased blood flow and lymph fluids [2] to the breast tissue. If baby is not fed properly or any problem in lactating, the breast milk is stored,

and some mothers may face problems related to over production of milk; all these components make the breast heavy and later turns to very hard as rock, this uncomfortable condition is known as breast engorgement. Breast engorgement problem [3] should be addressed because if it is left untreated, that may lead to serious issues [4], and in future it may result in painful blebs, and plugged milk ducts may also lead to mastitis. Without the knowledge of identification, many lactating mothers are suffering with breast engorgement [5]. Severe engorgement may also rise body temperature around 99–100 degree F, and this rise in body temperature is termed as "Milk fever." According to Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol Committee, breast engorgement is defined as "the swelling and distension of the breasts" [6]. Sometime engorgement results due to interrupted or infrequent or delayed milk from breast [7, 8]; this kind of problems may place the mother at high risk of engorgement [9], causing unhealthy growth and development of the infant. The infant may not get the required milk protein if the mother is facing problems of engorgement. This problem should definitely bring to the notice, which is troubling to both mother and infant where its incidence in the world is 1:8000 and in India is 1:6500. According to NFHS [10], painful breast problems are the most common reason for giving up breastfeeding. Treatment for breast engorgement can prevent future breast-related complication and also helps the baby to get proper milk proteins, which helps in proper growth and development of the baby. It is a major issue in early postpartum period as the breast under the influence of hormonal shift increased milk production rapidly. Interventions such as ultrasound therapy [11–14] application of hot moist [15], gentle massage [16] before feeding are beneficial. Through, Kinesio taping at the engorgement area, it decreases the inflammation, pain and improves circulation and lymphatic drainage. Hence, this study was to determine whether taping offers any advantage over ultrasound.

### **2. Methods**

An experimental study was conducted on 30 subjects using convenient sampling technique based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Lactating mothers with breast engorgement and pain for at least 2–3 days in postpartum period between 20 and 35 years of age were included in the study. Non-lactating women, pregnant women, lactating mothers with soft breast, lactating mothers receiving lactating suppressants, and lactating mothers with breast abscess, breast infection, mastitis, broken skin of the breast, bleeding or cracked nipple were excluded from the study. After receiving informed consent from the subjects, detailed explanation of the study is provided to them. All the information related to outcome measures, i.e., Six-Point Self-rated Engorgement Scale (SPES) [17] and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), is given in **Figures 1** and **2**.

In this study, 30 subjects were divided into two groups, group-A and group-B. Fifteen subjects were allotted in each group. Pain parameter was measured with visual analogue scale in both groups before and after the treatment. Functional evaluation of both the groups was done with six-point self-rated engorgement scale before and after the treatment. Both the parameters were measured first day and after 1 week of treatment procedure. All the subjects received their treatment at the outpatient department of Saveetha College of Physiotherapy, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai. Every subject followed the treatment for required period of 1 week.

Group-A: Fifteen subjects were treated with ultrasound for 1 week. The subjects were made to lie in supine with the arm of the treated side placed behind the head.

*Compare the Effects of Ultrasound versus Taping in Lactating Mothers with Breast Engorgement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102359*

**Figure 1.**

*Six-point self-rated engorgement scale.*

*Visual analogue scale.*

A continuous mode of therapeutic ultrasound was given using ultrasound transmission gel as the coupling agent, with the intensity of 1 W/cm<sup>2</sup> and frequency of 1MHZ passing the head of the ultrasound firmly over the breast from the periphery toward the areola, lightly back to the chest, and firmly down again to the areola, gradually working around the breast for 8 minutes.

Group-B: To the next 15 patients, continuous mode of therapeutic ultrasound was given using ultrasound transmission gel as the coupling agent, with the intensity of 1 W cm<sup>2</sup> and frequency of 1MHZ passing the head of the ultrasound firmly over the breast from the periphery toward the areola, lightly back to the chest, and firmly down again to the areola, gradually working around the breast for 8 min, then subjects are treated with the taping techniques by using Kinesio tape (KT). Breast was exposed to clean with wet cotton dipped in water and breast is allowed to dry for few seconds and after drying, two pieces of tape which was about 7–9 inches, were taken. Seven to nine inches of tape was further cut into five strips equally. Taping was done with minimal stretch of 10–5% without extra tension by avoiding axilla with an anchoring base and rounded corners. Patients were instructed to wear the tape for 42–72 hours and also instructed to remove the tape prior to the prescribed time only if any skin irritation occurs. At the day 3 follow-up, the skin was inspected and assessed their primary outcome measures and then taped with the same technique used previously for 1 week. After the end of 1 week post Visual Analogue Scale and Six-Point self-rated Engorgement Scale were taken, and results are analyzed.

### **3. Results**

Database was statistically analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics; mean and standard deviation were estimated using paired and independent t test. Paired t test was used to compare data sets within the groups, and independent t test was used to compare the data sets between the groups (**Tables 1**–**4**).

Age distribution:

The average age of the subjects in group-A was 25.05 ± 2.04 years and in group-B was 25.25 ±.

1.82 years. There was no significant difference between the mean ages of the subjects in both the groups

Pre-test and post-test values of SPES and VAS of subjects in group A. The pre-test mean value of SPES was 4.53, and post-test mean value was 1.20. This shows that the


### **Table 1.**

*Mean age distribution.*


### **Table 2.**

*Comparison of pre-test and post-test values of SPES and VAS in group-A.*


### **Table 3.**

*Comparison of pre-test and post-test values of SPES and VAS in Group-B.*


### **Table 4.**

*Comparison of post-test values of SPES and VAS in groups A and B.*

*Compare the Effects of Ultrasound versus Taping in Lactating Mothers with Breast Engorgement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102359*

SPES was gradually decreasing significantly at p < 0.0001. The pre-test mean value of VAS was 7.0, and post-test mean value was 1.80.This shows that the VAS scores were gradually decreasing significantly at p < 0.0001.

Pre-test and post-test values of SPES and VAS of subjects in group-B. The pre-test mean value of SPES was 4.73, and post-test mean value was 1.00.This shows that the SPES scores were gradually decreasing significantly at p < 0.0001.The pre-test mean value of VAS was 7.00, and post-test mean value was 1.40.This shows that the VAS scores were gradually decreasing significantly at p < 0.0001.

Post-test values of SPES and VAS of subjects in group-A and group-B. The posttest mean value of SPES in group-A was 1.20, and post-test mean value of SPES in group-B was 1.00.This shows group-B has greater improvement in reduction of engorgement than group A with the p value (0.0001). The post-test mean value of VAS in group-A was 1.80, and post-test mean value of VAS of group-B was 1.40.This shows group-B has greater improvement in reduction of pain than group-A with the p value (0.0001).

