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## Meet the editors

İbrahim Kahramanoğlu is an associate professor in the Faculty of Agriculture, European University of Lefke, Northern Cyprus. He is an expert in horticultural production, postharvest biology and technology, and good agricultural practices. His main areas of studies include postharvest physiology and handling of fruits, natural and novel technologies for handling and storage, digital and precision farming for sustainability, and

value adding to horticultural crops. He has authored various books, book chapters, conference papers, and scientific publications.

Dr. Wan is a professor in the College of Agronomy, Jiangxi Agricultural University (JXAU), Nanchang, China. He received his MS in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) from Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, and his Ph.D. from Nanchang University, China. Dr. Wan joined the Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, USA, as a visiting scholar and postdoctoral

fellow in 2011 and 2014. His research interests include phytochemistry and human health benefits, postharvest biology, and the technology of citrus fruits. His research continues to be funded by federal, state, and other agencies. Dr. Wan has edited various books and authored more than 150 publications.

### Contents



## Preface

Fruits are an excellent source of important vitamins, minerals, phytochemical compounds (e.g., anthocyanin, flavonoids, lycopene, carotenoids, phenolic, etc.), and dietary fiber. These phytochemicals protect plants against macro- and microanimals and improve their adaptability to different environments, including stress conditions (salinity stress, drought stress, high-temperature stress, etc.). The fruit phytochemicals also provide support to human health. Eating a diet high in fruits is believed (and scientifically confirmed for specific cases) to reduce the risk of or help cure numerous diseases, including certain cancers, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and hypertension. No single fruit can provide all essential nutrients to human beings, in whom a diversified diet with fruits and vegetables is recommended.

Dietary diversity, both within and across food groups, is a key strategy for a healthy life. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends adults eat about 300–400 g of fruits and vegetables daily. According to data provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), fruits account for the fourth highest amount (76.79 kg/capita/year) and share (10.71%) of annual food supply after cereals, vegetables, and milk groups. It is estimated that if the global population continues to increase, fruit production will need to increase about 50% by 2050 to feed the world's population.

The world has been challenged by food safety and food insecurity issues for several decades and this is expected to continue in the future. Food insecurity is mostly driven by incorrect horticultural practices (e.g., misuse and excessive use of agrochemicals, fertilizers, and irrigation), the increase in the human population, and shifts in people's dietary characteristics. From the 1950s to today, the global population has increased more than threefold, and thus it is necessary to increase the food supply. However, at the same time, it is very important to protect natural resources and ensure the sustainability of horticultural production to be able to guarantee food security in the future.

Agricultural activities have dramatically changed in the last ten decades. The shifts in agricultural systems and new technologies in farming helped to increase crop yield for a short time, but the negative impacts of such actions (i.e., agrochemicals, high use of fertilizers, monoculture, etc.) appeared later. Some examples of these negative impacts are food safety issues (related to agrochemicals), water pollution, air pollution, loss of biodiversity, salinity, the resistance of pests to chemical control, and so on.

Fruits are botanically diverse, seasonal, and perishable. They play an important role in the global economy. The fruit industry, which includes the selection, reproduction, production, harvesting, handling, preservation, and marketing of fruits, is very important for the human diet and the sustainability of Earth. Each and every step taken in the fruit industry must aim to achieve fruit safety and security.

Our planet provides diverse climates and natural resources (soil, water, air, heat, light, biodiversity, climate, etc.) for horticultural production, providing ample opportunities for the development of the fruit industry. In the present era of globalization, it has become very important to produce more at less cost to be able to survive in the market. However, it is also very important to protect natural resources and ecosystems to ensure sustainability in horticultural production and in human life. As such, this book presents and discusses current information on the fruit industry, highlighting new topics for further research and industrial development.

This book is a useful resource for farmers, students, teachers, professors, scientists, food packers and sellers, and entrepreneurs in the fresh fruit industry. I would like to thank my co-editor, chapter authors, author service manager, and all who have contributed directly or indirectly to bring the publication of this book.

#### **İbrahim Kahramanoğlu**

European University of Lefke, Department of Horticulture, Gemikonağı, Northern Cyprus, Türkiye

#### **Chunpeng Wan**

**1**

Section 1

Postharvest Management

Jiangxi Acricultural University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China Section 1

## Postharvest Management

#### **Chapter 1**

## Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage of Fruits

*İbrahim Kahramanoğlu, Serhat Usanmaz and Chunpeng Wan*

#### **Abstract**

Fruits are among the most important elements of human diet. It is also well known and scientifically confirmed that fruit-based diet helps to protect human health and prevent many human diseases, mainly because of the high contents of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals. Since the human population on the earth is increasing, the need for fruits is also increasing. However, at the same time, the main factors of fruit production, that is, soil, water, and climate, are being damaged by human activities. Therefore, the production of the fruits and vegetables is becoming difficult. Furthermore, nearly 30% of fruits do not reach the consumers because of the postharvest losses along the fruit value chain. Therefore, prevention of the postharvest losses is highly important for ensuring the sustainability of life through consumption of wholesome fruits. In this chapter, we aim to list and discuss the traditional, innovative, and eco-friendly methods for postharvest storage of fruits. We also aim to provide most current information about these methods and provide practical information for students, scientists, farmers, food packers & sellers, and entrepreneurs engaged in fruit storage.

**Keywords:** agrochemicals, edible film packaging, innovative packaging, modified atmosphere packaging, traditional storage

#### **1. Introduction**

Food insecurity is reported to be the world's most crucial problem in the near future. Shifts in human diet, non-diversification in production and consumption (selection of nearly 200 crops for horticultural production), monoculture, excessive and mis-use of pesticides and fertilizers, reduction in soil fertility, reduction in water quality and quantity and increase in human population are the most important causes of food insecurity [1–3]. For example, only four crops (sugar cane, maize, wheat and rice) accounts half of global primary crop production and consumption in 2019. However, fruits are a major part of human diet and of horticultural production. They are very important for healthy life [3]. The most commonly produced fruits globally

include bananas, apples, grapes and citrus [4]. Agricultural activities have significantly changed over the last 10 decades. Most of these changes, such as use of high yielding varieties and agrochemicals, cause an increase in the crop yield and quality in the beginning. However, excessive and mis-use of these activities resulted into negative impacts on soil, water and biodiversity, and adversely affected agricultural sustainability [5]. Aside the problems of production and storage, the uneven distribution among population also drive food insecurity [6].

The total agricultural primary products was 9.2 billion tons in 2018 [4], which is 50% more than the total agricultural primary products recorded in year 2000. Fruits and vegetables accounted for 10% and 12% of the global primary products for year 2018, respectively. Although there is an increase in the amount of production, the hunger is on the rise, which is estimated to be 690 million people undernourished in 2019 [4]. It is noteworthy that as hunger is increasing, food losses (from postharvest o distribution, excluding retail level and homes) is also increasing. The Food Loss Index (FLI) of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), based on the models developed by official records, noted 13.8% and 13.3% food loss globally in year 2016 and 2020, respectively. Among the crop groups, fruits and vegetables accounted for about 22%, which is highly related to their perishable nature [4]. The addition of the losses at retail level and homes, the postharvest losses may reach up to 50%, which means about half of the quantity of fruits and vegetables produced were not consumed and lost due to several factors such as poor postharvest handling practices, high physiological and respiration activities, high moisture content, microbial infection etc. This loss is highly crop dependent and handling practices are very important for the prevention of these losses [7, 8].

The main causes of the postharvest losses (senescence and deterioration) are the respiration, transpiration and diseases and these are highly dependent on prevailing temperature, relative humidity, light, atmospheric composition and ethylene concentration of the surrounding environment [8, 9]. Since the beginning of agriculture, human beings have developed several practices for reducing postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables. Additionally, agrochemicals have important role in controlling postharvest pathogens. In today's world, where there is an increasing negative awareness on agrochemicals, the eco-friendly methods are having more attention by the consumers. The developments in technology also made it possible to better understand fruit physiology and develop some innovative techniques for fruit storage. However, there is not a clear distinction among the traditional, innovative and eco-friendly methods for storage of fruits and vegetables (**Figure 1**). This chapter therefore aimed to discuss and summarize up-to-date information about these traditional, innovative and eco-friendly methods for fruit storage for practical information for readers.

#### **2. Traditional methods**

Since the beginning of horticulture and production of horticultural crops, human beings are trying to find suitable ways for different products to improve their storability. Most of these traditional techniques are mainly simple and in line with ecocentric philosophies of the adopted societies. These techniques mostly aim to convert these perishable products to more stable products for improving storage life and to eliminate toxicity. Some of these traditional methods are listed below in separate headings and discussed briefly.

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

**Figure 1.** *List of different traditional, innovative and eco-friendly methods for postharvest storage.*

#### **2.1 Underground storage**

Temperature is one of the most crucial environmental factor affecting the postharvest storability of products, by stimulating/reducing pathogen development and fruit ripening/senescence. Increase in temperature increases the pathogen growth rate and stimulates fruit ripening. Thus, reduction of the temperature is so crucial during postharvest storage. However, lowering temperature too much (below 7 C) for a longer duration may cause chilling injury on many subtropical fruits [8].

People have historically learned how to preserve/store foods (including fruits and vegetables) and developed some techniques for food preservation. This was necessary, because the climate was/is not suitable for growing same fruits and vegetables throughout the year on the same place. People have understood that harvested fruits and vegetables are alive and they can be stored longer if the respiration and transpiration can be stopped or slowed which reduce the spoilage. During the colonial era, the use of cold storage, ice boxes or ice houses were not common. The ice houses and temporary food storage emerged during the beginning of nineteenth century. However, ice was difficult and expensive to obtain at that time. Hence, the underground rooms were more common to keep fruits cool [10].

#### **2.2 Cold storage**

Storage is the act of storing fruits and vegetables in a safety place being ready for consumption but not being used at that time. It aims to prevent fruits and vegetables from deterioration for a specific time period [11]. Moreover, cold storage is so crucial and important way of fruit storage, which helps to reduce respiration and transpiration and so delays senescence and prevent deterioration [8]. Therefore, the idea of cold storage was reported to date back to ancient times. The first forms of cold rooms were formed from the ice blocks which lead to the developments in ice industry in 1800s. During 1830s, ice became among the most important marketing items. After the works of Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley in 1758 (about cooling an object with the help of evaporation on volatile liquids), in 1820 Michael Faraday liquefied ammonia by applying high and low pressures, and then in 1834 Jacob Perkins invented the first vapor-compression cooling system. Then the refrigeration equipment became popular in meat industry [12]. The mass production and use of the refrigerators were reported to begin around 1918 in USA [13].

