**6. Molecules found in pseudocereals and associated health benefits**

#### **6.1 Phytosterols**

Phytosterols have a capacity to lower both total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels in food. In high bioavailable tests that contained phytosterols dissolved in oil or egg fat, or emulsified with aqueous solutions [13], consistent LDL lowering was observed. Esterification of phytosterols in long-chain fatty acids increased bioavailability significantly, prompting functional food combinations which contain margarine with phytosterol containing pseudocereals.

The inherent difficulty in extracting phytosterols from plant-based diets has made testing the effects of baseline deficiency in phytosterol levels on diets. As such, very few such clinical tests have been carried out effectively. A recent study indicated a 38% increase in cholesterol absorption when corn oil was purified of phytosterols. Re-addition of the natural phytosterols gave baseline absorption levels, suggesting the LDL content is lowered through phytosterol action.

#### **6.2 Saponins**

Saponins are natural surfactants. They exhibit anti-protozoal activity. For example, saponin plant extracts contain protective effects against leishmaniasis. They also exhibit anti-bacterial properties (mostly pronounced against Gram-positive bacteria) at high doses, carried out via way of membranolytic interactions. Saponins also exhibit both humoral and cell-mediated immune system stimulation. As such, they have been implemented as adjuvants in vaccines. While containing the ability to increase intestinal permeability. The emulsification and micelle formation from saponins are expected to increase fatty acid absorption. Ability to reduce blood cholesterol levels. The Masai people's low serum cholesterol levels are attributed to the high number of saponin-rich herbs added to their largely milk and meat-based diets [14].

#### **6.3 Phytoecdysteroids**

Phytoecdysteroids contain the potential to decrease the rate of skeletal muscle deterioration via its activity as a mild anabolic agent. The atrophy and muscular fibrosis associated with Sarcopenia can potentially be combated with the aforementioned mechanism of action. In addition to this, Phytoecdysteroids also exhibit potential ability to reduce hyperglycemia and type 2 diabetes. Additionally, plants which contain ecdysteroids were used in traditional ethnobotanical medicinal systems in treatment of osteoporosis. Phytoecdysteroids also contain the capacity to assist people with Seasonal affective disorders, alcohol, and narcotic withdrawals alongside other stress related conditions [15].

#### **6.4 Albumin, chenopodin and lunasin**

Albumin exhibits a significant role in fluid distribution throughout the body owing to its colloidal property. It provides a significant level of normal oncotic pressure in intravascular spaces. The abundance and composition of Albumin also support its capacity to act as a transport molecule, or a solute [16].

Chenopodin is the primary seed storage protein of quinoa, and exhibits ability to bind carbohydrates, hemagglutinates erythrocytes, and is resistant to gram-negative bacteria. Chenopodin also inhibits inflammation and pain in in vivo models. Lunasin is another peptide variant from quinoa which exhibits reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging activity and nitric oxide production inhibition [17].

#### **6.5 Tryptophan**

As mentioned above, tryptophan is an important precursor for serotonin and melatonin. Additionally, playing a role in protein synthesis and co-enzyme NAD and NADP storage. Tryptophan is bound to circulating albumin plasma in high levels and exhibits brain-centric functional importance. The essential nature of tryptophan and the high levels of its availability in quinoa make the pseudocereal grain a possible alternative to vegan and vegetarian diets [18].

#### **6.6 Folate**

Folates are compounds exhibiting activity like pteroylglutamic acid, acting as an anti-anemia and growth factor. They are essential in carbon transfer steps in several DNA and RNA nucleotides. Advanced folate deficiency levels can lead to macrocytic or megaloblastic anemic conditions, mucous membrane lesions and neural tube defects during pregnancy. There is possibility of it being associated with severe complications such as spontaneous abortions, hemorrhage, separation of placenta from the inner wall of the uterus before birth, and preeclampsia.

The second most prominent condition of folate deficiency is homocysteinemia. It has been linked in recent years to coronary artery disease and stroke. Additionally, being implicated in mental retardation, developmental defects, occlusive disorders, osteoporosis, and dislocated lenses in children, as well as ischemic heart disease. It is part of the trifecta of the B-complex vitamin group alongside riboflavin and vitamin B12. Moreover, high dietary intake of folate has been observed with a decreased risk of carcinoma in situ [19].

#### **6.7 Quercetin and rutin**

Rutin exhibits neuroprotective activity, cardioprotective activity, anti-obesity, and antioxidant activity. In addition, rutin can be a potential adjuvant in radioiodine therapy, and shows ability to prevent or decrease the rate of age induced DNA fragmentation caused by apoptosis by inhibiting DNase I. Furthermore, it demonstrates ability to reduce lipid peroxidation in human sperm, contributing to combating male infertility [20]. Rutin has also been associated with lowering risks of arteriosclerosis, capillary fragility, and increased blood pressure. Other beneficial factors include restorative effects on renal diseases, possibly due to the combination of rutin, quercetin, hyperoside and phenolic oligomers found in buckwheat extracts used in studies. It also shows protective effects against gastric lesions and potential to be effective as a DNA protective component in the human diet [21, 22].

## **6.8 Hyperin**

Hyperin exhibits antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, antiparasitic activity, cardio protective attributes, hepatoprotective attributes, anti-histamic, antifungal, apoptosis-inducing and anti-tumor abilities. Hyperin is also important in combating degenerative disease prevention associated with ROS [23].

### **6.9 Orientin**

Orientin exhibits antioxidant activity, antiviral and antibacterial activity, antiinflammatory activity, vasodilatory and cardioprotective effects, radioprotective effects, neuroprotection, and antidepressant activity, antiadipogenesis (undifferentiated precursor cells differentiating into fat cells) and, antinociceptive activity [24].

#### **6.10 Vitexin and isovitexin**

Vitexin and Isovitexin exhibit anticancer ability, anti-hypertensive ability, antidiabetic activity, anti-neoplastic effects, anti-inflammatory effects, protection against hypoxia and ischemia injury, protection against Alzheimer's disease, protective effects on learning, anti-depressive qualities, increasing levels of cerebral blood flow, anti-nociceptive activity, anti-convulsant effects, antiepileptic effects, anti-thyroid effects, anxiolytic properties, protection against endocrine and metabolic diseases, alongside anti-microbial and anti-viral effects [25].

#### **6.11 Kaempferol**

Kaempferol is a polyphenol antioxidant which has beneficial effects such as reducing risk of cancer, inducing cancer cell apoptosis, angiogenesis, anti-inflammation, anti-metastatic properties, and preservation of normal cell viability. Kaempferols have also been the target of recent nanoparticle coating to increase bioavailability due to the low natural occurrence of the substance in vivo. This is due to its poor dissolution in many solvents. However, the clinical properties encourage nanoparticle coating and investigation of the nano-chemopreventive aspect of kaempferol in patients, and further randomized, double blind, clinical testing [26].