Quantitative data analysis revealed that there is a significant difference between group A and B and within the groups. SPES post-test mean value in group-A was 1.20, and in group-B was 1.00. SPES Scores in group-B were comparatively lesser than those of group-A, p < 0.0001. The post-test mean value of VAS in group-A was 1.80, and post-test mean value of VAS in group-B was 1.40. This shows VAS scores in group-B were comparatively lesser than those in group-A, p < 0.0001.Statistical analysis of post-test for pain and engorgement revealed that subjects who received ultrasound and taping in group-B showed marked improvement compared with patients who received only ultrasound in group-A.

### **4. Discussion**

Milk proteins are very essential for the baby in the early age of life; breast engorgement is a condition that troubles the baby as well as the mother by creating difficulties in breastfeeding, which is considered as second most problem affecting the lactation. To provide milk proteins and nutrients to the child, breast engorgement has to be treated in lactating mothers. So this study was designed to compare the effect of ultrasound and taping in lactating mothers with breast engorgement, with the help of ultrasound and taping technique, which reduces pain, engorgement and also prevents further complications. Reduction of engorgement helps the mother to feed her child and to provide proper milk proteins to the child. Breast milk is most important for the babies to get benefits of milk proteins. Breastfeeding plays an important role in reproductive age of women and beneficial for mother and child as well [18]. Breastfeeding is a physiological process, and it has to be encouraged; numerous studies demonstrate the importance of breastfeeding in providing protection against various diseases and decreasing the incidence of infant morbidity and mortality [19]. "All health professional groups support breastfeeding as the ideal way to nourish an infant, but numerous surveys have shown that, in general, even perinatal health professionals are not prepared to provide lactation management as part of routine care" [12]. Ultrasound helps the tissue to heal more effectively as it gives: 1) essential micromassage for individual cells, 2) increases cellular activity, and 3) responsible for the effect of therapeutic benefits. Ultrasound frequency was selected based on the depth of the tissue to be treated. The depth of ultrasound penetration was usually described in terms of half-value depth for the specific ultrasound frequency. Through, Kinesio taping at the

engorgement area, it decreases the inflammation, pain and improves circulation and lymphatic drainage. In recent years, the use of Kinesio Tape (KT) has become increasingly popular. KT has same thickness as the epidermis in the skin when stretched to 30–40% of its resting length longitudinally, which is suitable to human skin, and was designed to mimic the qualities of human skin. It has roughly the same thickness as the epidermis and stretched between 30% and 40% of its resting length longitudinally. Kenzo Kase [20] proposed many benefits of Kinesio taping, which depends on the stretch applied during taping. It provides positional stimulus, creates sensory stimulation to limit motion, and removes edema. It is latex-free,heat-activated, and 100% cotton fiber helps to dry quickly. The purpose of our study was to investigate whether KT has an effect on breast engorgement in breastfeeding mothers during the postpartum period and also to help lactating mothers in providing proper milk proteins to the infant. We hypothesized that breastfeeding mothers would experience a decrease in breast engorgement by using the KT method, which helps in lactation and also provides milk proteins to the baby. Hence, the present study was undertaken with an intention to compare the effect of ultrasound therapy with Kinesio taping in lactating mothers. The result of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the pre- and post-test intervention.

### **5. Conclusion**

In this study by comparing the effects of ultrasound versus taping in lactating mothers with breast engorgement, the result of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the pre- and post-test intervention. Both the groups resulted in positive outcomes, but group-B with ultrasound and Kinesio taping showed a higher level of positive outcome in terms of decreasing pain and engorgement, when compared with group-A with ultrasound among lactating mothers. The study concluded that ultrasound and Kinesio taping help in reducing pain and engorgement, which helps the mother to provide proper lactation, which in turn helps the baby to get proper milk proteins without delaying the feeding.

*Compare the Effects of Ultrasound versus Taping in Lactating Mothers with Breast Engorgement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102359*

### **Author details**

Dasarapu Indrani1 \*, Jagatheesan Alagesan2 , Prathap Suganthirababu<sup>2</sup> , M.V. Sowmya2 and Dubba NagaRaju3

1 Urology and Obstetrics, Saveetha College of Physiotherapy, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, India

2 Saveetha College of Physiotherapy, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, India

3 NRI College of Physiotherapy, Andhra Pradesh, India

\*Address all correspondence to: indranidasarapu@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[2] Newton M, Newton NR. Postpartum engorgement of the breast. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1951;**61**(3):664-667

[3] Hill PD, Humenick SS. The occurrence of breast engorgement. Journal of Human Lactation. 1994;**10**(2):79-86

[4] Hewat RJ, Ellis DJ. A comparison of the effectiveness of two methods of nipple care. Birth. 1987;**14**(1):41-45

[5] Humenick SS, Hill PD, Anderson MA. Breast engorgement: Patterns and selected outcomes. Journal of Human Lactation. 1994;**10**(2):87-93

[6] Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol Committee, Eglash A. ABM clinical protocol#8:human milk storage information for home use for full-term infants (original protocol March 2004; revision#1 March 2010). Breastfeeding Medicine. 2010;**5**(3):127-130

[7] Lee WT, Lui SS, Chan V, Wong E, Lau J. A population-based survey on infant feeding practice (0-2 years) in Hong Kong: Breastfeeding rate and patterns among 3,161 infants below 6 months old. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2006;**15**(3):377-387

[8] Priyanka P et al. Comparative effect of ultrasound therapy with conventional therapy on breast engorgement in immediate post-partum mothers. Integrative Molecular Medicine. 2016; **3**(2):553-558

[9] Arora S, Vatsa M, Dadhwal V. A comparison of cabbage leaves vs. hot and cold compresses in the treatment of breast engorgement. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 2008;**33**(3):160

[10] Sagar K. Engorgement of breastpotential problem in lactation. Nightingale Nursing Times. 2004; **1**(5):17-21

[11] Mclachlan Z et al. Ultrasound threatment for breast engorgement: A randomized double blind trial. The Australian Journal of Physiotherapy. 1991;**37**(1):23-28

[12] Manna M, Devis PL. Effectiveness of hot fomentation versus cold compression on breast engorgement among postnatal mothers. International Journal of Nursing Research and Practice. 2016; **33**(3):160-123

[13] Mangesi L, Dowswell T. Treatments for breast engorgement during lactation (Review). The Cochrane Library. 2010;**9**:CD006946

[14] Newton M, Newton N. Postpartum engorgement of the breast. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 1951;**61**:664-666