#### **2.3 Drying**

Drying is among the most used traditional methods for food preservation. In this method, the fruits and vegetables were dried to reduce the water content (dehydration). Removal of water helps to inhibit the growth of food pathogens. According to Nummer [14], drying of fruits dates back to ancient times in Middle East and Asia around 12.000 BC. Mostly, sun drying, air drying or wind drying had been used for evaporation purposes for dehydration. Nowadays, with the help of technology, food dehydrators can be used for same purpose, which provides quick and consistent results than traditional methods [15]. Drying the fruits results with a reduced water and increased sugar concentration, which ensure longer storage duration and sweeter taste. However, drying the fruits significantly changes the structure of fruits and makes them different than the fresh ones. For example, grapes become raisin, while plums transform into prune. Besides to freeze-drying, some forms of light (ultraviolet light, X-rays or ionizing radiations) can also be used for sterilization and dehydration [16].

#### **2.4 Freezing**

Freezing fruits and vegetables for ensuring preservation dates back to prehistoric times. People used ice and snow for preserving their hunts and then used for fruits and vegetables. It slows the movement of molecules and enzyme activity in the fruits and pathogens, and delays spoilage by causing pathogens to enter into dormant stage. The frozen water in the fruits and vegetables become unavailable for the pathogens. However, it is known that most of the pathogens remain dormant during frozen and can be problem after thawing. Frozen fruits became popular after 1930s [14]. Depending on the physiology of the products, the fruits and vegetables can be kept safely for 3–12 months. The critical temperature is −18°C and products should be kept at or below this level. Packaging is also recommended in suitable (i.e. plastic) bags to prevent freezer burn. It is not recommended to freeze hot fruits and the refrozen the thawed products [17]. Freezing alone does not change the nutrient contents of the fruits. On the other hand, freezing slows the activity of several enzymes (which may increase deterioration, if active) but not halt their activity. Enzyme activity can be neutralized in frozen fruits by the acids but not in the vegetables which are low acidic. Therefore, partial cooking in boiling water is recommended for vegetables to slow/ prevent deterioration. This process is known as blanching. Lack of oxygen or freezer burn, especially under longer storage may cause change in color. Slow freezing may be problematic for several fruits, especially for pomegranate arils. It creates large ice crystals in the fruits, which may damage the cells during thawing and dissolve emulsions. Therefore, fast freezing is recommended in such products. Thawing is as important as with freezing. The most safety way of thawing was reported to be under cool conditions, such as refrigerator or cold water. After thawing, the products must be cared carefully as they are perishable and consumed in a short time as possible [18].

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

#### **2.5 Salting**

Salting is a type of drying, mainly used before refrigeration. It is used to draw water out of the fruits and vegetables which provides similar advantages with drying and prevents food deterioration [19]. Sodium plays an important role in reducing pathogen growth and improves texture. A number of other sodium-containing compounds are also used for increasing the safety and shelf life of foods or creating physical properties [20]. There are two ways of salting. In the dry method, the fruits or vegetables are surrounded in salt and left till dry (water is drawn out into the salt). The second method is wet curing. In this method, salt is dissolved in water and is called as brine. Then the fruits or vegetables are placed in brine and left in cool dry place [21]. Salt reduces the activity of water in foods. This is because the sodium and chloride ions tents to associate with water molecules [22]. Salt also cause osmotic shock on microbial cells, loss of water from microbe cells and finally death of the pathogens [23].

#### **2.6 Fermentation**

It is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or other organic acids by using microorganisms (mostly yeasts) or oxygen-free conditions. This process is used to produce alcoholic drinks including wine and beer. This is not well used in fresh fruit industry but most commonly used for bread, cheese, yoghurt, wine, beer, vinegar and olives [14]. Salt has an important role in food fermentation. Products like pickles and cheese obtain most of their characteristics from the lactic acid bacteria. Salt inhibits the growth of many spoilage bacteria while favoring the growth of salttolerant lactic acid bacteria [24].

#### **2.7 Pickling**

Pickling is another method of fruit or vegetable preservation which takes place in acids, especially vinegar. Vinegar is an end product of fermentation. Firstly, the carbohydrates are fermented into alcohol and next the alcohol is oxidized into acetic acid by some bacteria. Wines and beers can be used to produce vinegars [14]. Pickling is most commonly performed by placing the fruits or vegetables in water, salt, some herbs and vinegar or lemon. Pickling may require boiling the fruits or vegetables in the salt mixture. After the food is infused by the pickling solution, it must be placed in an airtight container [10].

#### **2.8 Canning**

Another important method for food preservation is the application of canning technology. In this method, the fruits or vegetables are placed in cans or similar materials and heated to destroy pathogens and inactivate enzymes. The cans are being cooled after heating and this creates a vacuum seal. Thus, the entrance of external pathogens is also being prevented [14]. This method was firstly developed in France, between 1795 and 1809, with the aid of French government to feed their citizens during the wars [10].

#### **2.9 Sweetness (jam)**

Boiling the fruits (whole, pulp or parts) in sugar mixture or sealing those in honey are among the other methods of food preservation. The use of honey is not new and has been used for thousands of years for fruit preservation [10]. For this purpose, fruits should be ripe and firm. After harvest, fruits should be washed, generally peeled, pulped (removing seeds), and sugar (generally in the proportion of 1:1 or 1:0.5 w/w) is added. Then the mixture is being boiled with continuous stirring. Sometimes citric acid can be added. The fruit-sugar mixture is cooked till the soluble solids concentration reached 65–70%. Hereafter, the jam is filled hot into sterilized bottles, capped and stored (even at ambient temperatures). High sugar content of jams makes the moisture unavailable for the growth of postharvest pathogens and other microorganisms.

#### **2.10 Trench storage**

Trench is an excavation in the ground, commonly deeper than is wide and narrow than its length. Trench storage is a traditional method for food preservation. It is suitable for preserving late-maturing varieties of different fruits [25]. In these systems, the trenches are filled with wet sand (3–7 cm), then the fruits are placed in (30–60 cm) and finally covered with maize straw or reed mat to control temperature. This method is beneficial for especially apples [25]. In this method, the trench (together with wet sand) provides moisture for the fruits and keep the fruits cold. It is the traditional way of modern cold storage rooms.

#### **2.11 Heat treatment**

Postharvest heat treatments (mostly as air or water) have a long history in fruit preservation. Although it is a traditional method, there are numerous recent studies about innovative applications of heat. Heat treatments have several advantages on fruit storage, (1) regulating products' response to cold, (2) direct control of pathogens, (3) improving products' tolerance against pathogens, (4) cleaning products and (5) maintaining products' quality during storage [26–28]. Empirical studies are required for determination of the best temperature and duration for different types of heat application for different varieties of crops. Mostly temperatures from 30 to 40°C for hot air treatments (HAT) for a duration of range from hours to days were reported to be effective in conditioning treatments for different product varieties [26]. Moreover, hot water treatments (HWD), are generally applied at temperatures from 45 to 55°C for a few minutes (3–5 min) for controlling postharvest pathogens [29]. Biochemical reactions in living organisms are highly affected by temperature. Change in the temperature around the plants and/or fruits signals the metabolism to make regulations in cell function and metabolism for preventing heat-related harms [30]. Heat stress cause metabolic imbalance in crops, affects cell membranes and proteins and alters several enzymatic reactions, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) [31, 32]. These changes in the metabolism improves products' tolerance against pests and helps to maintain products' quality. The heat can also directly damage the existing pathogens' cells and control the growth and development of diseases. Peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes can alleviate lipid peroxidation, thus the chilling injury [33, 34] and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzymes enhance fruits' resistance against pathogens [35, 36]. Heat treatments also prevent or delay the *Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

occurrence of chilling injury [26]. The heat-shock proteins (HSPs) increase after heat stress and protects products against chilling injury. However, these HSPs disappear quickly when the fruits are placed in ambient air conditions [37]. Not only in traditional application, but also for commercial applications today, the heat treatment is commonly used and known as safe, effective and physical [29].

#### **2.12 Agrochemicals**

The first use of fungicides dates back to seventeenth century. Firstly salty water treatment on grain and then copper sulphate (1760) took place for controlling grain bunt. Sulfur (1824) and lime sulfur (1833) were then used for pathogen controlling of food [38]. The developments in the fungicide history was continued with bordeaux mixture (1885) and mercury chloride (1891). This was continued with farmer prepared inorganic preparations till 1940s and the industrial & commercial fungicides were developed in 1940 with chloranil and dichlone active ingredients [38]. Since then, fungicides are widely used in controlling funguses during production and after harvest, mainly because of their easy to use and ability to bring about quick results in the food products. It is important to note that most of the pathogens which damage the products after harvest require a field application is also necessary to reduce/eliminate infections [39]. Fungicides applications can be done for controlling the infections on the fruits and/or vegetables, and also can be done in cold rooms or storage rooms to reduce/eliminate the sources of infections. Application of fungicides to the products can be done in different ways, mostly as dipping the products into the solutions, spraying onto the products, as volatiles/gas into the environment (fumigants), treating as wraps or embedded in coatings/films. Dipping and spraying are the two most common applications. The active ingredients of thiabendazole (from benzimidazoles group) and imazalil (from triazoles group) are among the most common fungicides which have been widely used against several important pathogens including *Penicillium* and *Colletotrichum*. Both fungicides are approved by European Union and are in use as of February 2022 [40]. Moreover, sulfur dioxide as fumigant is widely used against gray mold (*Botrytis cinerea*). For each and every application of the fungicides, it is a must for checking the suitability of the active ingredients and the chemical against the target pathogens and product. This is very important for the elimination of the chemical residues on the products. The doses of the chemicals must be used correctly according to the recommendations and fungicide rotation must be done in store houses to prevent fungicide resistance in the pathogens. Similar with the other agrochemicals, the fungicides have permitted limits on crops as the maximum residual limit (MRL) [41].

