**4.8 Relationship between lead poisoning and brain over claim syndrome**

Brain over claim syndrome (BOS) is about the relationship between neuroscience and criminal responsibility, distinguishing between internal and external critiques based on neuroscience [135]. The brain holds the key to mind and behaviour, which is useful to the law [136]. Criminal behaviour and violence are worldwide public health problem, since criminal behaviour has neurobiological basis with judicial implication. The affected brain pathways are genetic (foetal neural development), hormones and neurotransmitters (cortisol and testosterone), psychophysiology (e.g., low resting heart rate, low electroencephalography), brain imaging and neurology (reduced frontal lobe function) with attendant legal context (punishment, prediction and prevention) [137], respectively. Morality is part of human judgment, behaviour and mind. Frontal, temporal and cingulate cortex mediate between emotion and reasoning, amygdala, hippocampus and basal ganglia play vital role in morality. Therefore, genetic polymorphism, endocrine and environmental factors could modify the psychology of morality. Hence, abnormal behaviour can arise from structural brain stimulation [138], especially the anterior cingulate which causes empathy, orbital prefrontal cortex (causes regret), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (PFC) (ethical discussion), ventrolateral PFC (inhibits behaviour) and dorsolateral PFC is for reasoning [139]. Relationship between lower intelligence, crime and custodial outcomes has

been established [140]. Also established is a very strong association between preschool lead and subsequent crime rate trends over decades in USA, Britain, Canada, France, Australia, Finland, Italy, West Germany and New Zealand [141]. Nevertheless, removal of lead from petrol since 1975 has led to the decline of crimes in the USA [142], because inhalation of lead content of petrol from 2 g to 0.5 g per gallon between 1975 and 1980 was highly reduced [143]. Atmospheric exposure could cause aggressive crime in children [144].