[15] Snowden HM et al. Treatment for breast engorgement during lactating. Cochrane Database Systematic Review. 2007;**2**:CD000046

[16] Öztürk G, Külcü DG, Mesci N, Şilte AD, Aydog E. Efficacy of kinesio tape application on pain and muscle strength in patients with myofascial pain syndrome: A placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2016;**28**(4):1074-1079

*Compare the Effects of Ultrasound versus Taping in Lactating Mothers with Breast Engorgement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102359*

[17] Del Ciampo LA, Del Ciampo IR. Breastfeeding and the Benefits of Lactation for Women's Health. Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia/RBGO Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2018;**40**(06):354-359

[18] Kacew S. Current issues in lactation: advantages, environment, silicone. Biomedical and environmental sciences: BES. 1994;**7**(4):307-319

[19] Naylor AJ, Creer AE, Woodward-Lopez G, Dixon S. Lactation management education for physicians. In Seminars in Perinatology. 1994;**18**(6):525-531

[20] Tantawy SA, Kamel DM. The effect of kinesio taping with exercise compared with exercise alone on pain, range of motion, and disability of the shoulder in postmastectomy females: A randomized control trial. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2016;**28**(12):3300-3305

Section 6

## The Colostrum and Milk

### **Chapter 7** Colostrum and Milk in Sow

*Morakot Nuntapaitoon*

### **Abstract**

Both colostrum and milk quality and quantity can influence piglet survival and growth, especially in a highly prolific sow. The Danish Landrace Yorkshire crossbred was selected for high prolificacy and challenged to provide enough colostrum and milk of high quality to all piglets. This chapter reviewed the mechanism of colostrum and milk production, basic information of colostrum, and milk quality (immunoglobulin, fat, protein, lactose, etc.) and quantity. The importance of colostrum and milk in modern sows on piglet performance and survival was addressed. Since the sow immunoglobulin cannot pass epitheliochorial placenta in the sow to the piglet's bloodstream. Therefore, colostrum is a crucial role in piglet survival and growth. However, the amount of colostrum and milk production in hyperprolific sow still improve from high litter size. The knowledge about the factors influencing colostrum and milk quality and quantity, such as parity number, piglet, the environment in hyperprolific sows, may support veterinarians and farmers in the commercial swine farms for increasing pig production. Moreover, the technique to improve colostrum and milk quality and quantity were explained, such as feed supplementation in gestating and lactating sows.

**Keywords:** colostrum, milk, quality, quality, sow, how

### **1. Introduction**

Colostrum and milk are important sources of energy in newborn and pre-weaning piglets. Milk secretion in sow was classified into three parts, including colostrum, transient milk and mature milk depending on composition in each period. Colostrum is the first secretion after farrowing until 24 hours after the first piglet is born [1]. Colostrum plays an important role in the survival and growth of piglets [2]. Colostrum composition includes nutrient, growth factors, hormone, and immune cells that relate to thermoregulation, growth, and contributing to intestinal development and glucose regulation. The transitional milk is a secretion from 34 hours after birth to day 4 of lactation, which was a high-fat concentration [3]. Mature milk is released during day 10 of lactation until weaning because milk composition is relatively stable [4]. Therefore, transition milk and mututre milk play in the piglet's growth and related both pre and post weaning performances. This chapter illustrates the importance, production, and composition of colostrum and milk in sow and their factors.

#### **Figure 1.**

*Progress of the swine genetic improvement in Denmark during 1996–2017 total number of piglets per litter (Total number of piglets per litter: total born; number of born alive piglets per litter: Born alive; number of weaned piglets per litter: Weaned (modified from Observatori del porcí [6] and Hansen [7].*

### **2. The important role of colostrum and milk**

Colostrum and milk play an important role in piglet survival and growth during the lactation period. In the last decade, goal of genetic improvement in swine is to increase the total number of piglets per litter [5]. The total number of piglets per litter in Denmark in 1996–2017 rapidly increased from 13.0 to 18.7 piglet/litter or increasing 5.7 piglets/litter over the past 21 years (**Figure 1**). On the other hand, 50–80% of piglet mortality occurs during the first week after farrowing, especially in the first 72 hours of life [8–10]. In general, newborn piglets have glycogen storage in the liver and muscle for maintenance of the body, temperature, and energy for movement to consume colostrum after birth [11]. The glycogen rapidly declined within 12 to 17 h after birth when piglets have low colostrum consumption [12]. Therefore, it has been demonstrated that early mortality is mainly since a low colostrum consumption [13]. Furthermore, the relationship among colostrum consumption, mortality, and growth at weaning was reported in the previous study. Piglets consumed colostrum less than 400 g had a lower average daily gain than piglets consumed colostrum more than 400 g by 43 gram/day and higher mortality by 10 times [2].

Milk is a nutrient that most affected piglet growth during the suckling period. Milk supplementation in piglets improved growth performance that was reported in many studies [14, 15]. However, most of hyperprolific sows are low milk production, especially in tropical climates [4, 16]. Therefore, management to improve milk production in the lactation period should be concerned in commercial swine farms.

### **3. Mechanism of colostrum and milk production**

Colostrum and milk were produced from the mammary gland of the sows that were developed from the embryo until entry to puberty and gestation. The mammary gland between birth and puberty was isometric growth and rapidly developing called

*Colostrum and Milk in Sow DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102890*

**Figure 2.** *Mammary gland development from birth until weaning.*

"allometric growth" after the onset of puberty, gestation, and lactation (**Figure 2**). The mammary gland between puberty and pregnancy was provided by hormones for complete development, for example, growth hormone, prolactin, and estrogen.

In the mid of gestation, the mammary gland developed called "Lactogenesis I," which mainly developed duct and mammary gland by IGF-1 stimulation. The IGF-1 stimulates cortisol hormone from the adrenal gland and prolactin hormone from the placenta for inducing milk production. Completed alveolar development in the sows takes place during the last trimester of gestation called "Lactogenesis II" [17]. Prolactin induced lactoalbumin for producing lactose synthetase enzymes that were used for colostrum production. Colostrum was started to produced and kelp in the parenchyma tissue. Almost all colostrum is produced before the piglet is born and is independent of the suckling piglet activities [18]. However, the last week of gestation is crucial for colostrum production.