#### **2.13 Cleaning and disinfecting**

Cleaning and disinfecting are among the most important measures for better storage of fruits and vegetables. It is highly recommended to be carried before other handling practices for fruits and vegetables. This is a traditional measure but is being innovated continuously and several eco-friendly methods are also being used for cleaning. Hygiene is very important for the products health and quality both during production and storage. It is very critical to reduce (if possible eliminate) the sources of pathogens before storage. For this reason, a good knowledge is required about the type of the pathogen, its characteristics and life cycle. Therefore, cleaning of the pathogen sources prior to storage is strongly recommended for each product [39]. Chlorine was among the most widely used chemicals for product disinfection. The chlorine

dioxide has ability to penetrate into the cell membrane of the target microorganisms and inhibit the metabolic functions [42]. However, it is now prohibited in many European countries because of its potential harms on human health and increased public concern about its use [43]. It was reported that there can be some by-products of chlorine, such as chloroform and chloramines, which are carcinogenic [44]. There are some biological or chemical alternatives of chlorine in which some of them are more effective and safer than chlorine. Some of them are listed below and explained briefly. Some of these techniques are not traditional, but are listed below:


*Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

*Penicillium italicum* and *Penicillium digitatum*. In a recent study, Vilaplana [62] reported that the postharvest application of 298 mM (2.5%) sodium bicarbonate is effective in improving the storability and shelf life of pitaya fruits, by reducing weight loss, retaining color and firmness, slowing down the changes in solible solids concentration, titretable acidity and pH and most important controlling the black rot caused by *Alternaria alternata*. It was also suggested that the combination of sodium bicarbonate with hot water or *Bacillus amyloliquefaciens* improves the efficacty against pathogenic decay at mandarin fruits [63].

• Electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW) is a new, innovative technique for food storage industry. It is an activated water. It is formed by electrolysis of sodium chloride by passing it from chamber containing an anode and a cathode [64]. EOW is low-cost, eco-friendly and safe method [65, 66]. Its ability to be produced on-site is important for the elimination of exposure risks [67]. It is deactivated when contacts and reacts with organic matter and tap water can easily dilute it from the environment [66].

#### **3. Innovative methods**

The above listed traditional methods have been still using in handling practices and still have important role in product preservation. As described above, some of these techniques have been developed and some innovations were applied to the techniques. Besides to that, there are some other newly developed innovative techniques in postharvest handling. Some of these methods are listed and described below.

#### **3.1 Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage**

Respiration rate of the products is strongly related with the product senescence [68]. The increase in the respiration increases the fruit senescence. Thus, the reduction of the respiration rate is known to improve products storability by delaying the fruit ripening and product senescence. This can be achieved by modifying the atmosphere surrounding the product. The modification must achieve a reduced oxygen level and increased carbon dioxide level for being able to reduce respiration rate. However, it is also strongly important not to eliminate oxygen level in the surrounding atmosphere, which can cause anaerobic respiration and alcohol production in the products, which could result into bad smell and decreased marketability [68].

Since the beginning of technological developments, people have tried to modify surrounding atmosphere of the products for increasing storability [69]. Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage is among these technical, which simply aims to monitor and adjust of the O2 and CO2 levels within gas-tight cold rooms [70]. The combination of CA rooms (so control of temperature and relative humidity) with ethylene control lowers the metabolic activity of products and improves storability. In these systems/ rooms, the atmospheric composition inside the air-tight room must be controlled regularly and maintained during storage. In the CA storage rooms, there are two common ways of regulation of the room atmospheric composition, these are: static and dynamic. Products generates the atmosphere by respiration in cold rooms and it is being regulated by ventilation and scrubbing in the static method, whereas a supply of gas concentration is required in the dynamic system. There are different systems used for controlling/regulating oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations. Simply the oxygen level inside the room is reduced to pre-defined (well-studied)

desired level by nitrogen flushing, and then carbon dioxide is being injected with a gas generator [71]. CA storage is reported to be an advantageous method for the preservation of climacteric fruits (having increased respiration rate after harvest), i.e. apples, mangoes, bananas, papayas, etc. The effectiveness of CA storage is not very high on the non-climacteric fruits and some others with slow respiration rate [68].

#### **3.2 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)**

Respiration is the basic process in freshly harvested fruits and vegetables causing deterioration and it is mainly dependent on the atmospheric composition (mostly the level of O2 and so CO2) as well as on the temperature, ethylene and water vapor. Therefore, regulating the gas concentrations in the surrounding atmosphere of the fruits (or other food products) is highly important for reducing respiration and increasing storability of the products. Reduction of O2 and elevation of CO2 can delay deterioration of fresh horticultural crops [72]. However, it is highly dependent on the type of commodity, cultivar, maturity and temperature. At this time, some important methods are coming to forefront to regulate atmospheric composition around the fresh products. When the generation and stabilization of favorable atmosphere are obtained by packaging refrigerated produce in closed polymeric films of reduced dimensions (bags, boxes, pallets), the technique is called MAP. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a dynamic process of altering gaseous composition (mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide) inside a package. If the volume of gas with a different atmospheric concentration was introduced at the time of sealing the package (active MAP) or simply the bag was sealed with atmospheric air (passive MAP). The passive MAP is an old technique and is not used well, while the active MAP constitutes the most important share in the MAP use. The interaction between the respiration rate (RR) of the crop and the permeability of packaging material are the two important elements of modified atmosphere packaging, with no further control exerted over the initial gas composition [73]. The permeability coefficients of the materials for O2, CO2, N2, and H2O is very important. Also the type of the crop, growing conditions, physiological stage and storage time are important for the selection of appropriate packaging material. The most used materials for MAP are low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVOH), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), and etc. Each of these polymeric materials offers different mechanical characteristics and fundamentally different permeability to O2, CO2 and water vapor. Such as: polyamide has very low permeability to O2 and CO2, polypropylene and EVA has moderate permeability and LDPE has high permeability [74]. It is also reported to be successful for the prolongation of storage duration of several fruits by slowing down respiration, reducing weight loss, reducing sensitivity to ethylene, reducing development of some physiological disorders (i.e. chilling injury), maintaining product quality and preventing decay [75, 76]. This techniques (MAP bags) is an important way for extending the storability of fresh products.

#### **3.3 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)**

1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) is an ethylene inhibitor. Ethylene is a colorless gas (plant hormone) which plays an important role in the postharvest life of horticultural crops, especially the climacteric ones. It is also known as the ripening hormone. It is

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

produced by the climacteric plants during ripening and it speed up the ripening and respiration of climacteric fruits (apples, banana, mangoes, apricot, tomato, etc.), while it damages the postharvest quality of non-climacteric fruits (grape, lemon, eggplant, cherry, watermelon, etc.) at the same time. It can also be produced by petrol combustion engines [77]. However, the higher concentration or continuous production/supply of ethylene damage the quality of the climacteric fruits too. Therefore, the control of ethylene is important to improve the storability of fresh horticultural crops. Thus, 1-MCP interact irreversibly with ethylene receptors and avoids its physiological stimulus [78]. The active ingredient of 1-MCP is currently (as of February 2022) approved by European Union and can be used in postharvest storage of fruits and vegetables [40]. Therefore, it is used in postharvest storage to down regulate the ripening of fruits. Its postharvest and preharvest application was reported to delay ripening of many fruits [79].

#### **3.4 Light treatments**

Light has fundamental roles in many biochemical reactions, including well-known photosynthesis. It also has important impacts on physical and chemical process and its range and dose are the most important factor. The higher energy of the light might be toxic, while the lower doses can be ineffective [80]. The electromagnetic spectrum of light ranges from long radio waves to gamma (γ) rays [81]. The different ranges of the spectrum has been tested for different purposes in horticulture, including production and postharvest storage [82]. With the help of the LED technology, which has ability to produce light from a narrow bandwidth of wavelengths, including UV LEDs, IR LEDs, and LED blue lights [82]. The non-ionizing irradiations (UV-C [100–280 nm], UV-B [280–315 nm], UV-A [315–400 nm] and blue light [400–500 cn]) of the light and ionizing irradiations (gamma (γ) and X-rays) may have different impact on the products' quality. This impact can be direct, by inhibiting the growth of postharvest pathogens, or indirect by inducing the resistance of products to the several pathogens and/or storage stress conditions [80, 83]. UV-C is the most tested light treatment in postharvest studies, especially against postharvest pathogens and was reported to be very effective [84, 85]. The duration and intensity of the light is so crucial and there are numerous different studies with different fruits and vegetables. Besides to UV light, blue light is also reported to have high efficacy in postharvest studies. It is mostly absorbed by plant tissues and have job in several metabolic reactions [86]. It has both role in growth promotion in plants and damages in fungal cells. It was reported to induce ferroptosis (nonapoptotic type of iron-dependent cell death) in fungal cell by activating ROS production in the cell wall and damaging the DNA [87]. Therefore, the light irradiation, especially the UV-C and blue light have significant advantages in postharvest studies and are powerful tools in postharvest handling with the help of technology [80].

#### **3.5 Smart packaging**

In these systems, the packaging is embedded intelligent (agri 4.0) sensor technology is embedded in the packaging material to monitor the status of the products during storage. The data generated about the quality is used to regulate storage conditions for improving product and customer safety [88]. Several different principles (sensors, indicators or radio frequency identification-RFID) are being used in these systems to monitor the temperature, atmospheric composition, microbial growth, integrity indicators and freshness indicators of the products [89]. Monitoring of these factors

and quality parameters enables the active and quick response to the changing factors. For example, adjusting of the atmospheric composition is so crucial for prevention of the respiration rate and so the postharvest losses. Similarly, control and management of temperature and relative humidity are crucial both for fruit quality and for the control of pathogens. Thus, the smart and innovative technology makes this possible without the need for mental control, but with the artificial intelligence. Therefore, smart packaging may help to actively prevent fruit spoilage, improve/maintain the fruits' characteristics (i.e. taste, aroma, appearance, etc.), hence extending the storability of products. However, the integrity of artificial intelligence into these systems is new, where some doubts exist about its performance and it is more expensive than traditional methods [90]. Sooner or later, smart packaging techniques will be highly developed and introduced into the market; which is hoped to reduce postharvest losses.

#### **4. Eco-friendly methods**

Because of the negative impacts of agrochemicals on the environment and human health and the damages on the ecosystem caused by the petroleum-based packaging materials, there is a trend in postharvest studies to develop and introduce the use of eco-friendly alternatives in postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables. Some eco-friendly alternatives which are promising alternatives to agrochemicals and petroleum-based packaging materials have been listed and discussed. It is believed that these methods will be upgraded, modified appropriately in postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables globally in future.

#### **4.1 Edible film packaging and edible coatings**

Edible film packaging is a thin layer (with less than 0.3 mm thickness) [91] formed from the combination of biopolymers and various additives which is prepared before application and then adhered to the product surface and can be consumed as an integral part of the food product [92]. Edible coating is similar with the edible films, but formed as thin layer directly on the product surface [93]. Their application onto the products is differs from the edible films, and are applied in liquid form by dipping the products into the solutions. Both the edible films and edible coatings have high attraction by the consumers and environmentalist, because of their biodegradable characteristics as compared with the plastic packaging materials. These materials, similar with the plastic packaging materials, creates a modified atmosphere around the products and helps to regulate respiration and transpiration [94, 95]. Several other benefits of the biomaterials used in the edible film industry are prevention of microbial decay (both by inducing product resistance or direct control of pathogens), reducing weight loss, improving product appearance, maintaining the composition and concentration of phytochemicals and etc. [96]. Proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and the secondary metabolites of plants are being used for the production and use of edible films [95, 96].

Wheat gluten, corn zein and soy protein are important protein sources for edible films and coatings, where oils and waxes are the most used lipid-based materials. Plant- (cellulose, gums, starch, pectin, etc.) or animal- (chitosan and chitin) based polysaccharides are on the other hand are being highly used for production of edible films and coatings [95]. The mechanical characteristics (elasticity, elongation and tensile strength) are among the most important characteristics of edible films and

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

coatings [97]. Starch, with its gelatinization characteristics has been used in biopackaging universally. Another important bio-polymer is the alginate, which has ability to form hydrogels and encapsulation barrier [98]. Chitosan (discussed below separately) has recently been involved in food packaging industry for edible films and coatings. The ability of the materials to provide a barrier for the transfer of gaseous and water vapor, ability to improve food storability and processing techniques are the most important points to consider for the selection of the right material. The polysaccharide-based materials and chitosan have are nonpolar to the aroma compounds and produce a good barrier [99]. Alginate and cellulose, on the other hand, are hydrocolloid-based materials which have higher ability to retain moisture [100]. To sum up, edible films and coatings helps to reduce transpiration and respiration, retard ethylene biosynthesis, stimulate the biosynthesis of several enzymes (i.e. PPO), stimulate antifungal activity of products, enhance the activity of secondary metabolites and so protect the products' storability.

#### **4.2** *Aloe vera* **application**

The perennial *A. vera* plant, belonging to the family of Xanthorrhoeaceae, has been widely used in medicine and traditional medicine for curing several human diseases. Besides to that, the gels of *A. vera* have an important role in food industry, mostly as a source of edible film or coating [101]. It has ability to reduce respiration and transpiration and delay food deterioration. Besides to this general advantage of edible films and coatings, the *A. vera* plant extracts or gels, have antimicrobial ability to control several microorganisms, including postharvest fungi. In a research by Nabigol and Asghari [102], it was found that the A. vera gel have high ability to stop the mycelium growth of *Penicillium digitatum* and *Aspergillus niger*. Similarly, Kator et al. [103], suggested that *A. vera* gel application prevents decay at tomato fruits. The number of examples can be extended to several other fruits, including pineapples, nectarine, grape, plum, strawberry and etc. [104–108].

#### **4.3 Propolis application**

Propolis (bee-glue) is a natural resinous produced by honeybees from plant exudates. Previous studies revealed that the propolis includes wide variety of phytochemical compounds including phenolic which have been linked with its beneficial characteristics [109]. The sources of plants and the season are highly affecting the chemical composition of the propolis. It has been using in traditional and scientific medicine for several decades and noted to have wound healing ability since 300 BC [109]. Moreover, it was reported to have high benefits in postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables. Studies suggested that the high concentrations of cinnamic acid, ferulic acid and caffeic acids provides anti-microbial ability for the propolis extract [110]. Similar with the light and edible materials, the positive impacts of propolis on the control of pathogens can be in two modes of action as direct control or improving resistance of the products [109]. Extracts of propolis had been suggested to reduce gray mold (*Botrytis cinera*) at pomegranate fruits [76], anthracnose at mango fruits [111] and *Penicillium digitatum* at orange fruits [112]. Besides to the control of postharvest pathogens, several studies suggested that the propolis extracts reduce weight loss and chilling injury, maintains soluble solids concentration, titratable acidity, ascorbic acid, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, textural quality and overall acceptability of several fruits, including pomegranates, mango, papaya, banana and orange [76, 111, 113–115].

#### **4.4 Chitosan application to stored fruits**

Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide which is obtained from the exoskeleton of insects and the shells of crustaceans (i.e. crab, shrimp, lobster, etc.). It has a wide area of use in different sectors including agriculture, medicine, cosmetics, textile, food and biotechnology. The use of chitosan as a supplement to edible films and coating had been reported to have high potential for maintain product quality and reducing pathogen growth. It is a biocompatible polysaccharide with intrinsic antimicrobial characteristic [116]. The chitosan was approved in the European Union (Reg. EU 662014/563) for plant protection purposes. It was suggested that chitosan have three separate characteristics, which makes it an important alternative in postharvest. It has an ability to produce biofilms on the applied surface [117], it has high antimicrobial ability [118] and it has ability to stimulate the defense mechanism of the products [119, 120]. The exact mechanism behind the antimicrobial activity of chitosan has not been completely understood yet. The polycationic structure of the chitosan has been suggested as one of the reasons of the mechanism. The chitosan is positively charged which causes it react with cell membranes which are negatively charged [121]. This connection then damages the membrane permeability, inhibits DNA replication and finally cause cell death [122]. As mentioned above, chitosan stimulate the defense mechanism of products against pathogens. Several different defense related mechanisms have been reported to be stimulated by the application of chitosan, including pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins [123], several secondary metabolites (i.e. chitinase, lignin, phytoalexins, etc.) [124, 125] and reactive oxygen species (ROS) [126].

#### **4.5 Essential oils application to stored fruits**

Essential oils (EO) are complex and concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aromatic substances derived from plants. These oils are mostly composed of terpenes, phenols, esters, alcohols, nitrogen and sulfur compounds [127]. EOs are commonly extracted by steam distillation and can also be derived by cold pressing, solvent extraction and wax embedding. EOs can be used in different industries including cosmetics, perfumes, air fresheners and as food additive. Several studies have reported that the different EOs have higher efficacy in controlling postharvest diseases [128]. The application of the EOs can be as direct application (as vapor) or incorporation into films, coatings or washing materials [41]. Some recent research noted that the essential oils of myrtle (*Myrtus communis* L.) leaves [129], black cumin oil [130], and lemongrass oil [131] have high potential of promoting storability of loquat, apricot and strawberry fruits, respectively.

#### **4.6 Plant-derived methods**

Besides to the essential oils, several different plant extracts or plant-derived materials have been reported to have significant positive influence on the prevention of product quality and preventing the growth and development of several postharvest pathogens [132]. For example, ethanolic extracts of garlic have been reported to control *Penicillium* sp. in citrus fruits [133]. In a different study, the extracts of guava leaves and lemon have been suggested to improve the storability of banana fruits [134]. In another study, the aqueous extracts (10% and 20%) of neem, chinaberry, and marigold were noted to improve the storability of guava fruits [135]. On the other hand, cinnamon, pimento, and laurel extracts were tested against postharvest gray

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

mold at apple fruits. The in vitro studies were found to be effective, while the in vivo studies with fruits were found to be ineffective [136]. The success of the plant extracts might be because of the essential oils (explained above) or other forms of secondary metabolites. It is clear from the above examples that the plant-derived biomaterials have significant positive impact on the storage quality of fruits and vegetables. Therefore, the development and use of plant-derived materials is a promising alternative for synthetic chemicals which can improve the storage quality of the products.

#### **5. Conclusions and recommendations**

Reduction of the postharvest losses is so crucial for ensuring food security on the earth and eco-friendly management of postharvest losses is so important for its sustainability and ensuring food safety. Thus, the use of eco-friendly postharvest technologies, i.e. edible films, is valuable for reducing postharvest losses throughout the value chain. Aside from the selection and use of traditional and innovative techniques in postharvest handling is so crucial, where a proper postharvest handling includes at least cleaning, selection, grading, packing and storage. Where applicable, curing and/or heat treatment before storage; pre-cooling; packaging with plastic or edible materials; and regulation of the surrounding atmospheric composition are essential and highly recommended for successful postharvest handling. They have vital role in keeping products' quality and storability during supply chain. It is highly important to focus on eco-friendly alternatives in all kind of application for every step and to develop eco-friendly & innovative technologies to overcome postharvest losses.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Fruit Industry*

#### **Author details**

İbrahim Kahramanoğlu1 \*, Serhat Usanmaz1 and Chunpeng Wan<sup>2</sup>

1 European University of Lefke, Gemikonagi, Northern Cyprus, Turkey

2 Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Postharvest Technology and Nondestructive Testing of Fruits and Vegetables/Collaborative Innovation Center of Postharvest Key Technology and Quality Safety of Fruits and Vegetables in Jiangxi Province, College of Agronomy, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, China

\*Address all correspondence to: ibrahimcy84@yahoo.com; ikahramanoglu@eul.edu.tr

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Perspective Chapter: Traditional, Innovative and Eco-Friendly Methods for Postharvest Storage… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107201*

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#### **Chapter 2**

## Postharvest Management and Marketing of Apples in Mexico

*Juan Manuel Covarrubias-Ramírez, Víctor Manuel Parga-Torres and Juan Guillermo Martínez-Rodríguez*

#### **Abstract**

México produced 745,820 tons of apple fruit in 2020 and does not supply the national demand, so imports must be made. Apple production is from July to October in the year, the highest production is in September and is destined for national consumption. In the fresh market, the highest sale price is in July and August, but as of November the price drops. For that reason, the business producers use refrigeration. The refrigerators can be 1500 cubic meters or higher, and cooled with harmless gases to avoid damage to the atmosphere, the refrigerator must have a temperature of 3.3 to 3.9° C, a CO2 concentration of less than 10% and a concentration of oxygen from 2.0 to 2.5%. In the region the best refrigerators use liquid nitrogen and can take out their apple slowly each month to supply the market at a better price. To keep the fruit in CA until January of the following year, to have prices higher than \$50 Mexican pesos per kilo (2.45 US dollars).