Most of the colostrum is secreted during the first 12 to 16 h after the onset of farrowing and decreases after 16 h onwards. Transient milk begins to produce during 24–34 h after the onset of farrowing within Lactogenesis II. The colostrum slowly changed to transient milk in this period. The stage of Lactogenesis II was finished within 1–2 days after farrowing. The transient milk slowly changed to mature milk on day 10 of lactation. After the colostrum period, milk secretion depended on the piglet's suckling activities to maintain milk secretion until weaning called "galactopoiesis." Galactokinesis or milk ejection is the active transfer of milk from the parenchyma to teats by suckling or other sensory activation (auditory, tactile, and visual). All activation stimulates oxytocin from the hypothalamus. Oxytocin is secreted into the blood and to the myoepithelial cell within the mammary gland leading to milk injection.

### **4. Calculation of colostrum and milk yields**

The colostrum and milk yields represent the amount of colostrum and milk that were removed by piglets in the litter. Because yield was calculated from the sum of colostrum/milk intake of piglets. At present, there is no direct method to quantify both colostrum and milk yields.

Colostrum and milk yields measurement can be calculated from the indirect method, for example, the weigh-suckle-weigh method and predicted equations Devillers et al. [19]; Theil et al. [20, 21]; Hansen et al. [22]. See below.

### **4.1 Devillers et al.**

Colostrum consumption (g) = 217.4 + 0.217 t + 1,861,019 BW24/t + BWB (54.80–1,861,019/t) (0.9985–3.7\*10<sup>4</sup> tfs + 6.1\*10<sup>7</sup> tfs<sup>2</sup> ).

### **4.2 Theil et al.**

Colostrum consumption (g) = 106 + 2:26 WG + 200 BWB + 0: 111 D – 1414 WG/D+ 0.0182 WG/ BWB.

where t or D is time (min) elapsed between the 1st and 2nd weighting (which defines duration of colostrum consumption).

BW24 is body weight at 24 h (kg).

BWB is birth weight (kg).

Tfs is the interval between birth and the first suckling (min).

WG is body weight gain between the 1st and 2nd weighting (g).

The predicted colostrum equation by Devillers et al. [19] was measured using bottle-fed-piglets but by Theil et al. [20] was measured using the deuterated water dilution technique. The previous study demonstrated that the predicted colostrum equation by Devillers et al. [19] was 43% lower than by Theil et al. [20] [3]. In line with this, according to the formula by Devillers et al. [19], a previous study demonstrated that piglets with the colostrum less than 200 g or 180 g/kg of birth weight have a high chance of mortality [1]. The piglets should be consuming 250 g of colostrum for survival and high growth performance, whereas Nuntapaitoon et al. [2] recommended that 200–400 g of colostrum should be provided in all piglets for decreasing mortality based on the formula by Theil et al. (**Figure 3**) [20].

Milk yield was also estimated by using the deuterated water dilution technique [21] and summarized data from many previous studies for generating predicted equation [22, 23]. For the latest equation, litter size and weight gain have to be included in the formula.

### **Figure 3.**

*Influence of colostrum consumption (g) on preweaning mortality in a commercial swine herd in a tropical climate calculated by Theil et al. [20]. Different superscript letters indicate significant differences (*P *< 0.05) [2].*

### **5. Colostrum and milk yields**

Amount of colostrum and milk yields were reported in many studies. The colostrum yield ranged 1.7–10.5 kg, and the colostrum consumption was 426 g piglet under tropical climate [2, 4, 24, 25]. The frequency distribution of individual colostrum consumption and colostrum yield in a commercial swine herd in Thailand was presented in **Figures 4** and **5**. On the other hand, range colostrum yield was 3.3–6.0 kg [4, 26–28].

Colostrum continuously releases during the colostral period. On the other hand, milk is released every 30–50 min and spends time 10–15 sec [29]. In general, milk yield in the first 4 days means 8 kg/day and the peak of lactation at 17 days was 15 kg/ day [22, 23]. The milk yield ranged 3.9–17.2 kg/day in Danish Landrace Yorkshire crossbred sows reared in a commercial swine herd in Thailand. The frequency distribution of milk yield is presented in **Figure 6**. On the other hand, the range of milk yield was 5–15 kg/day [3, 30]. In line with this, colostrum and milk production in sows

**Figure 4.** *Frequency distribution of individual colostrum consumption (g) in a commercial swine herd in Thailand [2].*

**Figure 5.** *Frequency distribution of individual colostrum yield (kg) in a commercial swine herd in Thailand [4].*

**Figure 6.**

*Frequency distribution of (a) milk yield on days 3–10 and (b) days 10–17 of lactation from 105 Danish landrace Yorkshire crossbred sows reared in a commercial swine herd in Thailand [4].*

are highly variable due to differences in breed, nutrition, sows, litter and farrowing characteristics, hormonal status, and environmental factors [20, 28, 31, 32]. The high temperatures in tropical climates may result in decreased blood supply to the mammary epithelium that produces colostrum and milk and increased stress in the sows. Knowledge regarding the impact of temperature on mammary blood flow and colostrum and milk production is currently lacking.

### **6. Colostrum and milk composition**

The main compositions of colostrum and milk include fat, protein, lactose, vitamin, mineral, and dry matter. Moreover, bioactive molecules, such as immunoglobulins, growth factors, and enzymes, are also included in milk secretion. It is important for the survival of the newborn piglet and the proper development of organs, such as


### **Table 1.**

*Colostrum and milk in Danish landrace Yorkshire crossbred sows reared in a commercial swine herd in Thailand.*

the gastrointestinal tract and brain. The main compositions of colostrum differ from milk (**Table 1**).

The chemical composition of colostrum (day 0), transition milk (day 3), and mature milk (day 10 and 17) is very different in hyperprolific sow. Lactose concentration gradually increases from 2.8 g/100 g in colostrum to 4.3 g/100 g in transition milk and 4.9 g/100 g in milk. Lactose is the main energy source for piglets throughout the lactation period. Moreover, lactose is rapidly absorbed and is related to the yield because of the structure and major osmotic characteristics of colostrum and milk [33].

Lipids were lowest in the colostrum period (4.9 g/100 g). It rapidly increases in the transition period (7.1 g/100 g) and is stable in mature milk (6.1 g/ 100 g). Fat also plays an important role to provide energy, increase metabolism, and protect the newborn against microbial infections. Many studies have analyzed fatty acids in various biological samples, such as plasma, milk, urine, and tissue samples, using a variety of analytical strategies. Analytical tools including gas-chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas-chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID), and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) have been used to perform fatty acid analyses [34]. The data from our team, a total of 31 free fatty acids in colostrum and milk of hyperprolific sows reared in a tropical climate, was presented in **Table 2** (unpublish data). It was found that free fatty acids in colostrum and milk are very different.