**Keywords:** refrigerants, control atmosphere, marketing

#### **1. Introduction**

Mexico has an area of 57,186 ha of apple tree, of which 43,200 ha are irrigated (75.5%), the production in 2020, was 745,820 tons, if the average apple consumption per capita is 8.8 kg [1], for that reason only 84,753 inhabitants had access to the national apple, which represents less than 1% of the population in Mexico [2], therefore there are production deficit of apple in Mexico, and the rest of the population would not have access to the apple in their annual diet, to supply this demand with the apple production of Mexico, the producers who select the apple sell it in the fresh market as rural development producers and those who select and refrigerate it to have a better price are business producers who are in the irrigated areas.

The biggest amount of apple in Mexico is imported from January to August of each year from the United States and Chile (**Figure 1**), the national production is only from August to December, very few producers make refrigeration storage to have apple until March. This causes greater apple imports, with capital flight and representing an increase in imports each year [3].

The apple is a climacteric fruit, after cutting the fruit rapid increase the respiration rate, in appearance it changes as softening, de-greening, wax accumulation and aroma

**Figure 1.**

*Importation and exportation of apple in México.*

production, inside the fruit increase the activity of organic acids, lipid, starch, sugar with reduced respiration with cuticle covers and cooling is the best way to known fruit storage potential [4].

Imports start from January, where most domestic production has already been sold and consumed. The varieties that enter by import are Red Delicious, Golden Delicious and Gala, are those that have had acceptance in the national market [5].

The apple harvest in Mexico begins in July until October and the highest production is in September (**Figure 2**), in this month if you want to store to have apple every month until March, you must have infrastructure of refrigeration rooms and only business producers have it and can get a higher sale price.

The state with the highest production, largest area and highest yield in Mexico, is the region of Cuauhtémoc and Guerrero in Chihuahua, a northern state of the country bordering the United States and the apple zone is on the mountain range of the Western Sierra Madre (**Table 1**), in this region of greater production is where

**Figure 2.** *Apple production in Mexico in moths.*

*Postharvest Management and Marketing of Apples in Mexico DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102474*


#### **Table 1.**

*Apple production by the first 10 states in México.*

refrigeration is mostly used to have apple until March, its use is for fresh consumption, the varieties that are produced are Golden, Red Delicious, Starkrimson and Rome Beauty.

The second region in importance is the state of Puebla, with two regions, Zacatlán which is located in the Eastern Sierra Madre, where Golden apple, Red and regional creole are produced, and Huejotzingo which is located on the slopes of the Iztaccíhuatl volcano whose production is for cider with creole trees that, over the years, they have improved them for the production of this drink. In Zacatlán very little apple enters refrigeration, the surplus of national consumption, they market it to Belize, a neighboring country with a subtropical climate with a border with Mexico.

The third region in importance is the Sierra de Arteaga, which is located in the Eastern Sierra Madre and includes the states of Coahuila and Nuevo León, where you have Gala apples, Red type, Golden type mainly, business producers market it as a fresh market and rural producers use it for preserves, jams and wines that they sell on Sundays in the public square in the views that tourists make to their communities. Business producers refrigerate it and market it in supermarkets.

The last region of apple importance in Mexico is Canatlán in the state of Durango, which is located in the western Sierra Madre and is mainly produced apple of red type, and the Golden type of regional varieties, this state for being south of the state of Chihuahua, mainly its market is fresh and few producers refrigerate the apple to market it.

These four regions represent 96.1% of the national production and 91.5% of the area planted with apple in Mexico, therefore, apple production is governed by these regions, and only less than 15% use refrigeration systems to market the apple when the imported apple enters the country [6].

#### **2. Postharvest management**

The apple is harvested when it begins to change color, the seeds become dark, the fruit is easily cut from the tree and the water content in the fruit is reduced, which

allows us to estimate a good storage of the apple [7]. These specimens are indicators of the firmness of the fruit, the change of color and the breathing of the fruit, which is inversely proportional to the firmness. Most apples in their ripening increase ethylene production which if it is not controlled cuase senesce in apple storage [8]. There are genotypes with minimal ethylene production to reduce storage problems [9].

The intensity of respiration of a fruit, depends on its degree of development, it is measured as the amount of CO2 (mg) released from each kilogram of fruit per hour [10]. Respiration depends on the water content, because if there is a low water content at the time of harvest, the apple fruit when breathing dehydrates during storage, ages and lowers its value in the market.

There are products to reduce the respiration of the apple, bioplastics and conservation in controlled atmosphere with refrigeration that will increase the shelf life of the apple fruit, so the sale price at harvest that is \$ 15 / kg (0.73 USD), will increase at least \$ 35 / kg, (1.71 USD) being able to reach up to \$ 50 / kg (2.45 USD) in April which is the time of greatest import of apple from abroad.

The new varieties do not allow the fall of the fruit, they stay in the tree to be cut, this was a problem in the harvest because a lot of fruit was fallen and at the passage of the tractor with the boxes to place the harvest, it destroyed all fallen fruit. Its harvest is carried out in cloth bags (**Figure 3**), with a lower opening so as not to damage the apple and to be able to deposit it in the harvest box; the dimensions of the box are 1 × 1 × 1 m, one cubic meter [11].

The boxes with the fruit are taken to packing plant to enter a washing and waxing process. There are several methods to prolong the post-harvest life of the apple, which are: storage at low temperatures, the use of plastic packaging to create modified atmospheres, the application of hydrothermal treatments, irradiation and formulations containing biological agents, among others.

The controlled atmosphere (CA) and the use of bioplastics turn out to be the best alternative to prolong the shelf life of the fruit. So, to start you must have a controlled and automated atmosphere cooler for when there are failures in the electrical power [12].

The apple fruit is a climacteric fruit because its epidermis can be consumed, different from orange and avocado, whose bioplastic covers are not for consumption with epidermis [13].

Bioplastics are high molecular weight long chain polymers. They are based on waxes or other products (such as polysaccharides), and their use is to maintain the organoleptic quality of fruits during their shelf, commercialization and export processes [14].

Bioplastics reduce the rate of respiration and dehydration of coated products, in addition, these coatings allow the incorporation of food additives (antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, mineral salts, etc.) that slows down enzymatic browning by oxidation, the appearance of physiological disorders such as surface scalding, microbial growth, loss of texture, weight loss and total acidity due to the fermentation of sugars in the fruit; it allows to control wrinkles, increases the marketing period and improves their appearance by providing them with shine [15].

The fruit once harvested should be washed with detergents and fungicides such as Imazalil (maximum concentration allowed of 2 mg/kg) [16], Thiabendazole (allowed interval of 0.02 to 10.0 ppm) [17], Orthophenylphenol (0.4 mg/kg bw/day) [18], and then dried with air. The drying temperature can be up to 30°C, the higher the drying temperature, the greater the impact on the organoleptic and physiological characteristics of the fruit, since the higher the drying temperature the greater the dehydration of the fruits, reducing their weight.

*Postharvest Management and Marketing of Apples in Mexico DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102474*

#### **Figure 3.** *Bag to deposit apple when harvesting from apple tree.*

Edible coatings have good results in the control of weight loss, have fewer metabolic problems (fermentations) and greater reduction in senescence, but provide little shine. The bioplastics that will be used are: beeswax, carnauba wax, shellac, candelilla wax, chitosan plus oleic oil and lemon oil and imported edible coatings such as sodium alginate and Hydroprofil-Methyl cellulose [19].

For disease control during cold storage, the agriculture sustainability in horticultural production has options like wheat gluten, corn zein, soy protein, oils, waxes, starch, pectin, A. vera polysaccharides, cellulose, plant gums and secondary metabolites which are citral, eugenol, thymol [20].

The use of bioplastics is made at harvest when the apple has greater firmness and greater hydration in its tissues. Once it goes through the waxing, it is selected by size and the packaging is made for marketing in the fresh market. The packers select by size (**Table 2**) and color, the size is given by the NMX – FF – 061 – SCFI – 2003


#### **Table 2.**

*Mexican classification norm for packing apple fruit.*


**Table 3.** *USDA Washington standards for apple fruit.*

#### *Postharvest Management and Marketing of Apples in Mexico DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102474*

standard, which is a Mexican classification system that considers size as extra, first, second, third, fourth and marble [ 21 ]. There is the USDA Washington Standards ( **Table 3** ) rating system, which uses the size of the box as a reference, if the box is 175 has apple with a diameter of 2.46 inches, a weight of 3.8 ounces, the commercial box will have 175 apples [ 22 ].

 The commercial box is made of cardboard and the harvest box is made of wood, both types of box can be stored in refrigeration, because in supermarkets the two presentations are placed, the wooden box only has a single variety of apple ( **Figure 4** ), and

#### **Figure 4.**

 *Wood box presentation in supermarket to commercialization.* 

 **Figure 5.**  *Carton box presentation in supermarket to commercialization.* 

they are considered in bulk at a price of \$ 40 / kg (1.94 USD) in March; in cardboard boxes you can present several varieties for the taste of the consumer ( **Figure 5** ) to be taken by customers and carry the amount they need, but the price rises to \$ 50/kg (2.45 USD) in March, when the import of apple is greater in Mexico.

### **3. Refrigeration**

 A CA is an environment that is artificially produced, in which the oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide concentrations as well as the temperature and humidity are regulated [ 23 ]. Firmness, soluble solids and acidity are the most important quality indices relating with best sales. Reduction in temperature and O 2 or increse in CO 2 in CA storage reduce the rate of loss in acid [ 24 ].

 **Figure 6.**  *Liquid nitrogen tank and controller.* 

#### *Postharvest Management and Marketing of Apples in Mexico DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102474*

 The cooling process is to circulate refrigerant gases to reduce or maintain the temperature below the ambient temperature. The refrigerant gas begins in an initial state (liquid or gaseous), to go through a series of processes and return to its initial condition. This series of processes are known as the cooling cycle. This cycle will be repeated as many times as necessary to absorb heat through the refrigerant [ 25 ].

 The use of refrigerant gases is in full evolution and modernization due to the application of the European F-Gas regulation, whose main objective is the reduction of the use of hydrofluorinated greenhouse gases (GHG) by 70% by 2030. This regulation is associated with the application of the Tax on fluorinated gases entered into force since January 1, 2014, because hydrofluorinated carbon gases (HFCs) have a high Global Warming Potential (GWP), which has caused professionals and manufacturers of HFC gases to look for alternatives and substitute gases that are compatible with

 **Figure 7.**  *Automatic nitrogen compressor.* 

the refrigeration equipment already installed and that are equally efficient in their application [ 26 ].

 Low-GWP refrigerant gases such as R-407c have been generated, is a mixture of hydrofluorocarbons used as a refrigerant. It is an azeotropic blend of R 32, R 125, and R 134a, his applications include residential and commercial air conditioning systems, and some commercial refrigeration systems. The R134a refrigerant is mainly used as a refrigerant in automobile air-conditioning and commercial refrigerant applications and the R410A refrigerant is used in new residential and commercial air conditioning systems.

 A cooling room of 13 × 16 × 6 meters by 2021, has a cost of \$3048,893 (147,717.7 USD), but operates with 404 Y refrigerant gas, which is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant. However, these low-WGP gases will not be able to be used in 2022 for new equipment,

 **Figure 8.**  *Nitrogen refrigerant pumps.* 

 **Figure 9.**  *Expansion device that distributes the cold.* 

 **Figure 10.**  *Nitrogen recycling as refrigerant and automation panel.* 

although they do not yet have a deadline for service and maintenance, to conserve the quality of apples fruit [4].

The conditions of refrigeration gases to reduce the effect of greenhouse gases have caused ammonia (NH3) to be considered again, it is a gas whose use dates back to the nineteenth century and its application in commercial refrigeration equipment is widespread even today, in medicine, livestock, agriculture, industry, hospitals, hotels or airports and other areas where refrigeration is needed [27]. NH3 as a refrigerant has the ability to achieve cooling at temperatures down to −70°C, but great care must be taken in its handling because it is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and deadly gas.

The use of liquid nitrogen in the refrigeration and freezing of food is booming because it is a gas that does not affect the ozone layer, although its implementation is expensive. Liquid nitrogen reaches extremely cold temperatures (−70°C), making it the fastest method of individual food freezing [28].

**Figure 11.** *Wood box with apple in stacked order into the refrigerator.*

*Postharvest Management and Marketing of Apples in Mexico DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102474*

The operation of ammonia cooling consists of a liquid nitrogen flow reservoir and controller (**Figure 6**) from there it passes to a compressor (**Figure 7**) that compresses to condensation temperature the dry gas that comes from the separator at evaporation temperature and pumps the gas for cooling to the condenser (**Figure 8**). The coolant arrives from the condenser to the expansion device that distributes the cold in the room where it is located at the top of the room where the apple boxes are (**Figure 9**) and then recycles it to continue with the cooling cycle (**Figure 10**).

A CA cooler with nitrogen cooling of 4 × 6 × 4 m has a cost of \$ 3,781,646 (183,219.3 USD), if we compare it with the cooling with HFC, it is higher but with less volume, which indicates that cooling with nitrogen has more cost.

The refrigeration system must keep the apple at a temperature of 3.3 to 3.9° C, a CO2 concentration of less than 10% and a concentration of oxygen from 2.0 to 2.5%, with a relative humidity of 90%, for a storage period of 6 months [29], this means that if harvested in August, the apple would be coming out in its entirety by March. The wooden drawers with the apple are stacked in the cellar with refrigeration (**Figure 11**), so that they are taking out boxes every month according to the needs of the market.

#### **4. Merchandising**

The apple of the business producers would leave in March at the price of \$ 50 per kilogram (2.45 USD) in cardboard boxes and every month in box from September to March in wooden box at a price of \$ 40 per kilogram (1.94 USD), the price is to recover the costs of investment in energy, which now in Mexico with the energy reform, it is unknown what the cost of energy will be, this is a formal trade with supermarkets y only use brand names when they are associated with the supermarket, the name of apple orchard is only identification.

**Figure 12.** *Apple with tamarind at \$12 per piece.*

 **Figure 13.**  *100% apple artisan liquor at \$ 300 per liter.* 

 The apple of rural production that does not have refrigeration systems, in Mexico it is known as informal trade for that reason do not use brand names, the sold as an added value in sweets ( **Figure 12** ), alcoholic beverages ( **Figure 13** ), jams, juices, cider and very little as a fresh market, so the apple is a profitable crop and that one apple per day is recommended in the work or school week as a snack [ 30 ].

#### **5. Conclusions**

 The CA is the best form to maintain and commercialization of the refrigerated apple to give it added value, the business producer uses refrigerators to store the apple for 6 months from September to March in Mexico.

 Liquid nitrogen is the best option for cooling, but its cost is high as those cooled with GHG.

 In the selection of the crop to be stored, the apple is washed, dried, covered with bioplastic or organic products, and separated by size, to be stored.

 Mexico has four apple-producing regions, even so, it does not supply the national demand, so imports must be made.

 The commercialization of the apple of the rural producer is carried out after harvest and is sold as a snack, entremes or appetizer.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Postharvest Management and Marketing of Apples in Mexico DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102474*

#### **Author details**

Juan Manuel Covarrubias-Ramírez\*, Víctor Manuel Parga-Torres and Juan Guillermo Martínez-Rodríguez CESAL-INIFAP, Saltillo, México

\*Address all correspondence to: covarrubias.juan@inifap.gob.mx

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[3] Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP). Programa de desarrollo del INIFAP 2018-2030. Progreso No. 5, Barrio de Santa Catarina. Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04010, Ciudad de México, MEX; 2018. p. 464

[4] Thewes FR, Brackmann A, Both V, de Oliveira Anese R, Ludwig V, Wendt LM, et al. Respiratory quotient level variation during storage: Critical period for low oxygen tolerance, metabolism, and quality of 'Galaxy' apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2021;**182**:111699. DOI: 10.1016/j. postharvbio.2021.111699

[5] Covarrubias-Ramírez JM, Vázquez-Ramos JA. Guía de fertirrigación del manzano en Coahuila y Nuevo León. INIFAP-CIRNE. Campo Experimental Saltillo. Coahuila, México: Folleto Técnico Núm; 2014. p. 77

[6] Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera (SIAP). Avance de Siembras y Cosechas. Producción agrícola. 2021. Available from: https://nube.siap.gob.mx/ avance\_agricola/

[7] Williams KM, Ley TW. Tree fruit irrigation. Yakima, Washington: Good Fruit Grower; 1994. p. 226

[8] Li F, Min D, Ren C, Dong L, Shu P, Cui X, et al. Ethylene altered fruit cuticular wax, the expression of cuticular wax synthesis-related genes and fruit quality during cold storage of apple (Malus domestica Borkh. c.v. Starkrimson) fruit. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2019;**149**:58-65. DOI: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2018.11.016

[9] Mendoza-González S, Martínez-Peniche RÁ, Fernández-Montes MR, Rumayor-Flores A, Castillo-Castañeda E. Época de maduración y calidad del fruto de genotipos de manzana en ¨Cadereyta, Qro. Revista Chapingo Serie Horticultura. 2008;**14**(1):71-78

[10] Childers NF, Morris JR, Sibbett GS. Modern Fruit Science. 10th ed. Gainesville, Florida: Horticultural Publications; 1995. p. 632

[11] Sansavini S, Costa G, Gucci R, Inglese P, Ramina A, Xiloyannis C, et al., editors. Principles of Modern Fruit Science. Belgium: Leuven; 2019. p. 421

[12] Singh V, Gamrasni D, Parimi P, Kochanek B, Naschitz S, Zemach H, et al. Postharvest calcium treatment of apple fruit increased lenticel breakdown and altered cuticle structure. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2021;**171**:111331. DOI: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2020.111331

[13] Veraverbeke EAP, Verboven PV Oostveldt BM, and Nicolaı̈. Prediction of moisture loss across the cuticle of apple (Malus sylvestris subsp. mitis (Wallr.)) during storage: Part 2. Model simulations and practical applications. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2003; 89-97. 10.1016/S0925-5214(03)00082-6

[14] Aloui H, Khwaldia K. Natural antimicrobial edible coatings for

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microbial safety and food quality enhancement. Reviews in food science and food safety. 2016:1080-1103

[15] Maib KM, Andrews PK, Lang GA, Mullinix K. Tree Fruit Physiology. Yakima, Washington: Good Fruit Grower; 1996. p. 165

[16] European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Review of the existing maximum residue levels for imazalil according to Article 12 of Regulation (EC) No 396/20052018. p. 66. DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4977

[17] United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Thiabendazole Residue Chemistry Data Review. 1993. Available from: https:// www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem\_search/ cleared\_reviews/csr\_PC-060101\_15- Apr-93\_097.pdf

[18] European Commission (EC). 2-Phenylphenol (incl. sodium salt orthophenyl phenol). 2021. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/ pesticides/eu-pesticides-database/activesubstances/?event=as.details&as\_id=1013

[19] Contreras-Oliva A, Pérez-Gago MB, Salvador A, Bermejo A, Rojas-Argudo C. Calidad fisicoquímica, sensorial y nutricional de naranjas cv. valencias recubiertas con quitosano. Agrociencia. 2012;**46**(5):441-453

[20] Wan C, Kahramanoğlu İ, Okatan V. Application of plant natural products for the management of postharvest diseases in fruits. Folia Horticulturae. 2021;**33**(1):203-215. DOI: 10.2478/ fhort-2021-0016

[21] NMX-FF-061-SCFI-2003. Productos agrícolas no industrializados para consumo humano – fruta fresca – manzana (*Malus pumila* mill) – (*Malus domestica* borkh) – especificaciones. 2003. Available from: http://intranet.dif.