The most important in colostrum is immunity. Immunoglobulins as protein components in colostrum are important for piglets to prevent disease and reduce mortality. Colostrum contains six times immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG, and IgM) compared with milk. The concentration of IgG is rapidly declined by nearly 30% within 6 h after birth [35, 36] (**Figure 7**), while IgA slightly decrease. IgA is important for the protection of the gastrointestinal tract and plays a key role in preventing early diarrhea. The neonatal piglets have high morbidity from *Escherichia coli* and *Clostridium perfringens* infection [37] and lead to death in the first weeks of farrowing.

### **7. Factor influencing colostrum and milk yields and composition**

Nutritional status in the gestation period highly influences colostrum and milk production in sows [3, 38]. Mammogenesis is started at 85–109 days of gestation [39].


#### **Table 2.**

*The macrochemical composition and fatty acid profile in colostrum (day 0) and milk (day 3 and 17 of lactation).*

**Figure 7.** *The immunoglobulin concentration in sow colostrum throughout lactation period [35].*

In this time, sow required more energy for developing mammary gland and also increase insulin resistance, especially in fat sows [40]. High insulin resistance presents high glucose level that passes through the mammary gland, leading to increased colostrum production. Many previous studies found that backfat thickness during late gestation influenced colostrum and milk production [24, 26]. They found that lowbackfat thickness sows at 109 days of gestation had low milk production. The regression analyses revealed that an increase of backfat thickness by 1.0 mm at day 109 of gestation resulted in an increased milk yield of sows between 3 and 10 days of 271 g per day [24]. Recently, body weight at birth, cumulative birth interval, and litter size were significant risk factors affecting piglet colostrum consumption [41]. Furthermore, Nuntapaitoon et al. [4] found that sow parity number 2–4 had a higher colostrum yield than sow parity number 1 (**Table 3**).

The litter size increased milk production for stimulating the mammary gland by piglet [42]. **Figure 8** illustrated that high litter size is positively associated with milk production. However, high litter size declined individual colostrum consumption. In addition, piglet factors are also related to colostrum consumption [2, 41, 43]. They found that high piglet birth weight has high colostrum consumption and high suckling performance that stimulate milk production, especially in the first 3 days of lactation [44].

Sow parity number is the main association between production and composition. Multiparous sows have higher milk production than primiparous sows [4, 45]. The sow parity number 2–4 had the highest milk production and increased from first parity by 35% [45]. In contrast, Nuntapaitoon et al. [4] found that no evidence of parity differences was observed on milk yield.

Sow parity number has negatively correlated with fatty acid profiles in colostrum, which refers to metabolic status in sows [46]. The PLS-DA in **Figure 9a** shows the influence of parity number on the overall fatty acid profiles of colostrum. It has been demonstrated that significant dynamics in the fatty acid compositions of sow colostrum are in association with parity number. Moreover, high relative abundances of palmitic acid, eicosatrienoic acid, cis-10-heptadecanoic acid, capric acid, lignoceric


*a, b Different superscript letters within rows indicate significant differences (*P *< 0.05). \*Greatest standard error of the mean (SEM).*

*Nuntapaitoon et al. [4].*

### **Table 3.**

*Effect of parity on colostrum yield and chemical composition of colostrum in Danish landrace Yorkshire crossbred sows.*

**Figure 8.** *Sow milk production in different litter sizes (modified by [42]).*

acid, and lauric acid were accountable for the discrimination of colostrum from sows with higher parity numbers (**Figure 9b**). The high level of fatty acid profile in sow colostrum is related to the negative energy balance of sows. The stearic acid and palmitic acid have been related to negative energy balance periods, as animals mobilize adipose tissue for energy and related with colostrum production [47, 48], as in primiparous sows.

The concentration of immunoglobulin in colostrum depends on the management, the physiology of the mammary gland, parity, vaccination, and nutritional status [20, 28, 49]. In tropical climates, the variation of immunoglobulin concentration in the sow colostrum was influenced by their parity number and housing conditions [36]. The concentration of IgG in primiparous sows was lower than that in multiparous sows. Moreover, sow reared in a conventional open-housing system had a higher colostral IgG concentration than in an evaporative cooling-housing system. On the other hand, Zhao et al. [50] reported housing conditions did not relate to IgG concentration in colostrum. Therefore, factors influencing colostrum IgG concentration should be investigated in further study.

### **Figure 9.**

*PLS-DA score plot for an overall comparison of fatty acid profiles among representative colostrum samples from sows with parity number 1 (red), 2–6 (green), and* ≥ *7 (blue) (panel A). VIP scores higher than 1.0 indicate potential biomarker fatty acids accountable for the discrimination among colostrum samples from different parity numbers (panel B) [46].*

### **8. Technique for increasing colostrum and milk yield**

The increasing feed intake and appetite in late gestating and lactating sow enhanced colostrum and milk production. Sow fed ad libitum in 7 days postpartum has higher milk production than in before farrowing [51]. Moreover, sow with appropriate condition before farrowing and peak of lactation related colostrum and milk production [18]. Therefore, many studies revealed the effect of feed additive and nutritional supplementation on colostrum and milk production many years ago. Protein supplementation in late-gestating sows improved colostrum production [52, 53]. They demonstrated that fermented potatoes protein increased colostrum yield, individual colostrum consumption in primiparous sows, and piglet birth weight and weight during the suckling in all sows period. It is illustrated that primiparous sows must be improved feed intake for colostrum production and fetal growth in the late gestation period. Increasing dietary protein at 135 g/day during lactation increased milk yield and milk protein concentration [54, 55].

Dietary fatty acid from different sources increases the amount of colostrum. Conjugated linoleic acids supplementation in late-gestating sow until farrowing increase +60 g of individual colostrum consumption [56]. Moreover, Flummer and Theil [57] found that supplementation of leucine increased colostrum consumption, increased growth rate, and decreased piglet mortality.

Fiber supplementation in late-gestating sow enhanced serum short-chain fatty acid in sow [22, 23]. The short-chain fatty acid is the source of milk production [18]. Quesnel et al. [58] reported that sows fed a high fiber diet from day 26 of gestation to farrowing had higher milk production than sows fed a low fiber diet. Loisel et al. [59] reported that fiber supplementation from 92 days of gestation to farrowing had increased colostrum production. However, Krogh et al. [60] compared different sources of fiber and fat during gestation on colostrum yield, that is, sugar beet pulp, alfalfa meal, and a combination of palm fatty acid distillate, soybean oil, and

trioctanoate from day 105 of gestation. Different sources did not affect the colostrum yields of sow.

Generally, prostaglandin F2α was used for inducing farrowing in pregnancy sow and was also applied after parturition for reducing postpartum discharge and may affect colostrum and milk production. Milk synthesis collaborated hormones during parturition that declined progesterone and increased prolactin, estrogen, and corticosteroids. Luteolytic substance decreased serum progesterone concentration and increased prolactin, estrogen, and corticosteroids within 1 h after injection [33]. High concentration of progesterone declined milk synthesis [61]. Moreover, high progesterone levels in sow at the end of farrowing increase the risk of piglet diarrhea on the first day of life [62]. This is probably because declined colostrum production leads to low colostrum consumption and received low immunity. However, the previous studies demonstrated that farrowing induction did not affect colostrum production [25, 63–65] because colostrum is mostly produced before parturition at 85 days of gestation. On the other hand, recent research by Maneethong et al. [66] and Nuntapaitoon et al. [67] shows that natural prostaglandin F2α increased colostrum and milk production in the first week of lactation. The injected natural prostaglandin F2α after farrowing increased the milk yield between day 3 and 10 (**Figure 10**) [67]. In addition, prolonged farrowing duration declined colostrum yields [62]. In general, high litter size in hyperprolific sows increase farrowing duration. Piglet was born in prolonged farrowing time of sow highly chance hypoxia piglets and related colostrum consumption from high uterine contraction during peripartum period leading to decrease blood and oxygen supply to the piglets [4].

Furthermore, lactation management improved milk production. The sensory activation, such as auditory, also increased milk production and growth performance [68, 69]. The sow reared under temperature at 27–32°C has low milk production [70]. Farrowing pen easily assessed to mammary gland increased suckling behavior and milk production [71].

### **Figure 10.**

*The milk yield between days 3 and 10 in control and prostaglandin F2α group sows. A significant difference between a group at* P *< 0.001 [67].*

### **9. Technique for increasing colostrum and milk quality**

Increasing the fat content in the late gestational diet increase colostral fat. Kurachon et al. [72] found that protein supplementation in late-gestating sows increased colostral fat, especially in primiparous sows. Jackson et al. [73] reported that 10% corn oil supplementation during 100 days of gestation until farrowing increases colostrum fat. Moreover, Loisel et al. [59] and Krogh et al. [60] show that fiber supplementation in late gestation until farrowing increased the fat and lactose content of colostrum.

The effect of nutrition on the concentration of immunoglobulin in the colostrum was studied with particular attention to the increase in IgG intake. Dietary supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid in late gestation increased IgG, IgA, and IgM content in colostrum [74]. Moreover, Algae supplementation in sows at 107 days of gestation until weaning increased IgA concentrations and tended to increase IgG in colostrum. The Algae enhance protein and lysozyme in the sow and leading to increasing IgG concentrations in colostrum [75]. L-arginine supplementation in sow diet during late gestation increased immunoglobulin G concentration in colostrum. Nitric oxide synthase stimulates hormones and immune in sow that transfer to mammary tissue [76]. Dietary L-carnitine stimulated sow feed intake [77], and fat supplementation also enhanced milk fat and milk production [78]. Selenium plays an important role in colostrum and milk composition. The benefits of selenium improved versicular development in mammary tissue [79], immunoglobulin, and antioxidants in colostrum and milk [80, 81].

Moreover, many studies demonstrated that natural prostaglandin F2α increased IgG concentration in colostrum [66], and increased piglet survival and weaned weight [82–84] and was not negatively associated with sow reproductive performances [25, 64, 82]. However, Foisnet et al. [63] found that IgA concentration in colostrum declined when farrowing was induced by prostaglandin F2α. Recently, Taechamaeteekul et al. [65] illustrated that altrenogest in combination with double administrations of prostaglandin F2alpha did not affect colostral IgG. The benefits of prostaglandin F2α have not been clearly elucidated.

### **10. Conclusions**

The quality and quantity of colostrum and milk are crucial for survival and growth in the piglets, especially in high prolific sows. The amount of colostrum and milk production represent sow health and performance in lactation. High immunoglobulin concentration transfers from sow still goals for protecting piglets. Fat and lactose in milk secretion are related to growth performance. The knowledge of improving colostrum and milk production and composition is still lacking. The nutritional strategies to increases piglet survival are the main further research. However, management in the late gestation thought out lactation period (i.e., induce farrowing, vaacination program and environment) also impacts piglet performances in both pre-and postweaning periods.

*Milk Protein - New Research Approaches*

### **Author details**

Morakot Nuntapaitoon Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

\*Address all correspondence to: morakot.n@chula.ac.th

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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*Colostrum and Milk in Sow DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102890*

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Section 7

## High Ambient Temperature and Milk Protein Biosythesis

### **Chapter 8**

## Effects of High Ambient Temperature on Milk Protein Synthesis in Dairy Cows and Goats: Insights from the Molecular Mechanism Studies

*Sumpun Thammacharoen, Nungnuch Saipin, Thiet Nguyen and Narongsak Chaiyabutr*

### **Abstract**

Milk protein is well accepted for nutritional value compared with other sources of protein. Detailed understanding of the natural factors that can determine milk protein subcomponent (i.e., casein) not only fulfill the knowledge of protein synthesis but also provide the potential idea to improve milk quality. The variation in milk protein content from dairy cows and goats fed in tropical areas may determine the added value of milk from this region. Under prolonged high ambient temperature (HTa), dairy cows and goats are at the stage of heat stress. This physiological condition produces a negative effect on dairy cows and goats, i.e., food intake and milk yield. However, the higher milk protein content during summer is demonstrated in dairy goats in our condition. Likewise, an increase in heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) gene expression from mammary epithelium cells isolated from either *in vivo* (summer and winter periods) and *in vitro* conditions suggests the direct effect of HTa on mammary gland and perhaps on milk protein synthesis. The intracellular effect of Hsp70 on milk protein synthesis has been proposed in regard to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus protein transportation and with the subcomponent of casein micelle. The present information reveals the molecular mechanism of HTa on milk protein synthesis.

**Keywords:** ambient temperature, casein, heat stress, mammary gland, ruminant, season

### **1. Introduction**

High ambient temperature (HTa) is the natural environmental condition in the tropical area. Dairy animals fed in tropical countries are living under prolonged HTa conditions. A decrease in the lactation performance in dairy animals is one of the well-known effects of HTa [1–4]. In dairy cows, we have shown that the average daily milk yield (MY) from summer cows was 17% lower than from winter cows [4, 5]. The effect of HTa on MY was also consistent in dairy goats [6]. Although, a decrease in MY is the prominent negative effect of HTa, however, change in major milk composition from dairy animals during HTa exposure is not conclusive. The current chapter aims at showing the evidence that HTa has the potential to change milk protein in dairy goats fed under tropical areas. We first demonstrate the natural ambient condition. The effect of HTa on lactation performance and the mechanism has been informed. In addition to MY, the evidence of HTa effect on milk protein and the putative molecular mechanism of this phenomenon has also been proposed.