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[22] United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). United States Standards for Grades of Apples. 2019. Available from: https://www.ams.usda. gov/sites/default/files/media/Apple\_ Standards.pdf

[23] Maree W. R., F. Rodrigo T., M. Reynaud, D. Kittemann, C. Kaehler S., J. Norbert W., D. Alexandre N. Apple fruit recovery from anoxia under controlled atmosphere storage. Food Chemistry. 2022;**371**:131152. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2021.131152

[24] Bartram RD, Bramlage W, Kupferman EM, Olsen KL, Patterson ME, Thompson J. Apple Maturity Program Handbook. Yakima, WA: AMP Publisher; 1993. p. 57

[25] Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Improvement of Post-harvest Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Handling. Rome, Italy: Viale delle Terme di Caracalla; 1989. p. 87

[26] O'Sullivan JL, Ferrua MJ, Love R, Verboven P, Nicolaï B, East A. Forcedair cooling of polylined horticultural produce: Optimal cooling conditions and package design. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2017:67-75. DOI: 10.1016/j. postharvbio.2016.11.019

[27] Petersen AB, Stevens RG. Tree Fruit Nutrition. Yakima, Washington: Good Fruit Grower; 1994. p. 211

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[29] Vázquez-Briones, M.C. y J. A. Guerrero Beltrán. Recubrimiento de frutas con biopelículas. Temas selectos de ingeniería e alimentos. 2013;**7**(2):5-14

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### **Chapter 3**

## Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits

*Oluyinka Adewoyin, Adebayo Ibidapo, Lydia Babatola, Folasayo Fayose, Anthony Ekeocha and Temidayo Apata*

#### **Abstract**

After harvesting, fresh fruit's quality cannot be improved but it can be maintained. Fruits should be harvested at the appropriate maturity stage and size. Harvesting of fruits at improper maturity stage reduces shelf-life. Time of harvest, method of harvest, tools used in harvesting also contribute to the wholesomeness of harvested fruits. Fruits are living organisms that continue their living processes after harvest; therefore, their handling directly affects freshness as well as optimum flavor. Maintaining cool temperatures, appropriate air combination to maintain the quality of fruits, producers, handlers, and retailers are to ensure that fruits going for processing, marketing, or into storage are at the best quality state. Indigenous handling refers to the native, age-long, cultural system of postharvest handling of horticultural crops. Postharvest handling comprises interconnected activities from harvest to sorting, grading, preservation, transportation, packaging, processing, marketing, and decision by the consumer to accept or reject the food. Improvement is the enhancement made on the traditional postharvest handling methods to reduce losses of agricultural produce by at least 5%. Various means have been developed over time to handle and preserve food and particularly fruits over ages of technology advancement from the Stone Age.

**Keywords:** fruits, postharvest handling methods, processing, indigenous, improved postharvest methods

#### **1. Introduction**

Foods are substances consumed by living organisms to satisfy the appetite, meet physiological and chemical processes of growth, supply energy and facilitate adaptation to climate change [1]. Agriculture evolved from the gathering of fruits and vegetables from the wild, before the domestication of animals and cultivation of crops. Man has devised various methods by which these fruits are kept and handled. The principles adopted over time are to control agents of deterioration to maintain fruit quality [2–4]. Agents of deterioration are microbial activities; effects of temperature resulting in early senescence and death of tissue due to interruption

of metabolic rate as a result of high or extremely low temperature; Loss of moisture through evaporation and transpiration which causes shriveling; low shelf life due to ethylene biosynthesis; low relative humidity; inappropriate proportion composition of air; Inappropriate use of herbicides; hormones; pesticides and insecticides [5–10]. The nutritional quality of harvested fruits is also affected by other factors such as light, water activity and oxygen. Davey further affirmed that temperature and relative humidity were important factors in maintaining the quality of fruits after harvest [11]. Wilson also asserted that deterioration of fresh commodities can result from physiological breakdown due to ripening, water loss, physical damage, and invasion by micro-organisms and their interactions with temperature and relative humidity of the storage conditions [12]. Fruits for export require more attention and appropriate postharvest handling methods because the producers aim at getting the best return from the produce. John stated that maturity at harvest is one of the most important factors that determine the shelf-life and final fruit quality in mature fruits [5]. Fruits harvested at immature stage became insipid with bad flavor soon after harvest. Fruits require very scientific postharvest handling methods with cold storage at an exact temperature, suitable air movement and appropriate humidity [13]. The objective of studying post-harvest handling is to create an understanding of all operations from harvesting to distribution to facilitate proper technology in each step and in such a way as to minimize losses and maintain quality as high as possible during the distribution chain. This chapter takes an overview of the indigenous and improved postharvest handling methods and processing of fruits considering the total postharvest chain from harvesting methods, harvesting tools and implements, transportation, storage and processing. It identifies aspects of critical postharvest losses and finds solutions that would lead to a remarkable reduction in postharvest losses in quality and quantity of harvested fruits, thereby increasing the quality and quantity of marketable products.

#### **2. Indigenous postharvest handling practices of fruits**

Indigenous postharvest handling practices of fruits go along with a lot of inappropriate handling methods resulting in huge postharvest losses as a result of knowledge gap for all stakeholders in the postharvest food chain of fruits. Wounding, bruising, and physical injury imparted on the produce from rough and abusive harvest practices and postharvest handling methods will result in significant produce quality loss and an increase in postharvest decay. In **Figures 1**–**4** careless handling of fruits were observed which will result in internal bruising, abnormal physiological damage, splitting and skin breaks. Skin breaks provide sites for infection by disease organisms causing decay. Enzymes contained in the cells of fruit tissues may be released as a result of mechanical damage during postharvest handling. These enzymes break down cellular material. Chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes result in the degradation of quality leading to off-flavors, deterioration of texture, and the loss of nutrients [14]. Chemical reaction occurs when fruits are damaged by falling, breaking, crushing, cutting, insect punctures and peeling. These damages release enzymes that trigger chemical reactions such as rancidity in fruits, deterioration of chlorophyll pigments and flavor changes [15]. Other major chemical changes which occur are lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic browning. This leads to deterioration in sensory quality, changes in the color and flavor of foods. The lipid oxidation rate is influenced by light, water activity, local oxygen concentration, high temperature, and the presence of

*Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Harvested lemon packed in worn-out sharp locally made basket.*

#### **Figure 2.** *Fruits carelessly handled at retail point.*

catalysts such as iron and copper [16]. In **Figure 1**, it was observed that the indigenous bamboo basket is already weak and fruits can easily be bruised by the sharp edges of the basket due to weakness in the basket the fruit can fall off during transportation, loading and unloading from one destination to the other. **Figures 2** and **3** showed the

**Figure 3.** *Inappropriate and careless handling of fruits.*

**Figure 4.** *Mishandling of fruits during transportation.*

exposure of fruits to direct sun which will increase the internal temperature and speed up chemical processes in the fruit. Food spoilage may be defined as any change that renders food unfit for human consumption. Every change in food that causes the food

#### *Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*

to lose its desired quality and eventually become inedible is called food spoilage or rotting [17]. Damage restricts the use of produce, whereas loss makes its use impossible. Quality attributes describe the traits that make fruits acceptable to consumers such as nutritional composition, freedom from defects such as cuts, over-ripeness, spots, and disease infections. Quantitative and qualitative losses occur at all stages in the postharvest handling system and distribution chain of fruits from harvesting, through handling, packing, processing, storage and transportation to final delivery of the fresh produce to the consumer [18]. Factors affecting post-harvest losses vary from place to place depending on the season, the genetic constitution of the crop, postharvest management practice, temperature and relative humidity (**Table 1**). Various authorities have estimated that 25–70% of fresh fruit and vegetables produced are lost after harvest [19]. Further studies revealed 20–40 percentage loss in developing countries [20]. Kereth et al. [12, 21, 22] estimated that from 5 to 25% of fruit from the farm gate never reaches the consumer. Post-harvest losses of banana, citrus, grapes, apples,


#### **Table 1.**

*Identification of critical causes of postharvest losses and the solutions.*

avocado, and papaya were reported to be 20–80, 20–95, 53, 14, 43 and 40–100% respectively in developing countries [23, 24]. Food loss assessment provides the basis for programs aimed at reducing postharvest losses [7, 25–28].

#### **2.1 Harvest indices, tools, containers, storage temperature and relative humidity**

In most developing world, orchards were established for a long period up to 50–100 years old. Fruits are plucked from the tree with hand by hired skilled laborer's with the use of an indigenous bamboo ladder and the fruits are placed in a bamboo basket. Fruits are conveyed by the farmer with the use of a basket or jute bag to the collection sites. The fruits are thrown to the ground from a height of about one meter. In Nigeria, a harvesting knife (usually referred to as 'go-to-hell'), consisting of a sickle-like metal head attached to a long wooden handle is employed in harvesting these fruits like orange, pear, African star apple, cashew from the trees (**Table 2**). The impact on the ground due to fall from the tree is reduced by gathering straw on the floor around the tree or heavy mulch is place on the ground with a thick depth of leaves. Sometimes a long cloth is attached to the tree branches from one end to the other and the fruits fall on the cloth without touching the ground. Sometimes the branches of the tree are shaken with hand and fruits will fall from the tree to the ground. The fruits would then be conveyed using the basket to the primary assembly point which is usually unprotected from environmental hazards such as heavy rain or sunshine until they produce are transported to wholesale markets. The delicate nature of the fruits and internal flesh should always be kept in mind while harvesting and handling produce. Physical damage is pronounced in the indigenous harvesting system due to the lack of knowledge and training.

#### **2.2 Distant market**

Primary Collection Centre (Farm gate).

In the indigenous settings, open ground is used where fruits are heaped on bare ground for transportation to distant markets (**Figure 5**). At this point, there is no sorting, grading, sizing, precooling or washing. The fruits are packaged in baskets or used rice bags or jute bags and then loaded in Lorries or commuter vehicles and then transported to wholesale point or distant market which is usually on market days. The traditional method utilizes a local basket for packing and transportation of fruits. A sizable quantity of the fruits gets damaged in transit. The loading of the vehicles also exceeds the vehicle's carrying capacity on very rough roads that promotes vibration and jostling of the produce on vehicles that are poorly maintained where the shock absorber may not be well fixed with poor ventilation. The loading and unloading of the vehicle are not done with careful handling; the produce is thrown over high elevations and over wide distances which promotes cuts and bruises. The environmental conditions in these center's may promote excess heat, low humidity, mechanical damage, improper postharvest handling methods, poor sanitation, and poor environmental control. The field containers should be put under shade to minimize produce heating in the interval between harvest and transport to the packinghouse. In the improved postharvest handling system efforts to control these factors are often very successful. In the improved system, air-conditioned structure is usually erected where packing house operations takes place such as sorting, grading, washing, disinfestation, degreening, waxing packaging. The plastic fruit crates 'area' are a more suitable option in this system [29–31]. The modern fruit plastic crates take care of problems such as


#### *Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*


*Fruit Industry*


#### *Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*


#### *Fruit Industry*


#### *Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*

**Table 2.**

 *Harvest indices, tools, containers, storage temperature and relative humidity.*

**Figure 5.** *Harvested fruits kept under a tree to prevent exposure to direct sunlight to reduce internal heat.*

bruises, cuts and other likely mechanical damage. For example, reducing mechanical damage during grading and packing greatly decreases the likelihood of postharvest disease because many disease-causing organisms would enter through wounds [32–36].