### **2. The current condition of high ambient temperature in Southeast Asia**

The tropical countries are the area that delimited between the tropic of Cancer in the north (23.43° S) and the tropic of Capricon in the south (23.43° S). Based on the seasonality of monthly air temperature and precipitation, the climatic classification of the mainland Southeast Asia countries including Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam are mainly the tropical savannah (Aw). In addition, the climatic classification of the maritime Southeast Asia countries including Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and Philippine is the tropical monsoon (Am). Due to the global warming effect, the temperature and humidity index (THI) which has been reported currently is approximately 10 degrees higher than that has been reported 30 years ago [7]. The current annual THI in the central of Thailand was approximately 85 [4]. The high value of THI in Thailand currently comes mainly from the high degree of ambient temperature (Ta) throughout the three main seasons. Interestingly, the difference in Ta between the highest level during the afternoon and the lowest level during the early morning is more than 10°C (**Figure 1**). This Ta difference (Ta-diff) is mainly the environmental condition influencing the lactation performance and perhaps the direct effect of temperature on mammary gland function [6].

### **3. The HTa effect on physiological responses and milk yield**

The effect of HTa on whole-body responses and MY should be considered before discussing the HTa effect on milk protein synthesis. Dairy cows and goats fed under HTa conditions in the tropical area have 15–17% lower MY during summer than during winter [4–6, 8]. Both direct and indirect effect of HTa on lactation performance has been purposed.

The direct effect of HTa on mammary gland function has been demonstrated using both *in vitro* and *in vivo* systems. Short-term low degree HTa exposure (37 and 39°C, 1 h) could activate the expression of the heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) gene in the primary mammary epithelial cell (MEC) culture. This condition, however, could not activate beta 1,4-galactosyltransferase1 (β-GALT1), alpha lactalbumin (α-LA) and phosphokinase B (or Akt) genes [9]. However, it has been shown that a higher degree of HTa exposure has been shown to decrease Akt phosphorylation [10]. In addition, Akt knockdown decreased β-GALT1 and lactose synthesis [11]. The information suggested that the direct effect of HTa on milk synthesis may in part be related to Hsp70 and the role of Akt/β-GALT1 under the natural HTa condition is unclear. This conclusion is supported by the study of the seasonal effect on gene expression from MEC isolated from fresh goat milk. The degree of Hsp 70 gene expression, but not Akt and

*Effects of High Ambient Temperature on Milk Protein Synthesis in Dairy Cows and Goats… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104563*

### **Figure 1.**

*The pattern of ambient temperature in the central area of Thailand represent the typical climatic condition of the tropical area at the present time.*

### **Figure 2.**

*The ratio of β-GALT1 and Hsp70 gene expression from both in vitro and in vivio system. Under the in vivo or natural condition, the MEC from winter period (Ta = 30°C at 1300) represent the CTa condition and from summer period (Ta = 37°C at 1300) represent the HTa condition. Under the in vitro condition, the mammary epithelium cell (MEC) was treated 1 hour under control Ta (CTa) and high Ta (HTa) were 37 and 39°C, respectively. \* the significant effect of HTa on the ratio of β-GALT1 and Hsp70 gene expression was detected under natural conditions.*

β-GALT1 genes, from MEC isolated from summer goat milk, was significantly higher than that from winter goat milk. In this investigation, milk yield from the summer period was significantly lower than the winter period [6]. The effect of HTa on Hsp70 and MY from both *in vitro* and *in vivio* is in line with the lower in ratio of β-GALT1 and Hsp70 expression (**Figure 2**). With several mechanisms of Hsp70 on intracellular functions, the role of Hsp70 on the milk synthesis pathway that could influence MY remains to be investigated and the role of Hsp70 on milk protein synthesis will be purposed as well in this chapter.

The indirect effect of HTa on MY mediates by the effect of HTa on decreased food intake (FI) and nutrient partition to the mammary gland [6, 12–14]. Dairy goats in the summer months had significantly lower FI and MY than that in winter months. Because the concentration of plasma cortisol from summer months was not different

from winter months [6], whether these effects of HTa are part of the chronic heat stress mechanism is not conclusive. When considering the effect of HTa on FI in laboratory rats, the low degree of HTa exposure that decreased FI earlier than the activated hypothalamic-pituitary axis implies that HTa could decrease FI without stress [15, 16]. The information of behavioral and physiological responses to daily fluctuation of HTa is crucial knowledge regarding this phenomenon.

### **4. Stress responses under HTa during daytime**

Behavioral and physiological responses of HTa during daytime is a piece of crucial information to support the hypothesis that dairy goats and cows fed under natural ambient conditions are at the stage of heat stress. Early phase responses of HTa are all behavioral outcomes without the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA axis) including seeking shade, inactivity and decrease in food intake, etc. Mild degree heat stress is the second phase is characterized by the physiological responses and the activation of HPA axis. This level of heat stress is reversible and not harmful. Heat dissipation mechanism including sweating or panting is the major physiological response during this phase. The third phase of heat stress is a severe irrevisible level or heat stroke. We have shown previously that there is around a 10°C difference in Ta from early morning to the afternoon (**Figure 1**). The significant increases in both respiratory rate (RR) and rectal temperature (Tr) could be detected in dairy goats

### **Figure 3.**

*The effect of high ambient temperature (HTa) on behavioral and physiological response in dairy goats during daytime from 0700 h to 1300 h. In the morning (0700 h), the respiratory rate (RR, upper) as behavioral response and the rectal temperature (Tr, lower) as the physiological response is at normal value. In the afternoon (1300 h), both RR and Tr increase significantly to 127 breaths per min and 39.64°C, respectively.*

*Effects of High Ambient Temperature on Milk Protein Synthesis in Dairy Cows and Goats… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104563*

**Figure 4.**

*The effect of high ambient temperature (HTa) on hormonal response in dairy goat during daytime from 0700 h to 1300 h of summer and winter period. \* the significant effect of time.*

fed under this ambient condition (**Figure 3**). Similar patterns of these responses have been demonstrated in dairy cow fed under natural HTa conditions [17]. Moreover, the plasma concentration of cortisol from the afternoon was significantly higher than that from the early morning (**Figure 4**). This information suggests that in dairy goats when the difference of Ta during morning and afternoon is around 10°C, both evaporative heat dissipation and the HPA axis were activated. Although the dairy goat had significant heat dissipation via panting, the core temperature (via Tr) was set to around 1°C above normal level in the morning. It should be noted at this point that the behavioral and physiological responses of HTa in dairy goats are comparable to those we have investigated in the laboratory rat. Short-term mild degree of HTa exposure in rats that could not activate physiological responses (e.g., Tr and pack cell volume) failed to activate the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus [15]. It is well known that PVN is the most upper hypothalamic nuclei of the stress axis (or HPA axis). Taken together, we conclude that during daytime dairy goat fed under HTa of the tropical area is at the second phase of heat stress.

Although the THI from winter was lower than that from summer in Thailand, both winter and summer THIs during the afternoon were higher than the value of 80 [4, 6]. It is possible to think that in Thailand dairy goat from both winter and summer times is at the state of heat stress and that the concentration of plasma cortisol per se could not be used as the separation index at this stress level. Finally, from the meteorological and behavioral viewpoints, dairy goat during summer period confronted with higher degree of heat stress than during winter period.

### **5. The effect of HTa on milk protein synthesis**

During the summer period, both dairy cows and goats decreased in lactation performance. An evidence that dairy goat fed under the tropical area of Thailand during the summer period has a higher degree of heat stress than the winter period drives one interesting hypothesis. This hypothesis is whether the major compositions of milk from the summer period is different from that of the winter period. The analysis of major goat milk compositions revealed that the concentration of milk protein, but not milk lactose and fat, from the summer period was higher

### **Figure 5.**

*The effect of high ambient temperature (HTa) on goat milk composition between winter and summer period. \* the significant effect of season.*

than that of the winter period (**Figure 5**). It should be noted that the present effect of HTa on milk protein is in contrast with previous reports [18–20]. The possible explanation for this discrepancy is perhaps the degree and duration of HTa exposure that is typical high throughout the year in the current condition of tropical area. Furthermore, the effect of HTa on milk protein synthesis seems to be specific because HTa did not affect the concentration of lactose both *in vivo* and *in vitro* studies. Likewise, HTa failed to change the expression of both beta-galactosyltransferase and alpha-lactalbumin which are the protein component of lactose synthase condition [6, 9]. An evidence from Prasanpanich et al. [21] could support the fact that higher milk protein content from heat-stressed cows under tropical conditions. The value of protein contents from grazed cows under heat stress conditions and indoor cows were 3.2 and 2.9%, respectively.

Because casein is the major milk protein, this section will focus on the effect of HTa and the casein synthetic pathway that may be the major cause of this phenomenon. With an evidence that HTa could activate Hsp70 expression from our current experiment [9], increase casein synthesis may be supported by the action of Hsp70 (**Figure 6**). Among a wide range of Hsp70 functions and subtypes [22, 23], Hsp70-5 or glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) which locate at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and regulate ER chaperone and transportation has been studied with milk protein synthesis. Overexpression of GRP78 in bovine mammary epithelial cells increased milk protein synthesis [24]. In addition, the role of the Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) as the posttranscriptional regulation has been revealed regarding to milk protein synthesis [25]. Interestingly, mTOR has been shown in HeLa cells that could stimulate Hsp70 synthesis via heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) [26]. The effect of HTa that increase milk protein may be related to the mTOR/HSF1/Hsp70 pathway that regulate the posttranslational process of casein. The casein subtype is another regulatory mechanism controlling the posttranslational casein synthesis pathway. Basically, casein is the milk protein complex known as casein micelle that is composed of 4 major subtypes; αS1-casein, αS2-casien, β-casein and κ-casein. Before the casein incorporation process that takes place at the Golgi apparatus, it is important that all casein subtype need to synthesize and transported from ER to the Golgi apparatus via the ER-Golgi transport route. It has been demonstrated in αS1-casein deficient goat

*Effects of High Ambient Temperature on Milk Protein Synthesis in Dairy Cows and Goats… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104563*

### **Figure 6.**

*The diagram demonstrates a putative mechanism that high ambient temperature (HTa) increases casein synthesis. Under prolonged HTa conditions, heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is increased. The upstream pathway that activates Hsp70 may be related to the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). An increase in Hsp70 chaperone of ER-Golgi transport of casein subtype is the putative target that enhances casein production. The transportation of casein by the ER-Golgi route requires coat protein complex (COP) machinery; COPII and COPI proteins which initiate at the ER exit site (ERES). The vesicular tubular cluster (VTC) is the final step that casein will be transported to Golgi.*

that αS1-casein is required for the efficient transport of β-casein and κ-casein [27]. Furthermore, the membrane-associated form of αS1-casein at ER plays a key role during the early steps of casein transport. Whenever αS1-casein has been down-regulation, the transport rate of other caseins to Golgi apparatus is highly decreased [28]. Taken together, it is interesting at this point that HTa could activate mTOR/HSF1/ Hsp70 pathway and subsequently influence ER-Golgi transport of the casein subtype.

### **6. Conclusion**

In this chapter, we demonstrate that dairy goat and cow fed under tropical area were at the state of heat stress. In addition to the effect of HTa on the reduction in MY, we show the evidence that long-term HTa exposure apparently increased milk protein. The physiological mechanism that HTa could influence milk protein synthesis has been proposed in particular with the casein synthesis pathway. Specifically, long-term HTa exposure activates mTOR/HSF1/Hsp70 pathway and subsequently increases the posttranslation process of casein synthesis via ER-Golgi casein transportation.

### **Author details**

Sumpun Thammacharoen1 \*, Nungnuch Saipin2 , Thiet Nguyen3 and Narongsak Chaiyabutr1,4,5

1 Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Physiology, Chulalongkorn University, Pathumwan, Bangkok, Thailand

2 Faculty of Science, Division of Agricultural Technology, Ramkhamhaeng University, Huamark, Bangkapi, Bangkok, Thailand

3 Faculty of Rural Development, Department of Agricultural Technology, Cantho University, Cantho City, Vietnam

4 Division of Agricultural Science Technology and Veterinary, The Academy of Science, The Royal Society of Thailand, Dusit, Bangkok, Thailand

5 Department of Research and Development, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand

\*Address all correspondence to: sprueksagorn@hotmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Effects of High Ambient Temperature on Milk Protein Synthesis in Dairy Cows and Goats… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104563*

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### *Edited by Narongsak Chaiyabutr*

*Milk Protein - New Research Approaches* discusses the biology and synthesis of milk protein at both the cellular and molecular levels. It also presents related information on animal nutrition and management, including animal breeding. It is a useful resource for students, researchers, and professionals in veterinary, dairy, food, and animal science, among others.

Published in London, UK © 2022 IntechOpen © wacomka / iStock

Milk Protein - New Research Approaches

Milk Protein

New Research Approaches

*Edited by Narongsak Chaiyabutr*