#### **2.3 Indigenous temperature management practices of fruits**

Farmers usually employ hired labour or collaborate among themselves by mobilising each other for harvest as early as 6 am when the temperature is low before 12 pm. The harvested produce is moved to the market for early sales to consumers or retailers. Sometimes, the produce harvested in the evening will be spread on flat surfaces overnight not allowing the produce to overlap one another; this will be sold in the market in the next morning. Oranges, Grapes, pear, mango, guava, African star apple, Avocado pear, African star apple are harvested when the color changes from deep green to slight yellow. At this stage, the produce can be transported to distant markets (**Figure 6**).

#### **2.4 Improved temperature management practices**

The improvement in temperature management requires rapid removal of the field heat through: hydro-cooling, packaging in iced containers, top icing, evaporative cooling, room cooling, forced air cooling, serpentine forced air cooling, vacuum cooling, and hydro-vacuum cooling. The cold chain system is required in the value chain of fruits from the farm gate to the consumer.

*Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*

**Figure 6.** *Primary assembly point.*

#### **2.5 Indigenous pre-harvest quality management**

Farmers have the age-long practice of keeping the best of their harvest as seed for the next season with the concept of maintaining the appropriate genetic resources from generation to generation to maintain produce qualities. The land preparation is done thoroughly to minimize weed infestation which reduces the quality of harvested produce. Farmers depend on accumulated hand-on experience or indigenous knowledge on when to harvest and how to harvest. Leguminous food crops are planted like cocoyam, melon, wrapping leaves, and vegetables are intercropped with the fruit trees to supply staple food for the household and regular income. It also reduces maintenance cost.

#### **2.6 Improvement on pre-harvest quality management**

Pre-harvest factors affect the rate of deterioration in the following ways:

*Genetic factors:* The rind thickness, skin layer affects rate deterioration. Some fruits outer layer has been improved to prolong shelf -life.

*Maturity:* Fruits should be harvested at the proper maturity stage to give the best quality.

*Seed Selection:* The right seed that is disease free and give the best quality output should be used.

*Site Selection:* The soil fertility status must support growth and development and insect pest status should be low.

*Tools and Implements:* These must be free from disease and the most appropriate implement for harvesting of that particular fruit.

*Climatic conditions:* Erratic changes in temperature will reduce the quality of fruits in terms of water stress, which will reduce the liquid content of fruits while excess water will result in rot, absence of cold period will affect the formation of the orange color in citrus.

*Cultural practice:* All cultural practices must be done appropriately and timely. Planting must not be delayed in other to avoid pest peak period.

*Use of chemicals:* Use of various chemicals in excess should be avoided. *Water stress:* Irrigation should be planned along with field establishment.

*Disease, insect, rodents:* Activities of field pest reduce quality of produce through boring, feeding and laying of egg. Often disease and pest are transferred from field to storage and along the postharvest chain.

*Injury:* This can be caused by insect pest or farm implements, sometimes lack of moisture in the atmosphere may result in cracking of fruits.

*Irregular weeding:* Weeds serve as alternative host for diseases and pests; therefore, it must be controlled.

*Management practices:* This can also affect postharvest quality. Produce that has been stressed by too much or too little water, high rates of nitrogen, or mechanical injury (scrapes, bruises, abrasions) are susceptible to postharvest diseases. They are also susceptible to mold and decay caused by fungus *Rhizoctonia,* as a result fruits lying on the ground, and it can be alleviated by using mulch (**Figures 7** and **8**) [37, 38].

**Figure 7.** *Fruit display by retailer with partial provision of shade.*

*Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*

**Figure 8.** *Fruits in display at retail market with minimum shade.*

#### **2.7 Indigenous postharvest quality management**

Transportation to the market is done by trucks, lorries, wheelbarrows, and motorcycles. During loading, fruits are carried in basket on head and thrown over straw or fruits already present inside the truck from a meter height. These practices result in bruising of the fruits and as a result become unmarketable. Fruits have to face the same fate of rough handling during unloading. Storage is a much-neglected aspect in the whole process and there is no permanent structure for storage in any point of time during the whole process of harvesting to marketing. Rough handling practices are practiced during loading of the field containers in transit. Throwing of the field containers and excessive drop at high heights is practiced by the handlers. The consequences of these undesirable practices included noticeable physical injury and bruise damage to the product. The likelihood of postharvest decay of the injured items is high. The process of loading the field containers onto the transit vehicle and unloading at the packinghouse needs closer supervision [2]. Indigenous method of temperature management includes exposing harvested fruit to frozen air at night, or putting fruits in water immediately after.

#### **2.8 Improved postharvest handling methods of fruits**

Harvesting and handling;

1.Harvesting should be done with extreme care due to soft tissue of the fruits


#### **2.9 Evaporative cooling system as improvement on the use of clay pot to preserve fruits**

Different types of Evaporative Cooling Systems have been developed for the smalland large-scale storage systems.


to allow it to be drawn up the cylinder's wall and food kept in the cylinder with a lid placed on the top.


Various researches were carried out to investigate the effectiveness of the evaporative coolant structure in prolonging the shelf life of fruits [39]. Babatola and Adewoyin [40] observed that Cucumis sativus stored best for 3 weeks under the refrigerator followed by evaporative coolant structure and then open shelf. The evaporative coolant stored Cucumber fruit effectively for 2 weeks. Babatola [41] also investigated the effect of storage conditions on nutrient composition and quality of *Capsicum frutescens* under three storage conditions. Observations were made on colour, firmness, weight loss, disease incidence and pungency level of pepper fruit, it was observed that pepper fruits kept well for 21 days in the evaporative coolant structure at a temperature of 20–22°C. Babatola [42] further investigated the effect of NPK fertilizer levels on the growth, yield and storage of pepper on *Capsicum annum*. The result showed that fruits stored in the refrigerator stored best for 3 weeks, followed by evaporative coolant structure which stored for 2 weeks while fruits under the ambient deteriorate rapidly after 4 days. Another research was conducted on the postharvest quality of okra fruit under three storage conditions. Evaporative coolant structure was found to store okra effectively for 2 weeks [43]. The physicochemical changes and shelf life of guava as influenced by postharvest condition were observed, refrigeration was observed to prolong shelf life for 16–28 days followed by evaporative coolant structure [44]. Further research on the influence of storage conditions, such as deep freezing, refrigeration and evaporative coolant structure on the quality of varieties of carrots showed that carrots stored best in the deep freezer at the temperature of 0–4°C in terms of color, firmness and disease infection [45].

Postharvest technology is crucial in agricultural production and utilization system. It plays a key role in loss reduction, value addition, food security, employment and income generation [38, 39]. A postharvest technology revolution is essential with strong linkages of storage, marketing and distribution. Inappropriate postharvest management system resulted in large quantity of fruits gets damaged during the process of handling, transportation and marketing **Figure 3** [36, 37]. Due to the absence of proper storage and marketing facilities, farmers are forced to sell their produces at throw-away prices. Sometimes farmers do not even get the two-way transportation cost, so they would rather dumb their produce near the market area than bear the transportation cost required for taking the product back. It is of utmost importance to identify all aspects of critical postharvest losses and find solutions that would lead to a remarkable reduction in postharvest losses.

#### *Fruit Industry*

Processing is a postharvest activity carried out to maintain or raise the quality of produce or change the form or characteristics of fresh produce, spoilage agent must be destroyed without ruining the nutritive value or palatability of the farm produce. Processing easily destroys Vitamin C in fruits, especially where heat is used. Produce that has been processed can also be stored to prevent spoilage and extend storage life; hence we have the term preservation. Processing and preservation aim at achieving the following goals:

	- ix.Increase sales
	- x.It makes fruits available where it is not produced
	- xi.It makes fruits available throughout the year e.g., dried mango, pineapple.

#### **3. Conclusion**

Fruits are to be harvested at the appropriate maturity stage and size to prolong shelf life. Major losses in the postharvest chain of fruits are due to mechanical damages, physical bruises, a physiological disorder due to high temperature and unhygienic conditions. Time of harvest, method of harvest, tools used in harvesting, transportation affects wholesomeness or increased rate of deterioration of harvested fruits. The inappropriate postharvest management system in the postharvest chain of fruits results in huge losses during the process of harvesting, grading, packaging, handling, transportation and marketing. These losses are due to inappropriate harvesting

#### *Indigenous and Improved Postharvest Handling Methods and Processing of Fruits DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102668*

methods and tools, unavailability of cold chain systems, absence of appropriate storage facilities and poor marketing strategies. To maintain and effectively preserve fruit quality. Postharvest handling must be efficient, rapid and coordinated by ensuring immediate removal of field heat, reducing damages by protecting from sun and unhygienic conditions. Knowledge on specific produce handling method, market requirement, appropriate container and simplified packing line is essential to achieve uniformity and ensure produce are properly placed and strapped for delivery to consumers. Workers involved in critical postharvest handling steps are to be well trained, remunerated and equipped with appropriate tools, risk-free and conducive working condition.

### **Author details**

Oluyinka Adewoyin1 \*, Adebayo Ibidapo2 , Lydia Babatola3 , Folasayo Fayose4 , Anthony Ekeocha<sup>5</sup> and Temidayo Apata6

1 Department of Crop Science and Horticulture, Federal University Oye, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria

2 Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Federal University Oye, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria

3 Department of Crop Science and Horticulture, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

4 Department of Engineering and Bio-resources, Federal University Oye, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria

5 Department of Animal Production and Health, Federal University Oye, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria

6 Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University Oye, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: oluyinka.adewoyin@fuoye.edu.ng

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Section 2
